Ryerson University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

LABORATORY MANUAL AER403 Vibration and Mechanism

January 2005 P. Cresnik Dr. H. Ghaemi

NO REFUNDS

NO EXCHANGES

Table of Contents
Lab Report Instructions........................................................................................... 3 Lab 1: Basic Vibration Measurement ..................................................................... 4 2.1 Purpose............................................................................................................ 4 2.2 Pre-Lab............................................................................................................ 4 2.3 Apparatus ........................................................................................................ 4 2.4 Procedure ........................................................................................................ 4 2.4.1 Accelerometer Calibration ......................................................................... 4 2.4.2 Vibration Measurement of a Cantilever Beam .......................................... 5 2.5 Results and Discussion ................................................................................... 6 3. Lab 2: Frequency Analysis of Periodic Signals and Machine Balancing ............... 7 3.1 Purpose............................................................................................................ 7 3.2 Apparatus ........................................................................................................ 7 3.3 Theory ............................................................................................................. 8 3.3.1 Periodic Motion and the Fourier Series .................................................. 8 3.3.2 Rigid Rotor Balancing .......................................................................... 10 3.4 Procedure ...................................................................................................... 11 3.4.1 Frequency Analysis of Periodic Signals .................................................. 11 3.4.2 Machine Balancing ................................................................................... 11 3.5 Results and Discussion ................................................................................. 13 3.5.1 Frequency Analysis of Periodic Signals ................................................... 13 3.5.2 Machine Balancing ................................................................................... 13 4. Rotating Unbalance and Forced Vibration ............................................................... 14 4.1 Purpose.......................................................................................................... 14 4.2 Apparatus ...................................................................................................... 14 4.3 Theory ........................................................................................................... 15 4.4 Procedure ...................................................................................................... 17 Results an discussion ................................................................................................ 19 4.5.1 Analysis of Natural Frequency ................................................................. 19 5. References ............................................................................................................. 20 Appendix A: Introduction to PCB Accelerometers ...................................................... 21 A.1 Types of Accelerometers Offered by PCB .................................................... 21 A.2 Function of Piezoelectric Accelerometers ..................................................... 21 A.3 Piezoelectric Sensing Materials ..................................................................... 22 A.4 Structures for Piezoelectric Accelerometers .................................................. 23 A.5 Acceleration Measurement Systems .............................................................. 24 Appendix B: Dynamic Signal Analyzers and the IOtech ZonicBook/618E ................. 27 B.1 Dynamic Signal Analyzers ....................................................................... 27 B.2 IOtech ZonicBook/618E ........................................................................... 33 1. 2.

1.

Lab Report Instructions

NOTE: YOU MUST ATTEND THE LABORATORY IN ORDER TO RECEIVE A MARK. THE LAB DEMONSTRATOR WILL TAKE ATTENDENCE.

2.

Lab 1: Basic Vibration Measurement

2.1 Purpose
The objective of this lab is to familiarize the student with some of the basic instruments used in vibration measurement. In particular the student will learn how to calibrate an accelerometer, get familiar with a dynamic signal analyzer and make some fundamental vibration measurements.

2.2 Pre-Lab
Please read Appendix A and Appendix B for a brief introduction to accelerometers and dynamic signal analyzers.

2.3 Apparatus
Pentium 4 class computer running Windows XP IOtech ZonicBook/618E Dytran fixed frequency shaker 3 x PCB Accelerometers 2 x adjustable length cantilever beams

2.4 Procedure
2.4.1 Accelerometer Calibration

1. Carefully mount the PCB transducer on the Dytran fixed frequency calibration shaker. 2. Connect the cable to the accelerometer and to Channel 3 of the ZonicBook/618E. 3. Turn the amplitude knob completely to the left before turning on the shaker. 4. Click the Ez-Analyst icon on the desktop. 5. Go to Task pull-down menu and select Calibration. 6. Input the accelerometers characteristics. 7. Press the power button on the shaker and adjust the amplitude to read 1.00 gs peak. 8. Press the Start Calibration button in the Ez-Analyst software. 9. Let the program run through the calibration tests. 10. The accelerometer is now calibrated and ready to be used.

5 2.4.2 Vibration Measurement of a Cantilever Beam

Now that we have learned how to calibrate our accelerometers, we will use this transducer type to capture the natural frequency response of a cantilever beam based on its length. 1. Insert the rectangular beam into the yellow clamp mounted on the desk. 2. Adjust the beam to the proper length and tighten the clamp. 3. The instructor will demonstrate the proper technique to install the accelerometer onto the steel beam(s). 4. Setup the Ez-Analyst software for start of measurement. 5. Gently press down on the free-end of the cantilever beam and release the beam and watch as it oscillates. 6. The data acquisition will automatically trigger and start logging the data. Watch as the data is displayed on the monitor. 7. Using the cursor in the frequency spectrum graph, obtain the natural frequency. 8. In the time spectrum, use the cursor to obtain two successive amplitude values. 9. Record the data in Table 1 and repeat for the other two beam lengths. 10. Repeat steps 1 to 10 for the aluminum beam.
CLAMP BEAM ACCELEROMETER

Figure 1 Cantilever beam with clamp support.

