1

Internal Combustion Lngines

Lecture-4
Dr. Manab Kumar Das
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Prepared under
QIP-CD Cell Project
2
Horsepower
The term horsepower was invented by the engineer
James Watt. Watt lived from 1736 to 1819 and is most
famous for his work on improving the performance of
steam engines. We are also reminded of him every
day when we talk about 60-Watt light bulbs.
The story goes that Watt was working with ponies lifting
coal at a coal mine, and he wanted a way to talk
about the power available from one of these animals.
He found that, on average, a mine pony could do
22,000 foot-pounds of work in a minute. He then
increased that number by 50 percent and pegged the
measurement of horsepower at 33,000 foot-pounds of
work in one minute. It is that arbitrary unit of measure
that has made its way down through the centuries and
now appears on our cars, lawn mowers, chain saws
and even in vacuum cleaner!
3
4
What horsepower means: In Watt's
judgement, one horse can do 33,000 foot-
pounds of work every minute. A horse
exerting 1 horsepower can raise 330
pounds of coal 100 feet in a minute, or 33
pounds of coal 1,000 feet in one minute, or
1,000 pounds 33 feet in one minute.
Whatever combination of feet and pounds
as long as the product is 33,000 foot-
pounds in one minute, you have a
horsepower.
Horsepower
5
Horsepower can be converted into other units as
well. For example:
1 horsepower is equivalent to 746 Watts. So if you
took a 1-horsepower horse and put it on a
treadmill, it could operate a generator producing
a continuous 746 Watts.
1 horsepower (over the course of an hour) is equivalent
to 2,545 BTU (British thermal units). If you took that
746 Watts and ran it through an electric heater for
an hour, it would produce 2,545 BTU (where a BTU is
the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree F).
One BTU is equal to 1,055 Joules, or 252 gram-
calories or 0.252 food Calories. Presumably, a
horse producing 1 horsepower would burn 641
Calories in one hour if it were 100-percent efficient.
Conversion of HP
6
Maximum Rated Power: The highest power
developed by an engine for short period of
time/operation.
Normal Rated Power: Highest power developed
by an engine in continuous operation.
Engine Performance
Rated Speed: The crankshaft rotational speed at
which rated power is developed.
7
Basic Terminology
Bore (B): The diameter of
the cylinder of an engine
TDC: The top-most position
of the piston inside the
cylinder of an engine.
B
L
TDC
BDC
C
V
Total
Vc
V
d
a
BDC: The bottom-most
position of the piston inside
the cylinder of an engine.
Stroke (L): The distance
through which the piston
moves from TDC to BDC or
BDC to TDC.
8
Remark
Bore sizes of engines range from 0.5 m
down to 0.5 cm (i.e., 20 inch to 0.2 inch).
An engine with B=L is called a square engine.
If stroke length (L) is greater than the bore
diameter (B), the engine is called an under
square engine (Smaller diameter cylinder with
shorter flame travel distance; Combustion
chamber surface area will be smaller resulting
less heat loss per cycle).
If stroke length (L) is less than the bore
diameter (B), the engine is called an over
square engine.
9
Remark
In an over square engine, the shorter
stroke length gives lower average piston
speed and hence lower frictional losses.
10
Basic Terminology Contd.
Clearance Volume (V
c
):
The space between the top
dead center and the
cylinder head.
B
L
TDC
BDC
C
V
Total
Vc
V
d
a
Swept or Displacement Volume (V
d
): The volume
that the piston displaces or sweeps out as it moves
from one dead center to the other. This is equal to
the cross-sectional area of piston multiplied by the
stroke.
11
Clearance and Swept/Displacement Volumes
12
13
Basic Terminology Contd.
Cylinder Capacity (V
E
): Engine sizes are
compared on the basis of total cylinder swept
volume known as engine cylinder capacity. Thus,
it is equal to the swept volume of each cylinder
times the number of cylinders. It is also known as
the cubic capacity of the engine.
Compression Ratio (r): It is the ratio of the
maximum cylinder volume (when the piston is at
BDC) to the minimum cylinder volume (when the
piston is at TDC), i.e., the ratio of sum of swept
and clearance volumes to clearance volume.
14
Compression ratio
Most cars: 8:1 12:1
High-performance cars: 15:1
Diesel: 20:1
15
Mean Piston Speed:
2
60
p
LN
U =
Note: If N is the rotational speed (RPM), 1/N is the time of 1
revolution. Now, half of this (1/2N) = time for 1 stroke.
1
.
1
60
2
p
L
U
N
=
Mean piston speed is often used as an appropriate
parameter than crank rotational speed for
correlating engine behavior as a function of speed.
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Remark
Piston speed determines the instantaneous flow
rate of air-fuel into the cylinder during intake and
exhaust flow out of the cylinder.
Higher piston speeds would require larger
valves to allow for higher flow rates. In most
engines, valves are at a maximum size with no
room for enlargement.
Average piston speed 5 to 15 m/sec with large
diesel engines on the low end and high-
performance automobile engines on the high
end.
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17
BDC
L
TDC
l
s
a

