GEOMETRY/STRUCTURE:

Figure A Components of Sucker Rod Pump

A motor and gearbox supply power to turn the power shaft. There is a counterweight at the end of the crank. A pitman arm is attached to the crank and it moves upward when the crank moves counterclockwise. The Samson arms support the walking beam. The walking beam pivots and lowers or raises the plunger. The rod attaches the plunger to the horsehead. The horsehead (not rigidly attached) allows the joint (where rod is attached) to move in a vertical path instead of following an arc. very time the plunger rises! oil is pumped out through a spout. The pump consits of a four bar linkage is comprised of the crank! the pitman arm! the walking beam! and the ground.

E P!A"AT#O" OF $O% #T %OR&S/ #S USE':

Figure (: Oper)tion)* 'et)i* of Sucker Rod Pump

"ere the plunger is shown at its lowest position. The pitman arm and the crank are in#line. The maximum pumping angle! denoted as theta in the calculations! is shown. $ is the stroke length. After one stroke! the plunger moves upward by one stroke length and the walking beam pivots. The crank also rotates counterclockwise. At the end of the upstroke the pitman arm! the crank! and the walking beam are in# line.

For name and location of parts, see Figure A. 1. A motor supplies power to a gear box. A gearbox reduces the angular velocity and increases the torque relative to this input. 2. As shown in Figure B, the cran! turns countercloc!wise" and lifts the counterweight. #ince the cran! is connected to the wal!ing beam via the pitman arm, the beam pivots and submerges the plunger. Figure B also shows the horsehead at

its lowest position. $his mar!s the end of the down stro!e. %ote that the cran! and the pitman arm are in&line at this position. '. $he upstro!e raises the horsehead and the plunger, along with the fluid being pumped. $he upstro!e begins at the point shown in Figure B. At the end of the upstro!e, all (oints are in&line. $his geometric constraint determines the length of the pitman arn. ). Figures * a" and * b" show the plunger and ball valves in more detail. $hese valves are opened by fluid flow alone. +n the upstro!e, the riding valve is closed and the standing valve is open. Fluid above and within the plunger is lifted out of the casing while more fluid is pumped into the well. +n the down stro!e, the riding valve is opened and the standing valve is closed. Fluid flows into the plunger and no fluid is allowed to leave the well.

Figure C+), 'OM#"A"T P$YS#CS . 'ES#G":

Figure C+-,

Figure ': /)ri)-*e 'escriptons For SRP T)-*e 0: /)ri)-*e 'escriptions1 /)*ues )nd Units /)ri)-*e Fl Ff Fr Fc Fb w 0r 'escription Full ,ump Angle $otal Force ,ump must exert -eight of Fluid -eight of the .ods Buoyant force on rods .od weight per unit length 0ength of one rod T2pic)* /)*ue &&& &&& &&& &&& &&& &&& 21 & '23 Units degrees lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs/ft ft

-eight of counterweight &&&

%r ,i h g 0 $ <f Ar #y Ap
3 33 333 3333 33333

%umber of .ods 4nput ,ower 5epth of -ell Fluid 5ensity 7ravitational Acceleration *onstant #tro!e 0ength .equired ,umping $orque

&&& )22233 12,222333 &&& 89.: 1; & 1923333 ;,)22 & 912,22233333

&&& psi ft lbm/in6' m/s62 in in&lb ft6' psi psi psi

Fluid <olume per #tro!e &&& .od *ross sectional area &&& =ield #trength of .od ,lunger *ross #ectional Area .eference 1, pp. 9.2>9 .eference 1, pp. 9.2>> .eference 1, pp. 9.2>> .eference 1, pp. 9.2:2 .eference 1, pp. 9.2:2 &&& &&&

$o design a suc!er rod pump, the depth of the well must first be determined. $his value is then used to calculate the amount of fluid that can be pumped per stro!e. $his amount is the volume of fluid that fits in a cylinder of height 0 and cross sectional area Ap. <f ? Ap 0

$his volume is then multiplied by the density of the fluid and by the g to find the weight of the column of fluid the pump must lift. Ff ? @f g $he pump must also provide enough power to lift the suc!er rods see Figure A". @anufacturers specify typical values of weight per unit length, w, for the rods they ma!e. $his number is multiplied by the length of one rod, 0r, and by the number of rods, %r. Fr ? w 0r %r #ince the rods are submerged in fluid, a buoyant force is present. $his force is found using ArchimedesA ,rinciple. 4t states that the buoyant force a submerged ob(ect feels is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. $herefore, the volume of displaced fluid is equal to the submerged volume of the rods. $he weight of this fluid is equal to this volume multiplied by the fluidAs density and g. $o obtain the volume of the rods, we multiply their cross sectional area by their total length. Fb ? Ar %r 0r g %ow the total load the pump must lift can be calculated. Fl ? Ff B Fr C Fb" $wo things must be noted. First, the above analysis is very rough and does not include additional factors such as impulse forces. For more detail, see .eference 1, page 9.2:'. Also, the forces described above vary with time and this must be ta!en into account. $he stro!e length of the pump is the vertical distance the plunger travels in one stro!e. $his length depends on the amount of fluid being pumped. +nce the stro!e length is !nown, the geometry of the four bar lin!age can be determined. $o avoid excessive wear of

the machinery, it is good engineering practice to reduce the number of cycles the pump completes per unit of time. 4n order to do this more fluid should be pumped per cycle. 4n order to increase the fluid displacement, the stro!e length should be maximiDed. $ypical values for stro!e length vary from 1; to 192 inches see .eference 1, pp. 9.2:2". $he stro!e length can be used to calculate the torque required to pump the oil according to the following formula. $ ? * 0 Fl Eere, * is a function of the geometry of the four bar lin!age and the force the counterweight exerts on the cran! see .eference 1, pp. 9.2:'". $ypical values for torque range from ;,)22 to 912,222 in&lb see .eference 1, pp. 9.2:2". +n the upstro!e, two forces help pump the oil from the well. $he first is the FforceF supplied from the torque produced by the motor and gearbox. $he second force comes from the weight of the counterweight as it falls see Figure *". !#M#T#"G P$YS#CS: *are must be ta!en to choose a cross sectional area large enough so that the rods do not yield. $his area can be found by dividing the total tensile load by the yield stress of the material. Ay ? Fl / #y $he area of the rods must be greater than this area. $his is a minimum. Fatigue affects function of material and load!ing" will require a larger value. EFF#C#E"CY:

$he efficiency of the suc!er rod pump can be defined as the volume of oil it actually pumps divided by the volume it can theoretically pump. -hen the well is initially drilled, the oil contains a lot of gas. $his gas displaces a small volume of oil at the beginning. $his volume decreases eventually. $he volumetric efficiency of this type of pump is rated at about :2G. see .eference 1, pp. 9.2>>" P!OTS/GRAP$S/TA(!ES: %one #ubmitted %$ERE TO F#"' SUC&ER RO' PUMPS: #uc!er rod pumps are used primarily to draw oil from underground reservoirs. $he mechanisms it employs however are found in a wide variety of machines. $he four bar lin!age can be found on door dampers, on automobile engines, and on devices such as the laDy tong. $he #terling engines manufactured in 2.;>2 also use a lin!age similar to the one used by the pump. REFERE"CES/MORE #"FORMAT#O": 1" Harassi!, 4gor I. et al, Pump $)nd-ook. pp. 9.2>:&9.2:1, @c7raw&Eill, %ew =or!, 19:;. 2" #uc!er .od ,ump From the 4nternet 7lossary of ,umps" J.0K httpK//www.animatedsoftware.com/pumpglos/suc!erro.htm

PUMP#"G SYSTEM 'ESCR#PT#O"

(e)m pump T3e pumping s2stem is contro**ed -2 ) -e)m4-)*)nced unit1 5it3 )n AP# design)tion of 06478489: Po*is3ed rod stroke ; <= inc3es 'imensions A ; 8> 8/= in C ; 80 in & ; 6? 0/= in P ; 69 8/= in R ; @ 0/< in # ; 89 in $ ; ?9 0/< in G ; @ 0/< in

%e**-ore )nd rods

Rod String: Top: 0 e) > ft A 040/> inc3 po*is3ed rod 8 e) > ft A 7/> inc3 pon2 rods 0 e) = ft A 7/> inc3 pon2 rod 0 e) > ft A 040/> inc3 sinker -)r +po*is3ed rod,

0 e) < ft A 7/> inc3 pon2 rod (ottom: P*unger 'ist)nce from Stuffing -oA to se)ting nipp*e ; =84 0/< ft Oi* specific gr)Bit2: 9:>0 Oi* Biscosit2: 8:=6 centistokes )t <7 deg: C:

T3is disp*)2s t3e po*is3ed rod )-oBe t3e *o)d ce**:

Pump

Tu-ing Pump Pump p*unger di)meter: 0:?67 inc3 Pump -)rre* *engt3: = feet Sc3em)tic of t3e S)ndi) Sucker4Rod Pump

$ere t3e tr)Be*ing B)*Be is )t top stroke position:

At t3e *eft is t3e pressure t)p for me)surement of pump disc3)rge pressure:

T3is disp*)2s t3e st)nding B)*Be inside 5it3 t3e *)nding nipp*e )t t3e -ottom of t3e pump: T3e pressure t)ps me)sure pump int)ke pressure )nd t3e pressure inside t3e pump:

C*e)r p*)stic c)sing 5it3 t3e tr)Be*ing B)*Be inside t3e tr)nsp)rent tu-ing pump:

'o5n3o*e G)s Sep)r)tor ')t) )cCuisition

Pressure1 *o)d )nd position d)t) )re )cCuired using ")tion)* #nstruments !)-Bie5:

PRODECT P!A"

*onstruct 4nstrumented *lear ,lastic ,ump 4nstallation and well wor!over 5ata acquisition system, specification, purchase and installation 4nstrumentation specification. Acquisition, installation and calibration #oftware 5evelopment o 5ata acquisition o 5ata reduction and presentation o 5ata archiving Lxperimental ,lan o ,reliminary testing, procedure definition o Lffect of pumping speed Full pump ,artial fillage ,ump inta!e

Lffect of spacing

PROGRESS REPORTS %EE& 0 +D)n: 80 4 Fe-: =1 <999,

')t) AcCuisition 5)s o-t)ined for t3ree different speedsE 6 strokes per minute +spm,1 @spm1 )nd 0<spm: T3e fo**o5ing gr)p3s +EAce* form)t, 5ere done for t3e t3ree different speeds: o Position Bs Time o #nt)ke Pressure Bs Time o 'isc3)rge Pressure Bs Time o ()rre* Pressure Bs Time o Annu*)r Pressure Bs Time o !o)d Bs Time

')t) fi*e in teAt form)t: %EE& < +Fe-: <0 4 Fe-: <71 <999,

')t) )cCuisition )t speeds from 6 to 06spm for -ot3 fu** pump )nd pumping off:

')t) )cCuisition )t different speeds for -ot3 fu** pump )nd pumping off: /ideos 5ere t)ken during t3e test:

%EE& 8 +Fe-: <> 4 M)r: 81 <999, An )ddition)* *o)d ce** 5)s inst)**ed: A test 5)s done in order to c3eck t3e FGero re)dingsF for -ot3 t3e *o)d ce**s )nd pressure g)uges: ')t) for t3e second *o)d ce** 5)s )cCuired 5it3 t3e FEc3ometer T%MF s2stem: /)*Be c3ecks 5ere recorded )s 5e** )s sets for one minute pumping 5it3 fu** pump: %e- p)ge 5)s upd)ted 5it3 ne5 Bideo c*ips: %EE& = +M)r: <9 4 M)r: <=1 <999, T3e position of (e)m Pump Unit 5)s corrected to improBe t3e )*ignment 5it3 respect to po*is3ed rod: %EE& 7 +M)r: <? 4 M)r: 801 <999, Stuffing (oA )ssem-*2 5)s rep*)ced 5it3 FOF ring se)*s to reduce friction: A test 5)s done to c3eck t3e -e3)Bior of me)sured p)r)meters )fter t3e modific)tions done on stuffing -oA )nd (e)m Unit: %EE& 6 +Apr: 0 4 Apr: @1 <999, Tests 5ere run )t t5o speeds )nd B)ri)-*e pump fi**)ge: !e)k 5)s discoBered )t fitting on St)nding /)*Be: %orkoBer is no5 needed:

'ATA ARC$#/E ')te1 Test 'escription1 Form)t1 num-er of sets1 fi*en)me

PUMP 'Y"AM#CS /#SUA!#HAT#O" To Bie5 t3e fo**o5ing Bideo c*ips1 2our computer must 3)Be Iuicktime: 'o5n*o)d Iuicktime

C*ip of St)nding B)*Be 4 C*ick 3ere

/ie5 p*unger motion 4 C*ick 3ere

C*ip of (e)m Pump 4 C*ick 3ere

C*ip of Tr)Be*ing B)*Be 4 C*ick 3ere

%)rning: T3e neAt four c*ips )re 08:9 M( in siGe )nd m)2 t)ke time to do5n*o)d

C*ip of g)s f*o5 t3roug3 pump )nd into tu-ing: G)s s*ugs )re rising in tu-ing: 4 C*ick 3ere or %inGip

C*ip of g)s f*o5 t3roug3 t3e st)nding B)*Be )nd pumped off: 4 C*ick 3ere or %inGip

C*ip of g)s f*o5 t3roug3 tr)Be*ing B)*Be )nd t3e p*unger: T3e tr)Be*ing B)*Be opens -efore t3e p*unger 3its t3e f*uid: 4 C*ick 3ere or %inGip