Table 1 Vibration properties.

BEAM TYPE - STEEL

LENGTH [in] FREQUENCY [Hz] AMPLITUDE 1 [g] AMPLITUDE 2 [g] 12 24 36

BEAM TYPE - ALUMINUM

LENGTH [in] FREQUENCY [Hz] AMPLITUDE 1 [g] AMPLITUDE 2 [g] 12 24 36

2.5 Results and Discussion

1. Using the dimensional and material properties of the steel beams, calculate the natural frequency, n, and the period of oscillation, T, for the three beam lengths. Compare (based on % error) and discuss your results with those from Table 1.

Beam Type
Properties Width [in] Height [in] Elastic Modulus [lb/in2] Density [lb/in3] 2.

STEEL
1 0.25 3.0E+07 0.284

ALUMINUM
1 0.25 1.0E+07 0.098

3.

Create a graph of length (x-axis) versus frequency (y-axis) and a graph of length versus period for both the experimental and theoretical results. Is this relationship linear? If not, explain. Use the amplitude results to calculate the logarithmic decrement, , and the damping ratio, , for the 6 beam configurations. Calculate the damping coefficient, c = cc, where cc is the critical damping coefficient determined by: cc = 2 km = 2m n

3.

Lab 2: Frequency Analysis of Periodic Signals and Machine Balancing

3.1 Purpose
In a wide variety of industrial situations, the measurement of dynamic signals is an important method of monitoring the proper operation and installation of machine equipment. It also provides a means to determine problems and their subsequent solutions such as poor balancing which results in rough operation, premature bearing failures and fatigue in shafts and supports. The objective of this laboratory is to: 1. 2. To gain experience in the frequency analysis of vibration signals from a running motor operating at different speeds. Become familiar with and perform two-plane balancing of a rigid-rotor system, for which the original unbalance is unknown.

3.2 Apparatus
Pentium 4 class computer running Windows XP IOtech ZonicBook/618E 3 x PCB Accelerometers 1 x Optical tachometer Rigid-rotor system consisting of: o Balancing machine, supported on flexible springs and driven by a variable-speed motor. o Five slotted disks attached to a shaft driven by a belt-pulley assembly (Figure 2). o Trial masses for attachment to disks.

5 4 3 X 1 Y 2 Z

Figure 2 Disks of the rigid rotor system.

3.3 Theory
3.3.1 Periodic Motion and the Fourier Series

Vibrations that take place more or less regularly and repeat themselves with respect to time are called periodic and are described as oscillations. Periodic phenomena are most common in rotary motion, such as during every revolution of every revolving part of a motor. Any periodic motion can be represented by a series of sines and cosines that are harmonically related. If a function, x(t) is periodic, it repeats itself in every detail at regular intervals of time with a period of T seconds. The repetition rate is then obtained from T = 2, and the function can be represented by a Fourier series. One common form of the Fourier series is given by:
x(t ) = xavg + ( An cos nt + Bn sin nt ) ,

Where An and Bn are amplitude coefficients defined by:

An =

2 T x(t )(cos nt )dt T 0

and

Bn =

2 T x(t )(sin nt )dt T 0

The harmonic order, n, takes on all integer values, n = 1... The term xavg is the average value of the function over time period T and is given by: xavg = 1 T x(t )dt T 0

9 An alternate form of the series representation for x(t) is: x(t ) = xavg + C n cos(nwt n ) or x(t ) = xavg + C n sin(nwt n )

Where Cn is the amplitude of each harmonic component and is defined as:

2 2 2 Cn = An + Bn

The phase angles provide the necessary phase relationships among the harmonic components and are related to An and Bn by: tan n = Bn An and tan n = An Bn

The Fourier series can also be expressed in terms of exponential functions, the importance of which will become apparent shortly. We know that: e iwt + e iwt e iwt e iwt and sin t = 2 2i By inserting these into the standard Fourier series equation we get the complex Fourier series defined as: cos t =

x(t ) =

n =

X
T

Gn e int

1 X n = x(t )e int dt T0

The above results apply to periodic signals, but can be extended to a more general case by letting T and start measuring time at t. Subsequently the spacing 1/T between the harmonics tends to zero and X becomes a continuous function of f = /2. The above equations are now: x(t ) = X ( )e it dt

X ( ) =

x(t )e

i t

dt

These two relations are called the inverse transform and forward transform respectively. Together they are known as the Fourier transform pair. The Fourier transform thus transforms signals from the time domain to the frequency domain and is a very useful tool to determine the frequency content of dynamic signals.

