Capacitors

Lab section F, 10/30/12

Objective: Through use of the oscilloscope and function generator, the aim of this lab is to measure capacitance of two different capacitors. This will be done by measuring the time constant of each, as well as a graphical method. The behavior of capacitors in series and parallel will also be observed and measured.

Theory: The Capacitor A capacitor is a pair of polarized plates capable of storing energy in the electric field that it generates when charged. That energy is equal to the magnitude of the electric field squared. Also, because of the field, there is a potential across the plates, and it causes charges to flow from one plate to another, depending on the sign of the charge. These properties of a capacitor can be shown in this formula, which indicates that the capacitance is directly proportional to the charge is has, and is inversely proportional to the potential across the plates.

Adding Capacitance Adding capacitance in series and parallel is the opposite of how it is done with resistance. So that means in parallel, capacitance just sums, because its like increasing the area of the plates, and in series the equivalent capacitance is the inverse of the sum of the inverses of all the capacitors. By putting capacitors in series, it is similar to increasing the distance between capacitors.

RC Circuits An RC circuit is any circuit which includes a resistor, a capacitor, and a power supply, all in series. Kirchhoffs laws apply to the current in this circuit. The first step is to assume the circuit has a resistance of R, a capacitance of C, and a DC power supply with a true value, or emf, of E. And it is known that the potential drop of V from the power source through the resistor is IR, and Q/C through the capacitor. This results in the following equation.

To find the formulas governing the charging and discharging of capacitors, the above equation can be solved for charge, and the first step for that is to substitute in I = dQ/dt, and that is: ( ) Now the goal is to move towards a function that shows the charge of the capacitor at any given time. The result will be two equations: one for charging capacitors and one for discharging capacitors. For the equation for charging capacitors, it will be the sum of two equations, ( ) & ( ). The first equation ( ) is a function that will equal zero when substitutes into the above equation, and ( ) is a function that will equal the emf times the resistance when subbed. To get ( ), sub it in, set Emf(R) to zero, integrate, and solve for | | .

The D is an unknown constant from the integration. Now to find the second part of our equation for a charging capacitor, , and it is known that its first derivative will equal Emf(R). It is assumed that ( ) , given that A and B are unknown constants. Just like earlier, is subbed into our equation for Emf(R) and eventually through simplifying, the result is: ( ) ( ) ( )

It is important to note in this equation that the variable t is only on one side of the equation, therefore A has to equal zero for one side to equal the other one, and that reveals that ( ) ( )

( ). Now the two equations are summed together to get the And that means that equation that defines a charging capacitor. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

The last thing to do now is find what D equals. This can be done by using the equation at time equals zero, at which the charge should be zero, so therefore: ( ) ( ) ( )

That creates the final result: A formula that governs the properties of a charging capacitor. An important feature of this function is that at the maximum value, the equation is Q = emf(C), very similar to Q = CV

( )

The next equation to find is one that governs a discharging capacitor. Once again, the goal is to create a function of time that equals the charge. A useful bit of knowledge for later is that the initial charge of the capacitor occurs at time = 0. And in the case of discharging, it is assumed that when the power source is cut off from the circuit, the electrons that had built up on one plate of the capacitor will get repelled all around by its neighboring electrons, and rush towards the opposite plate, which creates a current. According to Kirchhoffs loop rule for an RC circuit without power supply, it is solvable that:

And that second equation can be formed into the function of time that is the goal, so it becomes: ( ) And D is an unknown constant, which can be found by computing Q(0), which equals D, and Q(0) is the initial charge of the capacitor, or . That creates the final result: an equation that defines capacitor discharge: ( ) The Voltage Equations An oscilloscope is not as equipped to measure current as much as it is to measure voltage. So in order to take meaningful measurements of our capacitors while they are charging and discharging, it would be useful to have equations that govern the voltage across capacitors as they charge or discharge. And the two equations for charge that were just derived above can be modified to be what is desired, through the all too familiar equation Q=CV, or as it will be used: V=Q/C. To get an equation for a charging capacitor, the previous one for charge is used, and V=Q/C is substituted into it.