C*ip of return to fu** pump: 4 C*ick 3ere or %inGip

Basic API Downhole Pump Nomenclature

RHA

RWA RSA

RH RWB B RSB

RHT

RWT RST

TH

TP

Thin#%all! &etal 'lunger RWA - Stationary Barrel, Top Anchor RWB - Stationary Barrel, Bottom Anchor RWT - Traveling Barrel, Bottom Anchor Thin#%all! Soft#'acked 'lunger RSA - Stationary Barrel, Top Anchor RSB - Stationary Barrel, Bottom Anchor RST - Traveling Barrel, Bottom Anchor "eavy#%all! &etal 'lunger ((eep %ells) RHA - Stationary Barrel, Top Anchor RHB - Stationary Barrel, Bottom Anchor RHT - Traveling Barrel, Bottom Anchor API TUBING PUMPS TH - Heavy-Wall Barrel Pumps with Metal Plungers TP - Heavy-Wall "Wor ing Barrel" Pumps with So!t-Pac e" Plungers #$!ten re!erre" to as a "stan"ar" pump" in Western %entuc y&'

Sucker Ro Pump Gas !ock

Almost a decade ago! )obert &. 'arker! a well analyst for Texaco *SA! wrote a World Oil article entitled +"ow to

'revent ,as#$ocked Sucker )od 'umps+. &r. 'arker-s insight forever changed the way many of us think about downhole pumps. "e described two kinds of gas lock. T"pe # Gas !ock occurs only if the fluid level is greater than ./0 the total depth to the seating nipple or if a bridge is present that gives the effect of pumping from below a packer (rare). xpanding gas bubbles +tickle+ the balls and seats (valves)! and the well comes to e1uilibrium pumping at very low efficiency and with an elevated fluid level. The cure for Type . gas lock is to use either a snubber cage or a backpressure valve. T"pe $ Gas !ock occurs when a volume of gas is trapped between the valves in a pump. 2n a Type 3 gas lock! the peak pressure of the trapped gas on the downstroke is insufficient to overcome the hydrostatic head on the traveling valve. Then! the pressure is not reduced enough on the upstroke to allow the standing valve to open and admit new fluid. 4oth valves are effectively stuck in the closed position and the pump refuses to pump. This is essentially the opposite of the Type 2 gas lock! but the results appear the same. *sing a backpressure valve is not the cure for Type 3 gas locks5 the practice will actually make the problem worse. The secret to avoiding Type 3 gas locks is to configure your pumps such that they pump gas nearly as well as they pump li1uid. The key phrase is +unswept volume+...you want as little of it as possible. Avoid +travel tube+ pump designs5 stationary barrel designs are inherently better with respect to compression ratios. Traveling valves should be on the bottom of the plunger! never on top! and use a flush hex seat retainer plug instead of the traditional type. %hen spacing the stroke! the traveling valve should come as close as humanly possible to the bottom of the pump at the bottom of

the downstroke. The pull rods in most pumps are too short and should be replaced. Avoid double ball and seating (it does not accomplish what it is touted to do anyway). %hen the pump closes up! there should be as little void space (unswept volume) as possible! and if you do a good job you will have little trouble with gas lock. Such nicely designed and executed pumps are fre1uently referred to as +high compression+ pumps. This is not an academic exercise. %e have increased oil production from wells using this simple technology. %e have been able to pump wells from below packers without a venting scheme. 2n general! wells pump better if these easy rules are followed. 2n recent years! the high compression concept has stimulated the development of a number of new products. There were a do6en or more producers of low unswept volume cages5 however! most of these entities seem not to have survived the last couple of years of low oil prices. The major pump manufacturers of course make their own versions of various gimcracks5 most of which do not perform particularly well. 4ut the best and most economical high compression cage is made by visonT& &anufacturing 7orporation and is available from 'oor 4oy Supply 7ompany on this very website. 7lick here to learn about the visonT& 8il 9ingT& +89+ "'/' "igh 7ompression 8pen 4arrel 7ages.

A Shallow Well Pumpin% Philosoph"

8ver 3: years of playing with shallow stripper wells has led to a few conclusions (and much less money than other pastimes might have yielded). The shallow wells under discussion here are typically less than .;;; feet in depth! but the same principles can probably be applied to wells somewhat deeper. 8ne fundamental assumption that can be made about most stripper wells is that fluid yield is head sensitive. That is to say! as the fluid level or head builds up! the oil production rate goes down! until the well reaches e1uilibrium and is yielding no fluid to the well bore. 2t is not unheard of for stripper wells making a barrel or two of oil per day! to almost completely cease to produce when the tubing is raised less than one joint (your author once consulted on a well where less than ten feet made the difference between three bopd and almost no production). $ogically then! we must maintain as low a fluid level in the well bore as possible to maximi6e production. The shallow wells under discussion can be pumped continuously if they make more than ten or so bpd total fluid with no damage to the pumping e1uipment. <luid pound will not harm surface pumping structures on such shallow wells! and in fact the +pop in the stroke+ used by pumpers of shallow wells to tell if the well is pumping properly is fluid pound. 2t is common practice in old shallow waterfloods to pump producing wells 3= hours a day. 2n wells making small amounts of total fluids! the same logic applies. Try a .: minute time clock and pump the well a few minutes several times a day as opposed to say one hour! once a day5 the difference in daily production can be considerable. A more recent revelation has been the importance of using pumps configured for the highest practical compression. xcept in unusual circumstances! double ball and seat pump configurations should be avoided5 double balls and seats

generally cause more problems than they cure. <or more detailed information on high compression technology! see Sucker )od 'ump ,as $ock. Almost all wells benefit in some way from configuring pumps to maximi6e compression! but in some cases it can make a big difference in production. 2t is common practice in this area to set the pump intake just above the shot hole in open hole completions! or just above the perforations in more modern style completions. The underlying logic is to prevent atmospheric contact with the formation or perforations. &inimi6ing such contact may reduce scale growth and biological fouling. There are opposing opinions. %e generally recommend against closed bottom mud anchors unless you actually intend to tag bottom with the anchor. 7losed end mud anchors are another +innovation+ that typically cause more problems than they cure. 'lease contact the 'ump ,uy if you have ideas! opinions! or experiences relating to this page

&'& (actor ) Theoretical Pump Displacement

An incredibly useful engineering calculation for sucker rod pumps is theoretical pump displacement. This is important information for si6ing pumping e1uipment. And if we know the theoretical barrels per day (4'() a particular sucker rod pump installation can lift! we can use this information to diagnose problems. 8ne simple procedure is to compare

the theoretical capacity with the actual production using a simple bucket test. The calculation is very simple5 multiply the +9+ factor for the particular sucker rod pump (from the table below) by the pumping unit stroke length in inches by the pumping unit speed in strokes per minute (S'&). &easure the stroke length in inches at the polished rod / polished rod liner and time the speed with a watch (S'& refers to a complete cycle or revolution of the pumping unit crank). The formula is expressed as> ' ? 9 x S x S'& %here P is lifted 4'(! ' is the pump constant (or +9+ factor)! S is the stroke length in inches! and SPM is the strokes per minute with one stroke taken as a full rotation of the pumping unit crank. @ote> <or metal plunger pumps! a slip factor must be used to correct for volumetric inefficiency. <or deep wells! rod stretch becomes an issue in the calculation. "owever! for shallow wells! especially with soft#packed plungers! this simplified calculation is remarkably accurate. *+ample, A shallow stripper well e1uipped with a .#./3 inch insert pump has an old Aensen (#= pumping unit with a stroke length of .B inches! and is pumping at .3 strokes per minute. $ook up the +9+ factor for the .#./3 inch insert pump # .3C3. &ultiply .3C3 times .B times .3 and find you can lift a maximum of :C.C barrels per day of total fluid (.3C3 x .B x .3 ? :C.C 4'().