10

A digital frequency analyzer, like the ZonicBook/618E used in the lab actually performs a rectangle-rule numerical approximation to the integral in the Fourier transform. The function x(t) is sampled at uniformly spaced intervals over the total time interval, T. Using the sampled data and the rectangle rule, the continuous integral of the exponential Fourier transform is approximated by a discrete summation over the finite number of sample points in the interval T. The result is called the Discrete Fourier Transform of the sequence of data points. The analyzer then plots the results versus frequency. The DFT operation is performed in the analyzer using an algorithm called the Fast Fourier Transform of FFT. Thus digital signal analyzers are also referred to as FFT analyzers. 3.3.2 Rigid Rotor Balancing

Consider the sum of moments due to all unbalanced inertia forces about some point along the rotor axis. The application of, M = zF For each force gives:

M = z ( F cos i + F sin j )
M = MR 2 [ z (cos i + sin j ) Summing the moments of all such forces leads to:

M = M
Where M x = 2 ( MR) z sin

i + M y j) M y = 2 ( MR) z cos

and

For complete balance at any speed, , both Mx and My must be zero and therefore the indicated summations must both be zero. Suppose balance masses Ma and Mb are to be attached in planes A and B. If moments are summed about plane B, two equations are obtained, from which Ma and its angular location a can be calculated. Similarly, summation of moments about plan A will establish Mb and b. As a final check on the calculations, the sum of all inertia forces, including those of the balancing masses should be zero.

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3.4 Procedure
3.4.1 Frequency Analysis of Periodic Signals

1) Setup the tachometer to measure the speed of the motor and connect the cable to TACH 1 input on the ZonicBook/618E. 2) Attach two accelerometers to different positions on the motor casing and connect the cables to inputs 1 and 2 on the ZonicBook/618E. 3) Start up the Ez-Analyst software by clicking on the desktop icon. 4) Check to make sure that the appropriate channels have been turned on and are ready to begin data acquisition. 5) Begin the frequency analysis by pushing the continuous scope button on the EzAnalyst software window. 6) Now adjust the motor to full speed (100%) and complete Table 1 below. Compare the two spectra and give reasons for the results in your report.

RPM =
Accelerometer Location Frequency 1 Amplitude 2 Frequency Amplitude Unit [Hz] [g]2 [Hz] [g]2 Harmonic Sub-harmonic 1 Sub-harmonic 2 Sub-harmonic 3

3.4.2

Machine Balancing

1) The Lab instructor will have attached certain known unbalances to the inner disks (#2 and #4) of the balancing machine. [Inner Hole Radius = 1.5 - Middle Hole Radius = 2 Outer Hole Radius = 2.5] 2) Identify the unbalanced MR products and the corresponding angular positions for each disk. Fill out the table below. Run the machine and note the extent to which the machine is unbalanced. Operate the motor at half-speed and record the frequency spectrum using the digital signal analyzer. Disk No. 2 4 Mass [oz] Radius [in] Angle [deg] MR [oz-in]

12 3) The rotor is to be balanced in the two planes of the end disks, namely disks #1 and #5. Begin the Ez-Balance software program which will be used to balance the machine. 4) Follow the Balance Operations Flowchart in Ez-Balance and fill out the tables: a. Initial Balance Run here we perform an initial run of the machine and determine the initial vibration data for the unknown unbalance. RUN Initial Run RPM Amplitude [10-3 in] Phase [deg]

b. Add Trial Weight(s) Pause the data acquisition system and bring up the Trail Weights Box. Here we specify the position and weight of the trial masses. Record the trial mass below. Mass [oz] Radius [in] Angle [deg]

c. Trial Balance Run perform another run of the data acquisition system for the trial weight(s) and obtain the new vibration data. RUN Trial Weight Run RPM Amplitude [10-3 in] Phase [deg]

d. Calculate the Trial Solution The Solution area of the Balance Weights window indicates the weight and location to place the final correction. Mass [oz] Angle [deg]

e. Trim Balance Run Performs a Trim Balance Run to verify the Balance solution. RUN Trim Balance Run RPM Amplitude [10-3 in] Phase [deg]

f. Calculate the Trim Solution (optional) this operation will fine tune the balance. Mass [oz] Angle [deg]

13

3.5 Results and Discussion

3.5.1 Frequency Analysis of Periodic Signals

1) Summarize the result of the frequency analysis. Interpret and discuss the results and present any conclusions.

3.5.2

Machine Balancing

1) For the rigid rotor system present your results and comment on the effectiveness of the balancing procedure. Present any limitations to the procedures or equipment and make any necessary conclusions. 2) Complete your own balancing calculations and comment on any differences between your theoretical and the actual experimental results. Explain any differences.