( )

( )

The same thing can be done for the charge equation for a discharging capacitor, and that would end up with a coefficient of Q0/C, which is equal to V0.

( )

( )

The Time Constant Both of charging and discharging equations found contain the term et/RC , and by setting the time equal to RC, it can be shown that after a period of time RC, the voltage of a capacitor will be about 36.8% of its initial voltage.

This time RC is denoted by , and is called the time constant. The time constant is how long it takes for that capacitor to charge and discharge.

Apparatus: An oscilloscope: #350208934 A resistor: Red, black, orange, with tolerance gold 20*10^3 with tolerance of 5% = 20k 1k Two capacitors (10, 22, 50, or 100 nF) Capacitor 1: CM-0.05M, Z5U Capacitor 2: 103Z Function generator #CJ840863 Breadboard 4445-TE Ohmmeter/Capacitor meter CCL070913843 Oscilloscope probes, one with banana clips N/A Wires N/A

Procedure: To begin the lab we created a basic setup. To do this, we put the function generator, resistor, and capacitor in series to form an RC circuit. Then we took the banana clip with an oscilloscope probe and attached it to the function generator, and inserted the red clip into the Va port on the breadboard, and then the black clip into the Vb port. We then wired the Va port to the positive column and then wired the Vb port into the negative column. We than took the oscilloscope probe (plugged into channel A) and clipped it to the prongs on one of the unknown capacitors. Now that we were done setting up, we turned on the function generator and the oscilloscope. The function generator was set to produce a square wave with the frequency of 25Hz. We than had to adjust the VOLTS/DIV setting until it allowed us to see the three discharges. We then set the trace to begin on the left at the x-axis and made the trace decay to the bottom where it leveled off asymptotically. On the oscilloscope screen there was a dotted line about a third of the way from the bottom parallel to the x-axis. We used the point that represented the intersection of the trace and dotted line to measure the voltage and capacitance. After making the previous measurements we than lowered the TIME/DIV setting on the oscilloscope to extend the trace as far as we possibly could while keeping the point at which the trace intersects the dotted line on the screen. After this we recorded the time constant of this unknown capacitor by counting the divisions from the beginning of the trace to the point at which the trace intersects the dotted line. After doing this we recorded the TIME/DIV setting. When we finished making the following measurements, we then changed the vertical position, horizontal position, and the TIME/DIV knobs in a random manor, and had a different group member measure. We repeated the following step three more times, leaving us with four varying measurements. After making the following measurements we then switched the capacitors from the original one to the other unknown capacitor. With the new capacitor we repeated the same process that we had done with the original capacitor. After recording data and analyzing the newly constructed RC circuit, we wired the circuit so that both unknown capacitors were in series. After our new circuit was built we than repeated the same process that we used on the original capacitor in the beginning of the procedure. After doing this we switched the circuit so that both of the capacitors were wired in parallel. Once we had both capacitors parallel we repeated the same process as before, and recorded the data. After our data was collected we than put aside time to calculate the capacitances for each previous measurements, using the time constant. In order for us to begin our voltage measurements we then put the original capacitor into the circuit alone. We adjusted the VOLTS/DIV setting and the vertical position knob on the oscilloscope and the amplitude setting on the function generator, as well as the trace until the trace begins to decay on the left hand side at the seventh horizontal line and decays asymptotically to the lowest horizontal line