Bucket Test
The bucket test is a very useful and +low tech+ test method. 2t consists of simply timing the filling of a vessel of known volume! and doing the math to determine a flow rate. 2t can be used to measure the fluid production from wells (settling time may be necessary to get accurate readings). As a pumping well diagnostic tool! it can be used in conjunction with calculations of theoretical pump displacement. The formulae for different si6e buckets are as follows> For a 5 gallon container For a 3 gallon container For a 1 gallon container 10,285.8 T = BPD 6,171.5 T = BPD 2,057.2 T = BPD

%here T is the time to fill in seconds! and BPD is the calculated flow in barrels per day. 8ver the years! we have developed a preference for a three gallon test bucket since nice plastic ones are readily available (plastic buckets must be supported such that they do not distort! which distortion affects accuracy). The following table applies to three (0) gallon test buckets>

Bir Nettin%
Several federal laws have been enacted to protect migratory birds! a few dating back to very early in the last century (some of the earliest environmental laws). These laws are administered by the *.S. <ish D %ildlife Service (<%S)! but there are also state laws administered by various state and local agencies. 8il lease operators can run afoul of the &igratory 4ird Treaty Act (&4TA)! and potentially other laws! if open tanks or pits result in the accidental death (take or taking) of protected migratory birds. See A ,uide to the $aws and Treaties of the *nited States for 'rotecting &igratory 4irds! see the &4TA Synopsis! and see 4irds 'rotected by the &igratory 4ird Treaty Act for a list of protected birds. &uch additional information is available at the *.S. <ish D %ildlife Service (<%S) (ivision of &igratory 4ird &anagement website. The <%S does not distinguish between intentional illegal take of migratory birds (as in illegal hunting)! and the unintentional or accidental take! also called incidental take. A minority of courts have sided with defendants in incidental take prosecutions under the &4TA! but the majority apply strict liability. The judge in *.S. v. &oon $ake lectric produced a lengthy opinion denying the defendant-s motion to dismiss! which opinion should convince any oil operator to take this issue seriously. 2t seems unlikely! given the debate at the time! that congress originally intended incidental or accidental take be a prosecutable violation! but that is how the <%S has subse1uently twisted this well#meaning law. The current <%S position turns every motorist who ever hit a bird! and nearly every building owner with a plate glass window into a criminal under the &T4A (it is estimated that between .;; million and one billion birds die annually in

collisions with glass windows). The bottom line is that the incidental take of a migratory bird in a pit or open tank is now viewed by the <%S as a criminal offense carrying possible jail time and up to a E.:!;;;.;; fine for each bird taken. The <%S issues permits of course! but not for incidental take on oil and gas leases. The <%S has been citing oil facility operators in other parts of the country for years (see this <%S )egion C webpage)! but only recently became active in 9entucky. 4ecause 9entucky operators are not familiar with solutions to this problem! this webpage was created. 7alls to area oilfield suppliers revealed none were even familiar with the concept of netting pits. Some regulators urge the closing of all pits! but there are situations where pits! lagoons! and impoundments serve a useful or necessary purpose (settling lagoons or impoundments used pursuant to a surface discharge permit! for instance). 2n thirty years of oilfield experience! we have never seen a demonstration of an effective method of removing every trace of oil from the surface of pits! and it is a futile exercise in settling lagoons or ponds anyway5 even a skim of oil is said to pose a ha6ard to birds. <urther! because of a lack of a reasonable pit closure methodology in 9entuckyF (unlike other oil states)! netting of existing pits or impoundments is the only reasonable alternative at this time in 9entucky. @etting of pits! lagoons! and impoundments can be done fairly inexpensively. 8ur friend ,ary 4rown at American @etting! $$7 was a pioneer in working out economical ways to do bird netting (he has been at it for 0; years). American @etting! $$7 is the outfit to callG %e believe the use of high tensile strength fence wire in place of the more traditional wire rope or soft steel wire is the key to an even more economical installation. 9encove is a major supplier of high

tensile fence materials. 8f course one can ponder why <%S does little or nothing about the millions of birds killed by plate glass windows! but is 1uick to prosecute selected industries! forcing substantial expenditures that can at most save a handful of birds. 8bviously! while the public would balk at homeowners being prosecuted when a bird accidentally collides with a widow! prosecutions involving the +evil+ oil industry! and the e1ually despised electrical utility industry (accidental bird electrocutions) are common. <urther! it has been our experience that many <%S agents are capricious and vindictive! and some outright lie. 2n a case that garnered considerable attention! the (epartment of the 2nterior-s inspector general (2,) ama6ingly found that <%S biologists who planted and submitted false hair samples of 7anada lynx fur for laboratory analysis broke no laws. They did! however! demonstrate +a pattern of bad judgment!+ according to 2, arl (evaney! who critici6ed the agency for not meting out +more meaningful punishment+ to the biologists who were actually paid bonuses! displaying what he called +a cultural bias against holding employees accountable for their behavior.+ 7loser to home! two <%S special agents were overheard discussing how they were not surprised at the +killers+ owned by a local oil producer5 the fellow has a few farm cats. 8ne of these same two special agents actually attempted to provoke a physical altercation with an attorney representing that same oil producer. @ot much chance of a fair shake from government employees with this kind of attitude.
FThis has produced some bi6arre outcomes! including the +illegal+ closure of hundreds of pits! even a few closed by *S 'A contractors that the state has declared improperly closed.

-ehicle an Ri% Batter" Tri.ia

8ver the years 2 have become frustrated with the confusing battery rating systems and an inability to get straight answers from vendors about lead#acid storage batteries. The material presented below was accumulated over a period of time from many sources! and has simplified dealing with vehicle and rig batteries for us. 4attery )atings There are a do6en or more vehicle battery rating methodologies. The Society of Automotive ngineers (SA ) has established two ratings for domestic made batteries # )eserve 7apacity ()7) and 7old 7ranking Amperes (77A). The 7ranking Amps (7A) rating is also still commonly used. 2ndustrial batteries often specify Ampere "ours (A") and marine batteries may carry a &arine 7ranking Amps (&7A) rating. (efinitions of these more common rating systems are given below> R/ # )ating in minutes a battery will carry a 3: amp load at B;H< and maintain a minimum terminal voltage of .;.: volts.