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4. Rotating Unbalance and Forced Vibration

4.1 Purpose
In many industrial applications, detrimental forces can be exerted on the base of the machine as the result of imbalanced operation of rotating machines. Rotating machines include turbine, electric motors, fan or any rotating shafts. One may experience this phenomenon when driving a car when the wheels are not balanced. In this situation, car will shake and in some cases car shakes quit violently. At certain speed, the rotational speed of the wheel is close to the natural frequency of the car suspension system and the amplitude of vibration becomes a maximum. The objective of this lab is to familiarize students with some of the basic concept of harmonic forced vibration. Figure 3 depicts the apparatus.

4.2 Apparatus
Pentium 4 class computer running Windows XP IOtech ZonicBook/618E One PCB Accelerometers One tachometer AC motor and pulley Unbalanced mass.

Figure 3: Rotating unbalanced apparatus

15

4.3 Theory
A sinusoidal force will be generated as the result of an imbalanced rotating machine as in figure 4 with a mass m. Let assume that a rotating machine with a mass M is mounted on a spring and damper system as shown in figure 4. Further we assume that this system only has single degree of freedom and can only move vertically. The rotating part, pulley, is imbalanced since its center of mass does not coincide with its center of rotation. This unbalance is usually represented by a mass m located at a distance e from the center of rotation. This is also called eccentricity. Also let the angular velocity of the machine to be .

Figure 4: Model of an unbalanced rotating system (a) at time t=0 system is in equilibrium and (b) after time t

At time t=0, the system is at rest, but at time t > 0, the eccentric mass (m) has moved to a distance equal to t. If X represents the displacement of the mass (M-m) from equilibrium, the displacement of the eccentric mass can be determined by:

= x + e sin t
where x is the displacement of the non-rotating mass is the displacement of rotating mass is the angular velocity e is the eccentricity

The equation of the motion can be written as follows:

+ x m = Kx Cx ( M m)
Taking the second derivative of and sub it in the above equation;

16

d2 + m 2 ( x + e sin t ) = Kx Cx ( M m) x dt
After some basic algebraic manipulation, the equation of the motion takes the following form:

+ + Kx + Cx = em 2 sin t M x
Now this is the same as the equation of the motion for damped forced vibration.

+ + Kx + Cx = F sin t M x
The excitation force is due to the centripetal force of the mass m toward the center of the rotation. If e is small, the amplitude of vibration is small. Thus the amplitude of vibration depends on mass m, the rotational speed and the distance of the mass from the center of rotation. Note that the velocity and acceleration are ahead of displacement by 90 and 180 degrees respectively. Therefore, the steady state is given by:

x = X sin(t )
X is the amplitude of vibration. Taking the derivatives of the above equation with respect to t and substituting in the equation of motion, the amplitude of vibration takes the following form:

= X cos(t ) = X x
= X 2 sin(t ) = 2 X x

X=

(K M ) + (C )
2 2

Equally, the amplitude can be determined based on the frequency ratio as:

X=

mr 2 e / M

(1 r ) + (2r )
2 2

And the phase angle can be determined by the following relation:

tan =

2 n C 2 r = = 2 n 1 r 2 K M

17

If these equations are written in a non-dimensional form, it is easier to see that general response of this unbalanced rotating depends on the frequency ratio r. As before;
1 X = ln( o ) , n Xn

n =

K , M

2 1 2

c 2 KM

r=

Therefore, the amplitude of excitation and the phase angle can be obtained by the following equations:

M X = m e

r2

(1 r ) + (2 .r )
2 2

tan =

2 .r 1 r2

Vibration generated by machines are often unavoidable however, their effect must be minimized. This can be achieved by using a vibration isolator. The transmissibility TR is defined as the ratio between the transmitted and imbalanced force and can be determined by:

TR =

[1 ( / ) ] + [2 / ]
2 2 n n

1 + (2 / n ) 2

IF the damping is negligible, the transmissibility equation reduces to the following form:

TR =

1 ( / n ) 2 1

4.4 Procedure
Follow the same procedure as that of Lab #1 to calibrate the accelerometer. Turn on the ZonicBook/618E and computer and then start Ez-Analyst software. The software will take few minutes to initialize the hardware connections and to recognize the transducers connected to the ZonicBook/618E. Once the connection is established perform the following task. 1. Boot up Ez-Analyst program 2. Recall the program called Lab3-part1 3. Set the program to measurement mode, note that two window will be appeared on the screen. 4. Gently push the assembly down with hand and release it.