B
( )
2 / 1
2 2 2
sin cos a l a s + =
The cylinder volume at any crank angle is:
) (
4
2
s a l
B
V y A V V
c c c
+ + = + =

Compression ratio:
c
d c
TC
BC
c
V
V V
V
V
r
+
= =
When the piston is at TC (s= l+a) the cylinder
volume equals the clearance volume V
c
Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:
L
B
V
d
4
2

=
Geometric Properties
For most engines B ~ L
(square engine)
Connecting rod
V
C
y
Piston displacement: y = l + a - s
18
BDC
L
TDC
l
V
C
s
a

B
Average and instantaneous piston velocity are:
where N is the rotational speed of the crank shaft
in units revolutions per second
( )
2 / 1
2 2 2
sin cos a l a s + =
Average piston speed for standard auto engine is
about 15 m/s. Ultimately limited by material
strength. Therefore engines with large strokes run
at lower speeds than those with small strokes run
at higher speeds.
Geometric Properties
( ) ( )
(
(

+ =
2 / 1
2 2
sin /
cos
1 sin
2

a l
U
U
p
p
dt
ds
U
LN U
p
p
=
= 2
19
R = l/a
Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle
R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank
offset and usually has values of 3 to 4 for small
engines, and increasing to 5 to 10 for large engines.
The effect of R
on piston speed
is shown in the
figure.
20
Work
Indicator diagram. Four stroke SI
engine
} }
= = dx PA Fdx W
p
}
= PdV W
}
= Pdv w
f i b
w w w =
where, w
b
=Brake work
w
i
=Indicated specific work
w
f
=Friction and parasitic load (fuel pump, supercharger, air conditioner
compressor, alternator etc.)
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Work
Part throttle
pump gross net
w w w + =
where,
m
=mechanical efficiency. It is on
the order of 75 to 95%.
i
b
i
b
m
W
W
w
w
= =
B A w
net
Area Area =
Supercharged
22
Basic Terminology Contd.
Torque (T): It is equal to the product of the force
acting along the connecting rod and the
perpendicular distance between this force and the
center of rotation of the crankshaft.
where, T = engine torque (N-m)
F = force applied to crank (N)
and r = effective crank-arm radius (m)
T = Fr
Torque is the turning effort about the crankshafts
axis of rotation.
Modern automobile engines have maximum
torque in the range of 200 to 300 N-m at engine
speeds around 4000 to 6000 rpm.
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Torque Contd.
T
T
T
F
F
F
R
R
R
r
r
r
p
p
p
Variation of torque during crankshaft rotation (p=gas
pressure; F=connecting rod thrust; R=crank throw;
r=effective crank radius; T=turning effort or torque).
24
Torque and Power
Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
Load cell
Force F
Stator
Rotor
b
N
The torque exerted by the engine is T:
W

Watt J
s
rev
rev
rad
T N T W =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = ) ( : units ) 2 (