//A # )ating in amps which a new! fully charged battery at ;H< can continuously deliver for 0; seconds and maintain a terminal voltage e1ual to or higher than ..3; volts per cell. /A # )ating in amps which a new! fully charged battery at 03H< can continuously deliver for 0; seconds and maintain a terminal voltage e1ual to or higher than ..3; volts per cell. AH # (I 3; hours) a battery having a .;; A" rating must carry a : amp load for 3; hours and maintain a terminal voltage of .;.: volts at B;H< (.;; J 3; ? : amps). M/A # )ating in amps which a new! fully charged battery at 0;H< can continuously deliver for 0; seconds and maintain a terminal voltage e1ual to or higher than ..3; volts per cell. )atings 7onversions> 3) L .:.: )7 ? ..K: x A" A" ? ()7 J

8pinion &odern +maintenance free+ batteries do not tolerate abuse as well as older style batteries. 2f you are experiencing shorter battery life on your oilfield e1uipment than you think reasonable! try an older style +maintenance+ type battery (one where you actually have to check the fluid level). 2f you routinely run down batteries and charge them in the shop (as on old rigs with non#functional charging systems)! consider a marine / )M battery5 they will take abuse that will kill automotive maintenance free batteries in a fraction of the time. <inally! if you like maintenance free batteries! consider something other than the maximum 77A rated battery available in a given package si6e. To get .;;; 77A out of a small automotive battery! manufacturers use a variety of tricks! like making the plates very thin. This results in a more fragile battery. The same package si6e in a C:; or K;; 77A

rating is likely to be a tougher battery and to last longer in oilfield service. 7"A),2@, 7" AT S" 7harge State Charge S eci!ic "ra#it$ %Sg& 6# Free'e 100( 1.265 ) 1.285 12.68 6.3 )71*F 75( 1.220 ) 1.225 12.+5 6.2 )33*F 50( 1.175 ) 1.1,0 12.2+ 6.1 )15*F 25( 1.1+0 ) 1.155 12.06 6.0 - +*F Dea. 1.110 ) 1.120 7harging Time 1. Do/n an. Dirt$ Charge 0ate 1etho. ) Charger2 /ith 344eter2 (harge the )attery until the charge rate #as in"icate" )y the charger ammeter' has "roppe" an" sta)ili*e" at +,- to +,. o! the charger/s !ull output rating& 0or e1ample, a +2 amp charger will sta)ili*e at - to 3 amps& This is an inaccurate metho" an" care must )e ta en not to overcharge& 2. Do/n an. Dirt$ B566le 1etho. When the )attery !lui" is gently )u))ling, the )attery shoul" )e consi"ere" charge"& 12# 12.6 ) 12.+ ) 12.2 ) 12.0 ) 11.8 T

This is a very inaccurate measure o! charge state an" care must )e ta en not to overcharge& 3. 7oltage 1etho. (harge the )attery until an accurate "igital voltmeter in"icates the !ollowing en" o! charge voltage4 Te4 erat5re 1aintenance Free ,5*F 1+.5 7olt2 75*F 1+.7 7olt2 0*F 15.+ 7olt2 Con#entional 1+.2 #olt2 1+.+ #olt2 15.1 #olt2

+. S eci!ic "ra#it$ 1etho. ) 8ot !or 1aintenance Free Batterie2 (harge the )attery until reaching the +225 charge speci!ic gravity #Sg' shown in the (harge State ta)le a)ove& 6isconnect the charger )e!ore testing& $l"er )atteries or )atteries with sul!ate" plates will reach !ull charge at a lower Sg7 continue" charging may result in "amage&

5. Calc5lation 1etho. 6etermine the percent o! charge nee"e" #use either a hy"rometer or voltmeter, an" re!er to the (harge State ta)le a)ove'& An appro1imate charge time in hours, "Time", can )e calculate" as !ollows4 Time 8 & 99: #R(' #(harge ;ee"e"' Rating or Time 8 +&9 #AH' #(harge ;ee"e"' Rating (harger

(harger

Some /ementin% Pro0lems

HIST1R2 2n .B3=! Aoseph Aspdin! a 4ritish bricklayer! was granted a patent for making a cement he called 'ortland cement after stone 1uarried on the 2sle of 'ortland in (orset! ngland. "owever! this original 'ortland cement! was actually an artificial hydraulic lime similar to a material called )oman cement! a crude formulation of lime and volcanic ash used as early as 3K 47 (po66olanic materials are still used in oil well cementing to this day). 2t is sometimes reported that Aspdin did his original experiments with his kitchen oven. The first true 'ortland cement is believed to have been made in ,ermany around .BCK.

(ealing with water intrusion into oil wells! and the use of cement to prevent such movement! led to the birth of petroleum engineering. Some primitive oil well cementing may have taken place as early as .BB0! but the use of 'ortland cement to seal casing began in .N;0 in the $ompoc <ield in 7alifornia. Almond A. 'erkins was the father of the two plug method of well cementing. 2n .N.C! 'erkins employed arl '. "alliburton! and in .N.N! "alliburton set up shop on his own as the @ew &ethod 8il %ell 7ementing 7ompany! changing the name to the "alliburton 8il %ell 7ementing 7ompany ("8%78) in .N3;. 'erkins later sued "alliburton for patent infringement! but the case was settled with "alliburton being granted a license to use the 'erkins methodology. "alliburton eventually even licensed inventions to 'erkins! but in the end "alliburton wound up buying 'erkins. "alliburton perfected the use of the measuring line and the jet mixer among other well cementing innovations. 2nterestingly! over the course of the first 0; years of well cementing! waiting on cement time gradually shrank from 3B days to a mere K3 hours. BA/'GR1UND &ost oil well and injection well cementing in the 2llinois 4asin (and other relatively shallow well areas) is done with common 'ortland 7ement. 'ortland cement is made from limestone (or other materials high in calcium carbonate) and clay or shale (iron or aluminum oxides are added if not present in sufficient amounts in the clay or shale). These basic constituents are finely ground and mixed in the correct proportions either dry (dry process) or mixed with water (wet process). The raw material is then fed into a rotary kiln and fired at between 3C;; and 3B;;O< causing certain chemical reactions between the raw materials. The output of the kiln is called clinker! and is ground finely with up to about 3P