18

5. Click on the measure button on the screen and measure the natural frequency from the first window and record it 6. From the second window, measure the free decay signature of the system and record two successive data points from the curve. Note that the natural frequency can be calculated by measuring the assembly mass, the spring stiffness and the static deflection. For detail please refer to your text book. NATURAL FREQUENCY [Hz] AMPLITUDE 1 [mils] FREQUENCY [Hz] AMPLITUDE 2 [mils] FREQUENCY [Hz]

Perform the following steps for the second part of this laboratory work: 1. Open the Lab3-part2 from the pull down menu. 2. Start motor and measure the motor speed in rev/minute using the tachometer. 3. Using two accelerometers, measure the frequency of vibrations on the top and base plate of the apparatus. 4. Record the data in the following table Rotational Speed [RPM] FREQUENCY [Hz] AMPLITUDE 1 [mils] FREQUENCY [Hz] AMPLITUDE 2 [mils]

The following table summarizes system mass and spring stiffness Properties System mass [lb] Unbalance mass [lb] Spring Stiffness [lb/in] 36 .09014 25

19

Results an discussion
4.5.1 Analysis of Natural Frequency

1. Summarize the result of the frequency analysis and interpret frequency results. Calculate the Natural frequency and compare discuss the experimental and analytical result. 2. Determine the damping of the system from decaying of the free vibration (recall Lab #1) 3. Calculate the theoretical amplitude X and compare it with the experimental results 4. For the data points given here, determine the unbalanced force, MX/me and ratio of operating to natural frequency 5. Graph the MX/me vs. /n 6. Determine the transmitted force to the base plate based on the accelerometer measurements and calculate the transmissibility ratio for each data point and discuss the results.

20

5.
[1]

References
Thomson, W.T. and Dahleh, M.D., Theory of Vibration with Applications. Fifth Edition, Prentice-Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1998. Dimarogonas, A., Vibration for Engineers. Second Edition, Prentice-Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 1996. PCB Piezotronics: Vibration Division, Sensors for Acceleration, Shock, Vibration, and Acoustic Measurements. Product Catalog, 2003. Hewlett-Packard Co., The Fundamentals of Signal Analysis. Application Note 243, 1994. IOtech, ZonicBook/618E Portable Vibration Analysis and Monitoring System. Product Catalog, 2004.

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

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Appendix A: Introduction to PCB Accelerometers

Accelerometers are sensing transducers that produce an electrical output signal proportional to the acceleration aspect of motion, vibration, and shock. Most accelerometers generate an electrical output signal that is proportional to an induced force. This force is proportional to acceleration, according to Newtons law of motion, F = ma. Acceleration measurements are quite useful for a wide variety of applications due to this proportionality to force, a fundamental physical measurement parameter. A.1 Types of Accelerometers Offered by PCB PCB designs and manufactures accelerometers that utilize either piezoelectric or capacitive sensing technology. Piezoelectric accelerometers rely on the self-generating, piezoelectric effect of either quartz crystals or ceramic materials to produce an electrical output signal proportional to acceleration. Many such accelerometers contain built-in signal conditioning circuitry and are known as voltage mode, low-impedance, Integrated Electronic Piezoelectric (IEPE) or Integrated Circuit - Piezoelectric (PCBs trademarked name, ICP) sensors. Piezoelectric accelerometers that do not contain any additional circuitry are known as charge output or high-impedance sensors. Piezoelectric accelerometers are capable of measuring very fast acceleration transients such as those encountered with machinery vibration and high- frequency shock measurements. Although they can respond to slow, low-frequency phenomenon, such as the vibration of a bridge, piezoelectric accelerometers cannot measure truly uniform acceleration, also known as static or DC acceleration. Capacitive accelerometers sense a change in electrical capacitance, with respect to acceleration, to vary the output of an energized circuit. Capacitive accelerometers are capable of uniform acceleration measurements, such as the gravitational effect of the earth. They can also respond to varying acceleration events but with limitation to low frequencies of up to several hundred hertz. A.2 Function of Piezoelectric Accelerometers As stated above, piezoelectric accelerometers rely on the self-generating, piezoelectric effect of either quartz crystals or ceramic materials to produce an electrical output signal proportional to acceleration. The piezoelectric effect is that which causes a realignment and accumulation of positively and negatively charged electrical particles, or ions, at the opposed surfaces of a crystal lattice, when that lattice undergoes stress. The number of ions that accumulate is directly proportional to the amplitude of the imposed stress or force. The piezoelectric effect is depicted in Figure 1 of a quartz crystal lattice.

22

Figure 3 Piezoelectric Effect of a Quartz Crystal Lattice.

In the creation an accelerometer, it is necessary that the stress imposed upon the piezoelectric material be the direct result of the device undergoing acceleration. To accomplish this, a mass is attached to the crystal which, when accelerated, causes force to act upon the crystal. The mass, also known as a seismic mass, creates a force directly proportional to acceleration according to, F = ma. Thin metallic electrodes, typically made of gold foil, serve to collect the accumulated ions. Small lead wires interconnect the electrodes to an electrical connector or feed-through, to which signal transmission cabling is attached as seen in Figure 2. Piezoelectric accelerometer signals generally require conditioning before being connected to readout, recording, or analysis equipment. This signal conditioning is either remotely located or built into the accelerometer.