J b F T : units =
The power delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:
Note: is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s.
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Torque is a measure of an engines ability to do
work and power is the rate at which work is done.
The term brake power, , is used to specify
that the power is measured at the output shaft,
this is the usable power delivered by the engine
to the load.
The brake power is less than the power
generated by the gas in the cylinders due to
mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil
pump, air conditioner compressor, supercharger,
alternator etc.)
The power produced in the cylinder is termed
the indicated power, .
b
W

i
W

Brake Power
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Brake power and torque
of a typical automobile
reciprocating engine as a
function of engine speed.
Indicated power increases with engine speed while
brake power increases to a maximum and then
decreases. This is because friction power increases
with engine speed to a higher power and becomes
dominant at higher speeds.
MBT
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Mean Effective Pressure (mep): The pressure
inside the cylinder of an engine varies
considerably during the cycle. Peak pressure
occurs just after TDC, and it drops as the piston
moves toward BDC. When quoting cylinder
pressure, it is therefore, more helpful to refer to
the average or mean effective pressure
throughout the whole power stroke.
For brake work, the corresponding term used
is brake mean effective pressure (bmep), and
for indicated work the corresponding term is the
indicated mean effective pressure (imep).
Basic Terminology Contd.
d V
bmep

=
4
d V
bmep

=
2
(4 stroke) (2 stroke)
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Maximum BMEP
The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a
particular engine speed.
Closing the throttle decreases the bmep.
For a given displacement, a higher maximum
bmep means more torque.
For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep
means smaller engine.
Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses
and temperatures in the engine hence shorter
engine life, or bulkier engine.
For the same bmep, 2-strokes have almost twice
the power of 4-stroke.

2
d
R
d
b
V
n T
V
W
bmep

= =

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The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well established:
Four stroke engines:
SI engines: bmep= 850-1050 kPa*
CI engines: bmep= 700 -900 kPa
Turbocharged SI engines: bmep= 1250 -1700 kPa
Turbocharged CI engines: bmep= 1000 - 1200 kPa
Two stroke engines:
Standard CI engines comparable bmep to four stroke
Large slow CI engines: 1600 kPa
*Values are at maximum brake torque and WOT
Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less
Can use above maximum bmep in design calculations to estimate
engine displacement required to provide a given torque or power
at a specified speed.
30
11.0 12.7 427@5200 492@7000 5.707 V12 Lamborghini
Diablo VT
11.4 12.4 398@4500 436@6250 5.474 V12 Ferrari
456 GT
11.6 13.1 268@6000 375@8250 3.496 V8 Ferrari
F355 GTS
11.5 12.6 206@3950 190@5300 2.793 L6 BMW
328i
15.7 15.9 210@3500 210@5300 2.255 L4
Turbo
Mazda
Millenia S
10.4 11.4 152@4900 150@5700 2.254 L4 Honda
Accord EX
9.9 10.8 117@4000 122@6000 1.839 L4 Mazda
Protg LX
BMEP at
Rated BP
(bar)
BMEP at
Max BT
(bar)
Max Torque
(lb-ft@rpm)
Max Power
(HP@rpm)
Displ.
(L)
Engine
type
Vehicle
Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics
31
Both torque and power are functions of engine
speed. At low speed, torque increases as engine
speed increases. As engine speed increases
further, torque reaches a maximum and then
decreases. Torque decreases because the engine
is unable to ingest a full charge of air at higher
speeds.
Indicated power increases with speed, while
brake power increases to a maximum and then
decreases at higher speeds. This is because
friction losses increase with speed and become
the dominant factor at very high speeds.
Summary
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For automobile engines, maximum brake power
occurs at about 6000 to 7000 rpm, about one and
a half times the speed of maximum torque.
Greater power can be generated by increasing
displacement, mep, and/or speed. Increased
displacement increases engine mass and
occupies more space, and both of these are
undesirable. For this reason, most modern engines
are smaller but run at high speeds, and are often
turbocharged or supercharged to increase mep.
Summary
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33
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