gypsum to form the product we all know as 'ortland cement. The American 'etroleum 2nstitute (A'2) sets the standards for cements used in the petroleum industry. "ere is a brief listing of the A'2 cement designations> /lass A 2ntended for use to C!;;; feet where special properties are not re1uired. Similar to AST& Type 2 (common 'ortland cement). *se :.3 gallons of water per N= pound sack for neat slurryF. /lass B 2ntended for use to C!;;; feet where moderate sulfate resistance is re1uired. Similar to AST& Type 22. *se :.3 gallons of water per N= pound sack for neat slurryF. /lass / 2ntended for use to C!;;; feet where high early strength is needed (regular or sulfate resistant). Similar to AST& Type 222. *se C.0 gallons of water per N= pound sack for neat slurryF. /lass D 2ntended for use from C!;;; to .;!;;; feet (retarded). /lass * 2ntended for use from C!;;; to .=!;;; feet (retarded). /lass ( 2ntended for use from .;!;;; to .C!;;; feet (retarded). /lass G 2ntended for use to B!;;; feet! and similar in composition to A'2 7lass 4. *se :.; gallons of water per N= pound sack for neat slurryF. /lass H 2ntended for use to B!;;; feet! and similar in composition to A'2 7lass 4. *se =.0 gallons of water per N= pound sack for neat slurryF.
F%ater re1uirements per A'2 for a slurry that will exhibit no water separation upon setting.

A sack of 'ortland cement can be hydrated with as little as 3.0 gallons of water! but the mixture cannot be pumped. The minimum water that can be used to mix a N= pound sack of A'2 7lass A / AST& Type 2 cement! and it be pumpable! is

0.N gallons5 it will have a density of .C.B: pounds per gallon! will exert BKC psi per .!;;; feet of column! and will yield ..; cubic feet of slurry per sack. The maximum water that can be used to mix a N= pound sack of A'2 7lass A / AST& Type 2 cement where there will be no settling of particulate material and no water separation is :.: gallons5 it will have a density of .:.0C pounds per gallon! will exert KNN psi per .!;;; feet of column! and will yield ..33 cubic feet of slurry per sack. A'2 recommends :.3 gallons of water per N= pound sack of A'2 7lass A / AST& Type 2 cement5 it will have a density of .:.C pounds per gallon! will exert B.. psi per .!;;; feet of column! and will yield ...B cubic feet of slurry per sack. <ollowing the A'2 :.3 gallon guideline results in a re1uirement of =.KC sacks of cement per =3 gallon barrel of slurry. ,arden variety 'ortland cement mixed with over :.: gallons of water per sack! and with no bentonite or other suspension additives used! will always exhibit settling. (@ote the addition of bentonite a/k/a drilling mud does not add strength to a light cement mix! but merely keeps the cement suspended until setting. There are legitimate reasons for doing this! but not typically in shallow wells.) @eat 'ortland cement mixed with :.3 gallons of water per sack will achieve a compressive strength at C;O< (typical shallow ground temperature) of about 3;:; psi after K3 hours. That same cement mixed with .;.= gallons of water will achieve a compressive strength of a mere =3: psi under the same time and temperature conditions. <urther! the latter mix would re1uire around an BP bentonite addition to prevent solids settling prior to setting! or some other approved additive. PR1B!*MS 2t is apparent most cement mixed in 9entucky! and in perhaps a few other jurisdictions! is being mixed with far

more than :.: gallons of water per sack. The biggest problem with this practice is that the resultant set cement will have a compressive strength much lower than properly mixed cement. 2n the majority of these cases! no bentonite or other appropriate additive is being used! so there will be settling. <urther! the cement column weight will be lower than anticipated! and that can be a problem in wells that need the fluid column weight to kill the well for proper setting. %ells should be plugged and completed with the highest density cement practical under the particular circumstances. 2n the shallow wells here in 9entucky! that would almost always be :.3 or at the most :.: gallons of water per sack neat cement. %hile 2 have no statistics! it is likely there have been plugging failures due to improperly mixed cement. There is no doubt there have been completion failures! but these do not show up on the regulatory radar here as much as they would in say Texas due to differences in the rules on completions (every Texas completion must have a pressure test! a bond log! and the compressive strength of cement is specified). @otably! in overpressured wells! the heaviest practical cement slurry may be crucial to even get a successful plugging job absent setting a bridge plug. 2t is customary practice to catch cement samples in little Styrofoam cups during the cement job! but many times 2 have seen the cementing contractors pour off the separated water before handing the sample to the oil operator or to the resident regulatory inspector (it takes a few minutes for separation to occur and it will not be evident at the mixing unit itself). 2 think the problem here is a lack of recognition of the significance of separated water. 2f the mix has :.: gallons per sack or less! there will be no free water separation (or only a trace)! and the entire mass will gel / set

in the sample cup (this assumes a neat cement with no additives). The assumption seems to be if the stuff gels / sets at all it must be mixed properly. 2n fact much of the settling seen in wells in the field is likely attributable to settling of slurries mixed with more than :.: gallons of water per sack. And inspectors do not generally hang around long enough to really determine what the ultimate settling will be! an additional potential problem. 2gnorance of proper procedures is a large factor here! but there is a darker side to this problem. 7ontractors using bulk cement e1uipment have the opportunity to sell the same cement more than once. <or instance! a :.3 gallon mix will yield ...B cubic feet per bag! while a .;.= gallon mix will yield ..N3 cubic feet per bag. Since everyone uses the "alliburton cement tables in the "alliburton cementer-s bible! and the tables are based on a :.3 gallon mix! the contractor has an opportunity to charge for much more cement than is really used! and oil operators are none the wiser. <urther! contractors using centrifugal pumps! tend to mix thin to save wear and tear on e1uipment (and if they are using a bulk truck! they get to play the selling it twice game as well). 2 want to make it clear that this is not an argument against the use of centrifugal pumps for cement mixing because 2 have personally mixed .:.C pound per gallon and even a little thicker neat cement with my own centrifugal pump cement mixing rig in years gone by. 2f concrete suppliers engaged in this practice! it would be noticed since it is well known that skimping on cement or using too much water results in weak concrete! but oil well cement goes down a hole and is never seen again. This practice persists because oil operators and inspectors lack the e1uipment and/or knowledge to catch the problem. A true neat slurry mixed with :.3 gallons of water per sack of cement will have a density of .:.C pounds per gallon (the