Figure 4 Typical piezoelectric accelerometer design.

A.3 Piezoelectric Sensing Materials Two categories of piezoelectric material predominantly used in accelerometer designs are quartz and polycrystalline ceramics. Quartz is a naturally occurring crystal; however, the quartz used in sensors today is produced by a process that creates material free from impurities. Ceramic materials, on the other hand, are man made. Different specific ingredients yield ceramic materials that possess certain desired sensor properties. Each material offers distinct benefits, and material choice depends on the particular performance features desired of the accelerometer.

23 Quartz Quartz is widely known for its ability to perform accurate measurement tasks and contributes heavily in everyday applications for time and frequency measurements, such as wrist watches, radios, computers, and home appliances. Accelerometers also benefit from several unique characteristics of quartz. Since quartz is naturally piezoelectric, it has no tendency to relax to an alternative state and is considered the most stable of all piezoelectric materials. Quartz-based sensors, therefore, make consistent, repeatable measurements and continue to do so over long periods of time. Also, quartz has no output occurring from temperature fluctuations, a formidable advantage when placing sensors in thermally active environments. Because quartz has a low capacitance value, the voltage sensitivity is relatively high compared to most ceramic materials, making it ideal for use in voltage-amplified systems. Conversely, the charge sensitivity of quartz is low, limiting its usefulness in charge- amplified systems, where low noise is an inherent feature. The useful temperature range of quartz extends from -440 F (-262 C) to approximately +600F (+3 15 C). Ceramic A wide variety of ceramic materials are used for accelerometers, and which material to use depends on the requirements of the particular application. All ceramic materials are man made and are forced to become piezoelectric by a polarization process. This process, known as poling, exposes the material to a high-intensity electrical field, which aligns the electric dipoles, causing the material to become piezoelectric. If ceramic is exposed to temperatures exceeding its range or to electric fields approaching the poling voltage, the piezoelectric properties may be drastically altered or destroyed. Accumulation of high levels of static charge also can have this effect on the piezoelectric output. Differences in ceramics utilized determine such factors as charge sensitivity, voltage sensitivity, and temperature range. High charge output ceramics may be mated with builtin charge amplifier circuits to achieve high output signals, high resolution, and an excellent signal to noise ratio. Certain high-temperature ceramics are used for charge mode accelerometers some with temperature ranges to 900 F (482 C). Applications for such high temperature accelerometers include the monitoring of engine manifolds and superheated turbines. A.4 Structures for Piezoelectric Accelerometers A variety of mechanical structures are available to perform the transduction principles required of a piezoelectric accelerometer. These configurations are defined by the nature in which the inertial force of an accelerated mass acts upon the piezoelectric material. Such terms as compression mode, flexural mode and shear mode describe the nature of the stress acting upon the piezoelectric material. Current designs of PCB accelerometers utilize, almost exclusively, the shear mode of operation for their sensing elements. Therefore, the information provided herein is limited to that pertaining to shear mode accelerometers.

24 Shear mode accelerometer designs feature sensing crystals attached between a center post and a seismic mass. A compression ring or stud applies a pre-load force to the element assembly to insure a rigid structure and linear behavior. Under acceleration, the mass causes a shear stress to be applied to the sensing crystals. This stress results in a proportional electrical output by the piezoelectric material. The output is collected by electrodes and transmitted by lightweight lead wires to either the built-in signal conditioning circuitry of ICP sensors, or directly to the electrical connector for charge mode types. By having the sensing crystals isolated from the base and housing, shear mode accelerometers excel in rejecting thermal transient and base-bending effects. Also, the shear geometry lends itself to small size, which promotes high frequency response while minimizing mass loading effects on the test structure. With this combination of ideal characteristics, shear mode accelerometers offer optimum performance.

Figure 5 Shear Mode Accelerometer.