on the screen. After we made these adjustments we than recorded the initial voltage of the trace. We took voltage and time measurements at the points where the trace intercepts each of the horizontal lines. After these measurements we ended up with six measurements of period and voltage. After the previous process was completed with the original unknown capacitor, we than swapped capacitors. After wiring in our second unknown capacitor and removing the original capacitor, we than repeated the same process that we took to take the voltage measurements on the original capacitor. Once both capacitors were measured separately, we then wired the circuit so that it included both unknown capacitors in series. After the new circuit was wired we than used the original process that we previously used to take voltage measurements on the original unknown capacitor. After taking the voltage measurements on the RC circuit with both unknown capacitors wired in series, we then wired the circuit so that both unknown capacitors would be in parallel. After we constructed our new circuit we repeated the same process as we did to take voltage measurements for the original unknown capacitor. For out last few steps, we took our data that was previously collected to find capacitance graphically, using the equation ln(V0/V) = t/RC. We found ln(V0/V) for each individual voltage measurements. After ln (V0/V) was calculated we then made four graphs, each one with a linear curve fit and its respective equation. Once our graphs were complete we used the equation C= 1/mR to find the capacitance of each of the unknown capacitors.

Data: Time Constant Measurements Unknown 1: Measurement 1 2 3 4 at 0.1ms per DIV Time Constant(s) 7.00E-04 8.50E-04 6.00E-04 6.50E-04

Capacitance(F) 3.54E-08 4.30E-08 3.03E-08 3.29E-08

Unknown 2: Measurement 1 2 3 4

at 0.1ms per DIV Time Constant(s) 1.60E-04 1.44E-04 1.76E-04 1.68E-04

Capacitance(F) 8.09E-09 7.28E-09 8.90E-09 8.49E-09

Unknowns in Series: Measurement 1 2 3 4

at 20s per DIV Time Constant(s) 1.30E-04 1.24E-04 1.26E-04 1.37E-04

Capacitance(F) 6.57E-09 6.27E-09 6.37E-09 6.93E-09

Unknowns in Parallel: Measurement 1 2 3 4

at 0.1ms per DIV Time Constant(s) 8.50E-04 8.47E-04 8.55E-04 8.51E-04

Capacitance(F) 4.30E-08 4.28E-08 4.32E-08 4.30E-08

Graphical Measurements Unknown 1: Measurement at 7th line 6th line 5th line 4th line 3rd line 2nd line at 0.2ms per DIV Voltage(V) 7 6 5 4 3 2 at 1V/DIV Time(s) -1.00E-03 -9.20E-04 -8.00E-04 -6.20E-04 -4.20E-04 -2.00E-04

Unknown 2: Measurement at 7th line 6th line 5th line 4th line 3rd line 2nd line

at 50s per DIV Voltage(V) 7 6 5 4 3 2

at 1V/DIV Time(s) -2.50E-04 -2.25E-04 -2.00E-04 -1.60E-04 -1.15E-04 -5.00E-05

Unknowns in Series: Measurement at 7th line 6th line 5th line 4th line 3rd line 2nd line

at 50s per DIV Voltage(V) 7 6 5 4 3 2

at 1V/DIV Time(s) -2.50E-04 -2.30E-04 -2.05E-04 -1.75E-04 -1.40E-04 -9.00E-05

Unknowns in Parallel: Measurement at 7th line 6th line 5th line 4th line 3rd line 2nd line

at 0.2ms per DIV Voltage(V) 7 6 5 4 3 2

at 1V/DIV Time(s) -1.00E-03 -9.00E-04 -7.60E-04 -5.40E-04 -3.00E-04 0.00E+00

Results:

Time Constant Measurements: for Time Constant: Unknown 1 Unknown 2 Unknowns in Series Unknowns in Parallel for Capacitance: Unknown 1 Unknown 2 Unknowns in Series Unknowns in Parallel

Mean

Variance

Error

Value

7.00E-04 1.62E-04 1.29E-04 8.51E-04

1.17E-08 1.87E-10 3.29E-11 1.09E-11

5.40E-05 6.83E-06 2.87E-06 1.65E-06

: 7E-4 5.4E-5 s : 1.62E-4 6.83E-6 s : 1.29E-4 2.87E-6 s : 8.51E-4 1.65E-6 s

3.54E-08 8.19E-09 6.53E-09 4.30E-08

2.98E-17 4.77E-19 8.41E-20 2.79E-20

2.73E-09 3.45E-10 1.45E-10 8.35E-11

: 3.54E-8 2.73E-9 s : 8.19E-9 3.45E-10 s : 6.53E-9 1.45E-10 s : 4.3E-8 8.35E-11 s