A'2 preferred mix). 4ut a slurry mixed with .;.= gallons per sack will still weigh .0.. pounds per gallon! and even to the trained eye looks 1uite heavy and thick (plain water is B.00 pounds per gallon). The +finger test+ used by some inspectors cannot distinguish between these two examples with any degree of reliability. 'utting this example in perspective! the :.3 gallon neat mix will exhibit compressive strength at least five times greater than the .;.= gallon mix! and the .;.= gallon mix will undergo some settling. Stated bluntly! absent the use of a cement / mud balance or a hydrometer! nobody can be certain of cement density (some of the big cementing companies have continuous reading densitometers on their mixing units! but this would not likely be encountered in 9entucky). 8il operators and regulators alike have been at the mercy of cementing contractors! and they do not always mix cement as they should. 4oth the 'A )egion 2M *nderground 2njection 7ontrol (*27) 'rogram with jurisdiction over injection wells in 9entucky! and the 9entucky (ivision of 8il and ,as ((8,) with jurisdiction over oil wells! need to adopt standards that re1uire cement to have a preferred density of no less than .:.0C pounds per gallon (this corresponds to the maximum :.: gallons of water per sack ratio mentioned above). *nder no circumstances should cement be pumped with a density of less than .=.; pounds per gallon! but it is being done every day in 9entucky at present. 2nspectors should also be e1uipped with inexpensive drilling mud balances to make field measurements of cement slurry density. 2 would ha6ard a guess that the majority of the cement mixed for well plugging! remediation! and new completions in 9entucky has been mixed with far too much water for optimal results. ,ranted! light cements are sometimes used in deep wells! but that is seldom the case in 9entucky to date. The major service companies like "alliburton do not play these games!

but the majority of the smaller independent service companies seem to! some with a vengeance. %hy has this been allowed to go on for so many yearsQ See our 7ement 4ond $ogging 8verview for basic information on cement bond logging technology. 7ontact us if you need more detailed information.

%ater injection! or waterflooding! is the oldest enhanced recovery method. %aterflooding was born over .3: years ago near 'ithole 7ity! 'ennsylvania. As is often the case with new technology! the earliest water injection for enhanced recovery was almost certainly an accident. %ater from a shallow a1uifer leaked into an abandoned well! or possibly leaked around an early packer! entering the oil bearing rock formation (pay 6one). %hile this was disastrous to future oil production from the affected well! it was noticed that oil production rates increased in nearby wells. 2n a published report in .BB;! Aohn <. 7arll had already observed that water injection not only increased oil production rates! but appeared to increase ultimate oil recovery. 4y the .BN;s! waterflooding was very successful in the 4radford! 'ennsylvania area. %ater injection for enhanced recovery was slow to expand outside %estern 'ennsylvania! in part because the practice was rendered illegal in many jurisdictions by early oil conservation laws. This gave rise to some clandestine waterflooding during the first 1uarter of the twentieth century. 4ut waterflooding slowly gained in popularity with many pilot projects started in

the .N=;s! and by .N::! there were nearly 3!0;; water injection projects in .K states. A <ew Tips %e have over 0; years of experience with shallow waterfloods in the 2llinois 4asin! some less than 0;; feet deep. "ere are a few things we have learned along the way. Water Meters are necessary to effectively and properly operate a waterflood. See our %ater &eter Trivia page! with its links to additional water meter service notes pages! for some useful information on water meters. 2f pressures are not too high! it is possible to use relatively inexpensive domestic (household) meters. 2t is a trivial matter to modify these low pressure meters to read out in =3 gallon barrels. There are also some newer multi#jet meters on the market in various pressure ratings that look promising for waterflood applications. P-/ Pipin% has long been used for oil flow lines! but it is an attractive injection line piping material if operating pressures permit5 it is essentially immune to corrosion. 8ne inch Schedule =; 'M7 will safely work to =:; psi conveying cold water! and one inch Schedule B; 'M7 pipe will safely work to C0; psi conveying cold water (published industry numbers). 2f you can find it! the bell end pipe is much more dependable than the stuff with factory glued on couplings. %e like 8atey brand All 'urpose 7ement (red label)5 it does a better job under adverse conditions than any other solvent cement we have tried. *se 'M7 pipe cleaner for best results! but the primers (often purple) are a waste of time and money (and try not to get too high off the glue and cleaner fumes). /opper Tu0in% makes a nifty connection from the water

supply line to a water meter attached to the well head. )ather than hard plumbing the well head to the water supply riser pipe! we use a loop of ./= inch 8( A7) ((ry Seal) copper refrigeration tubing connected with flare fittings. ./= inch 8( A7) copper tubing is good for .!=;C psi up to .;; degrees <! and good for .!.3: psi at 3;; degrees <. This approach simplifies the pipe fitting job! but it has another big advantage. 2n the event of a water meter or other mechanical failure associated with the well! the loop of small diameter copper tubing will limit water flow to some extent! preventing the complete collapse of the injection system! but still allowing easy detection of individual well problems for wells taking no more than a couple of hundred barrels per day (shallow injection wells often take less than .;; barrels per day). 2ncidentally! copper pipe used in the air conditioning industry is always referred to by its outside diameter! but copper pipe made for use by plumbers is referred to by its nominal inside diameter (do not bother asking why). Plastic Tents make a cheap and effective injection well cover. 9enneth 2ngle! our good friend and +poor boy+ oil field innovator! began using polyethylene contractor plastic film as an injection well cover over two decades ago. The idea is to drape C mil black polyethylene film! available at any builders supply store! over the injection well and to anchor the perimeter on the ground with a few shovels full of dirt. %e often make a slit that fits tightly around the top of the water meter so readings can be taken without uncovering the well. This scheme provides just as good free6e protection as fancy boxes placed over the well (short of a heater in the enclosure! no cover will protect against free6ing if the waterplant fails on a cold night). (o not use clear plastic or you will create the greenhouse from hell! and it does not weather well absent the carbon pigment.

#33 Barrels Per Da" 4BPD5 is close to 6 %allons per minute 4%pm57 The actual conversion factor is 3.N.K! but for most practical purposes the 0 gpm approximation can be used. This incredibly handy +rule of thumb+ conversion factor is helpful in estimating injection rates! production rates! and just about any situation involving flowing li1uids in the oil patch.

Water Meter Tri.ia

2n any waterflood project! every injection well should be e1uipped with its own water meter (flow meter). 2t is impossible to evaluate waterflood performance without individual well injection rate and cumulative injection data. <urther! we have no better tool to evaluate the ongoing mechanical integrity of injection wells than careful monitoring of the injection rate (not to be confused with periodic mechanical integrity tests performed usually every five years). 'A has underestimated the value of individual well flow monitoring allowing the use of manifold monitoring! presumably based on bad information (see %ater &eter &istakes and &anifold &onitoring). At the very least! a few water meters should be rotated between wells to get a reasonable idea of individual well injection rates. &any different water meters have been used in the oilfields. The oldest meters were mostly of the nutating disc variety. The measuring element in such a flow meter consists of a disc mounted in a circular chamber. A partition or division plate that extends in from the chamber wall separates the inlet and outlet ports. Said plate fits in a notch in the disc