A.5 Acceleration Measurement Systems Piezoelectric accelerometers can be broken down into two categories that define their mode of operation. Internally amplified ICP accelerometers contain built-in microelectronic signal conditioning. Charge mode accelerometers contain only the sensing element with no electronics. lCP, is PCBs registered trademark that stands for Integrated Circuit - Piezoelectric and identifies PCB sensors that incorporate built-in, signal-conditioning electronics. PCB is credited as the company most responsible for development of this technology. The builtin electronics convert the high-impedance charge signal that is generated by the piezoelectric sensing element into a usable low-impedance voltage signal that can be readily transmitted, over ordinary two-wire or coaxial cables, to any voltage readout or recording device. The low-impedance signal can be transmitted over long cable distances and used in dirty field or factory environments with little degradation. In addition to

25 providing crucial impedance conversion, ICP sensor circuitry can also include other signal conditioning features, such as gain, filtering, and self-test features. The simplicity of use, high accuracy, broad frequency range, and low cost of ICP accelerometers make them the recommended type for use in most vibration or shock applications. However, an exception to this assertion must be made for circumstances in which the temperature, at the installation point, exceeds the capability of the built-in circuitry. The routine temperature range of ICP accelerometers is 250 F (121 C); specialty units are available that operate to 350F (177 C). The electronics within ICP accelerometers require excitation power from a constantcurrent regulated, DC voltage source. This power source is sometimes built into vibration meters, FFT analyzers, and vibration data collectors. A separate signal conditioner is required when none is built into the readout. In addition to providing the required excitation, power supplies may also incorporate additional signal conditioning, such as gain, filtering, buffering, and overload indication. A typical system set-up for ICP accelerometers is shown below

Figure 6 System set-up for a typical ICP accelerometer.

Charge output sensors output a high-impedance, electrical charge signal that is generated by the piezoelectric sensing element. This signal is sensitive to corruption from environmental influences. To conduct accurate measurements, it is necessary to condition this signal to a low-impedance voltage before it can be input to a readout or recording device. A charge amplifier or in-line charge converter is generally used for this purpose. These devices utilize high-input-impedance, low-output-impedance inverting amplifiers with capacitive feedback. Adjusting the value of the feedback capacitor alters the transfer function or gain of the charge amplifier.

Figure 7 Typical system setup for charge output accelerometer.

26 Typically, charge output accelerometers are used when high temperature survivability is required. If the measurement signal must be transmitted over long distances, PCB recommends the use of an in-line charge converter, placed near the accelerometer. This minimizes the chance of noise. In-line charge converters can be operated from the same constant-current excitation power source as ICP accelerometers for a reduced system cost.

Figure 8 System set-up for charge output accelerometer with in-line charge converter.

Sophisticated laboratory-style charge amplifiers usually include adjustments for normalizing the input signal and altering the feedback capacitor to provide the desired system sensitivity and full-scale amplitude range. Filtering also conditions the high and low frequency response. Some charge amplifiers provide dual-mode operation, which can be used to provide power for ICP accelerometers or to condition charge output sensors. Because of the high-impedance nature of the output signal generated by charge output accelerometers, several important precautionary measures must be followed. Always use special low-noise coaxial cable between the accelerometer and the charge amplifier. This cable is specially treated to reduce triboelectric (motion induced) noise effects. Also, always maintain high insulation resistance of the accelerometer, cabling, and connectors. To insure high insulation resistance, all components must be kept dry and clean.

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Appendix B: Dynamic Signal Analyzers and the IOtech ZonicBook/618E

B.1 Dynamic Signal Analyzers The analysis of signals is a fundamental problem for many engineers and scientists. By using transducers of various sorts (accelerometers and load cells in mechanical work,) we can change this information into electrical signals that can be analysed using various instruments. With instruments that can analyse signals in the time, frequency or modal domains, we have powerful tools to aid in the understanding of systems; their development and troubleshooting. In particular we are interested in the class of instruments called, Dynamic Signal Analyzers. A dynamic signal analyzer allows us to transform information from the time to frequency domain and vice versa without any loss in information. Figure 1 shows us the relationship between the time and frequency domains.

Figure 1The relationship between the time and frequency domains. a) Three-dimensional coordinates showing time, frequency and amplitude b) time domain view c) frequency domain view.

Figure 1a is a three-dimensional graph of the addition of sine waves. Two of the axes are time and amplitude, familiar from the time domain. The third axis is frequency which allows us to visually separate the sine waves which add to give us our complex waveform. If we view this three-dimensional graph along the frequency axis we get the view in Figure 1b. This is the time domain view of the sine waves. Adding them together at each instant of time gives the original waveform. However, if we view our graph along the time axis as in Figure 1c, we get a totally different picture. Here we have axes of amplitude versus frequency, what is commonly called the frequency domain. Every