Ln (V0/V) Graphs:

Unknown 1: C = 1/Rm: 3.53886E-08 F

0.00 -0.20 y = 1428.6x + 1E-15 -0.40 -0.60 -0.80 -1.00 -1.20 -1.40 -1.60 -1.20E-03 -1.00E-03 -8.00E-04 -6.00E-04 -4.00E-04 -2.00E-04

Ln (V0/V)

0.00E+00

t0

Unknown 2: C = 1/Rm: 8.19006E-09 F

0.00 -0.20 -0.40 y = 6144.9x + 1E-15 -0.60 -0.80 -1.00 -1.20 -1.40 -1.60 -1.80 -3.00E-04 -2.50E-04 -2.00E-04 -1.50E-04 -1.00E-04 -5.00E-05

Ln (V0/V)

0.00E+00

t0

Unknowns in Series: C = 1/Rm: 6.53438E-09 F

0.00

-0.50 y = 7701.9x + 2E-15 -1.00

Ln (V0/V)

-1.50

-2.00

-2.50 -3.00E-04 -2.50E-04 -2.00E-04 -1.50E-04 -1.00E-04 -5.00E-05

0.00E+00

t0

Unknowns in Parallel: C = 1/Rm: 4.3011E-08 F

0.20 0.00 -0.20 -0.40 -0.60 -0.80 -1.00 -1.20 -1.40 -1.20E-03 -1.00E-03 -8.00E-04 -6.00E-04 -4.00E-04 -2.00E-04 y = 1170.1x + 4E-16

Ln (V0/V)

0.00E+00

t0

Grapical Measurements: for Voltage: Unknown 1/2/Series/Parallel for Period: Unknown 1 Unknown 2 Unknowns in Series Unknowns in Parallel

Mean

Variance

Error

Value

4.5

3.5

7.64E-01

: 4.5 0.76 V

-6.60E-04 -1.67E-04 -1.82E-04 -5.83E-04

9.47E-08 5.56E-09 3.55E-09 1.46E-07

1.26E-04 3.04E-05 2.43E-05 1.56E-04

: -6.6E-4 1.26E-4 s : -6.6E-4 1.26E-5 s : -6.6E-4 1.26E-6 s : -6.6E-4 1.26E-7 s

Questions: The graphs were set up the way they were because then the slope of a linear graph is rise/run. In the graphs I had Ln(V0/V) on the y-axis and on the x-axis I had the time. So then the slope is: ( )

Using the first equation , so the slope would be 1/BAx, and the intercept would be 0. Using the second equation Using the third equation
( )

, so the slope could be A+B/(CD^2 *x^3), and the intercept zero.

, so the slope would be 4/A, and the intercept would be zero again.

The capacitances that were written on the capacitors were 4.401E-8 Farads, and 9.4E-9 Farads, and the capacitances we found were 3.54E-8 Farads and 8.19E-9 Farads, respectively. The method we used seemed to be better because we took several measurements and accounted for error, while it seemed the initial values that were written were looser approximations. Unknown 1: Theoretical: Experimental: Error: Unknown 2: Theoretical: Experimental: Error: Unknowns in Series: Theoretical: Experimental: 7.75E-9 6.53E-9 9.40E-9 8.19E-9 14.8% 4.40E-8 3.54E-8 24.3%

Error: Unknowns in Parallel: Theoretical: Experimental: Error:

18.6%

5.34E-8 4.30E-8 24.2%

A source of error in this lab was creating the wrong circuit, because it is easy to lose track of the wires going in and out of the breadboard, especially in parallel. Another source of error couldve occurred during the graphical measurement section, where when measuring the voltage, the graph had to be lowered so it touched the bottom of the screen. The source of error then would have been if the graph wasnt aligned properly, leading to a slight variation in results.