28 sine wave we separated from the input appears as a vertical line. Its height represents its amplitude and its position represents its frequency. Since we know that each line represents a sine wave, we have uniquely characterized our input signal in the frequency domain. This frequency domain representation of our signal is called the spectrum of the signal. Each sine wave line of the spectrum is called a component of the total signal. It is very important to understand that we have neither gained nor lost information; we are just representing it differently. We are looking at the same three-dimensional graph from different angles. This different perspective can be very useful. At first the frequency domain may seem strange, yet it is an important part of everyday life. Your ear-brain combination is an excellent frequency domain analyzer. The earbrain splits the audio spectrum into many narrow bands and determines the power present in each band. It can easily pick small sounds out of loud background noise thanks in part to its frequency domain capability. So we see that the frequency domain is not at all uncommon. We are just not used to seeing it in graphical form. Let us now look at a few common signals in both the time and frequency domains. In Figure 2a, we see that the spectrum of a sine wave is just a single line. We expect this from the way we constructed the frequency domain. The square wave in Figure 2b is made up of an infinite number of sine waves, all harmonically related. The lowest frequency present is the reciprocal of the square wave period. These two examples illustrate a property of the frequency transform: a signal which is periodic and exists for all time has a discrete frequency spectrum. This is in contrast to the transient signal in Figure 2c which has a continuous spectrum. This means that the sine waves that make up this signal are spaced infinitesimally close together. Another signal of interest is the impulse shown in Figure 2d. The frequency spectrum of an impulse is flat, i.e., there is energy at all a frequency. It would, therefore, require infinite energy to generate a true impulse. Nevertheless, it is possible to generate an approximation to an impulse which has a fairly flat spectrum over the desired frequency range of interest.

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Figure 2 Frequency spectrum examples.

We will now develop a fuller understanding of the Dynamic Signal Analyzer. First we begin by presenting the properties of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) upon which Dynamic Signal Analyzers are based. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is an algorithm for transforming data from the time domain to the frequency domain. Since this is exactly what we want an analyzer to do, it would seem easy to implement a Dynamic Signal Analyzer based on the FFT. However, we will see that there are many factors which complicate this seemingly straight forward task. First, because of the many calculations involved in transforming domains, the transform must be implemented on a digital computer if the results are to be sufficiently accurate. Fortunately, with the advent of microprocessors, it is easy and inexpensive to incorporate all the needed computing power in a small instrument package. Note, however, that we cannot now transform to the frequency domain in a continuous manner, but instead must sample and digitize the time domain input. This means that our algorithm transforms digitized samples from the time domain to samples in the frequency domain as shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3 The FFT samples in both the time and frequency domains.

Because we have sampled, we no longer have an exact representation in either domain. However, a sampled representation can be as close to ideal as we desire by placing our samples closer together. Later we will consider what sample spacing is necessary to guarantee accurate results. A time record is defined to be N consecutive, equally spaced samples of the input. Because it makes our transform algorithm simpler and much faster, N is restricted to be a multiple of 2, for instance 1024. All the samples of the time record are needed to compute each and every line in the frequency domain. This is in contrast to what one might expect, namely that a single time domain sample transforms to exactly one frequency domain line. Understanding this block processing property of the FFT is crucial to understanding many of the properties of the Dynamic Signal Analyzer. For instance, because the FFT transforms the entire time record block as a total, there cannot be valid frequency domain results until a complete time record has been gathered. However, once completed, the oldest sample could be discarded, all the samples shifted in the time record, and a new sample added to the end of the time record. Thus, once the time record is initially filled, we have a new time record at every time domain sample and therefore could have new valid results in the frequency domain at every time domain sample. It was stated earlier that the time record has N equally spaced samples. Another property of the FFT is that it transforms these time domain samples to N/2 equally spaced lines in

31 the frequency domain. We only get half as many lines because each frequency line actually contains two pieces of information, amplitude and phase. The meaning of this is most easily seen if we look again at the relationship between the time and frequency domain. Figure 1 shows our three-dimensional graph of this relationship. Up to now we have implied that the amplitude and frequency of the sine waves contains all the information necessary to reconstruct the input. But it should be obvious that the phase of each of these sine waves is important too. For instance, in Figure 4, we have shifted the phase of the higher frequency sine wave components of this signal. The result is a severe distortion of the original wave form.

Figure 4 Phase of frequency domains is important.

Now that we know that we have N/2 equally spaced lines in the frequency domain, what is their spacing? The lowest frequency that we can resolve with our FFT spectrum analyzer must be based on the length of the time record. If the period of the input signal is longer than the time record, we have no way of determining the period (or frequency, its reciprocal). Therefore, the lowest frequency line of the FFT must occur at frequency equal to the reciprocal of the time record length. We have now established the spacing between these two lines and hence every line; it is the reciprocal of the time record. We can now quickly determine that the highest frequency we can measure is: 1 N f max = 2 PeriodofTime Re cord because we have N/2 lines spaced by the reciprocal of the time record starting at zero Hertz. Since we would like to adjust the frequency range of our measurement, we must vary fmax. The number of time samples N is fixed by the implementation of the FFT algorithm. Therefore, we must vary the period of the time record to vary fmax. To do this, we must vary the sample rate so that we always have N samples in our variable time record period. This is illustrated in Figure 5. Notice that to cover higher frequencies, we must sample faster.

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Figure 5 Frequency range of dynamic signal analyzers is determined by sample rate.

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