and prevents rotation of the disc about its axis. The flow of li1uid through the meter imparts a wobbling action to the disc! called nutation. This nutating action of the disc is such that the upper part of the shaft on which it is mounted travels in the shape of a cone with the apex pointed down. The lower face of the disc is always in contact with the bottom of the chamber on one side while the upper face of the disc is always in contact with the top of the chamber on the opposite side. Thus the chamber is divided into separate compartments of known volume! and as the flow of li1uid actuates the disc! these compartments are successively filled and emptied! providing smooth continuous measurement. 7onnection between the disc shaft and a spindle dog transmits the motion to the register. Some models have an internal gear train and some have a magnetic coupling scheme that eliminates the need for a stuffing box. The following is a collection of information on nutating disc water meters that have been historically used in the oil patch! followed by a brief discussion of other meter types> @iagara &eters See our Bu88alo 9 Herse" 1ne Inch Nia%ara Water Meter Ser.ice Notes7 The @iagara water meter was very popular during the first big waterflood boom. $iterally thousands of these meters were sold in 9entucky alone in the .N:;-s. The @iagara industrial meter dates back to .B:N! and was originally manufactured by the 4uffalo &eter 7ompany of 4uffalo! @ew Rork. 4uffalo-s domestic (household) version was called the American water meter! and some parts a re interchangeable with the @iagara. The one inch @iagara meter uses the same measuring chamber as the old :/B inch American

domestic meter. "ersey ac1uired the American and @iagara lines! and now the @iagara line belongs to Menture &easurement. 8ne of the @iagara products is the good old @iagara nutating disc water meter! with accuracy of S..:P and repeatability of S;.3:P. @iagara water meter repair parts are available from Menture! but they are sky highG The @iagara water meter was offered in a high pressure version good for .!==; psi. The standard six bolt version was offered in iron with a cold water pressure rating of 0;; psi! and in bron6e with a cold water pressure rating of 3;; psi. These pressure ratings were very conservative! and these meters have been routinely used at higher pressures (AnaLog Services, Inc. does not endorse or recommend exceeding manufacturer pressure ratings). "istorically the repeatability of @iagara meters has always been stated as S;.3:P! but the accuracy has varied in company literature from 3P down to S;.:P. Accuracy of @iagara meters was historically expressed as a percentage variation over the full recommended flow range! not as a percentage of full flow. 2t was therefore stated that the percentage variation is improved as actual operating flow range is reduced. %e have repaired hundreds of @iagaras! but it would be a fib to say we like to work on them. The best thing that can be said about them is that their measuring chambers look like tiny flying saucers. 4ut those measuring chambers are more delicate than most! and they seldom survive a free6e without irreparable damage! even when the meter housing bottoms do not crack. The @iagara meter has a host of other problems! including a very short lived open gear train when used in oilfield service (there is a closed gear train that is a little better). %e have a considerable stock of complete @iagara meters and repair parts! but we do not generally recommend @iagara meters.

<ive 'ointer / :;= &eters See our :3; Water Meter Ser.ice Notes7 The original +<ive 'ointer+ water meter was a big heavy beast manufactured by )ockwell (do not drop this one on your foot). 2t dates back to at least the .N=;s! and there was still a version of it in production into the .NC;s. 2t is immediately recogni6able by its large si6e! anti1ue styling! and its eight bolt housing closure with .#./=+ male pipe connections (the literature indicates there was a ./3 inch and one inch version! but we have only seen the one si6e). %e have a few of them in our collection of water meters! but have not repaired one in .: years or more. There was also a :!;;; psi rated +<ive 'ointer+! but it seems to use a different measuring chamber than either of the other two mentioned herein. Around .NC;! )ockwell introduced the &odel :;=! an excellent design they also referred to as a +<ive 'ointer+. )ockwell-s domestic (household) version was called the Arctic water meter! and some parts are interchangeable with the :;=. The :;= can use the measuring chamber from the :/B inch Arctic domestic meter (there was a Tropic domestic meter also! but its measuring chamber has the wrong taper for the :;=). 4y the early .NK;s! 4rooks! a division of merson lectric 7ompany! had ac1uired the :;= meter from )ockwell. 2n late .NB.! 4rooks threatened to discontinue the :;=! but reconsidered and raised the list price to E=N3.;;. A few years later they kept their promise and ceased to produce the :;=. 4lancett! 2nc. produced a :;= clone! their &odel :;; water meter with a published accuracy of S3P! listing for E:=:.;; in 3;;.. The )ockwell / 4rooks :;= and the 4lancett :;; have a bron6e case rated at 3!;;; psi. The )ockwell / 4rooks :;=

has a @ickalloy measuring chamber and internal gear train. The 4lancett :;; has a magnetic drive with no stuffing box! but it uses a less desirable plastic measuring chamber. 4lancett also sold a retrofit kit to convert old :;= meters over to their magnetic drive mechanism and their plastic measuring chamber for E33=.;; in 3;;.. The :;= is a good meter for waterflood applications! and they are reasonably easy to service. They have decent free6e survivability. The metal measuring chambers are becoming difficult to find. %e have a few complete :;= water meters in stock! and a fair stock of repair parts.

called the %ell#<lood water meter. 2t was produced in a :/B+ x 0/=+ and a :/B+ x .+ configuration rated at 3!;;; psi! and in a larger one inch version rated at .!;;; psi. These meters were based on the famous Trident domestic (household) meter line! probably the
most successful water meter design in the history of that industry. Tridents were made in two versions! the cast iron bottom (724) for areas subject to free6ing! and the split#case version for the deep south and for basement installations. @early all the parts from the Trident can be used in the @eptune %ell#<lood meter! but only the measuring chamber from the spit#case version will work due to the re1uired chamber taper. These meters are workhorses! and a pleasure to work on. *nfortunately! not many are around. The %ell#<lood meter is apparently no longer available! but the Trident line has lived on as the Type S (,reen Seal) industrial meter. %e have had good luck using the old Trident! and the newer Triseal / Trident B (an upgrade of the Trident with magnetic coupling and no stuffing box) as shallow waterflood water

meters. The 724 Trident and Triseal will easily function to 0;; psi! and higher with special steel bottoms (though the inherent free6e protection of the 724 is lost). %e use the 724 version outside because of its better free6e survivability! and the split#case version inside (in water plant buildings). 'arts are still available to some extent. Though countless Tridents and Triseals have been scrapped for their brass! many are still in circulation! and 1uite a few are still in use by water utilities. %e have been servicing Trident / Triseal meters for shallow waterflood service for over two decades. %e have a considerable stock of complete Trident and Triseal meters and repair parts. 8ther &eters &ore recently! impeller and turbine meters have become commonplace for waterflood applications. 4rooks sold many KN3A and KN0A vane meters prior to abandoning the market. 4lancett-s &odel N;; impeller meter is still available and listed for E:K;.;; in 3;;.. &ulti#jet water meters (long the standard in urope) look promising! but have had little application in waterflooding. Also see In<ection Well Notes. /ontact us if you have water meter 1uestions or needs

@eptune &eters
See our Neptune 9 Tri ent Meter Ser.ice Notes7 @eptune &eter 7ompany produced a high pressure water meter for the oil fields

#trategies for *ombating F7as 0oc!F

$ype 1 7as 0oc! -orld +il Iune 1992 <ol. 21' %o ;" occurs only if the fluid level is greater than 1/' the total depth to the seating nipple or if a bridge is present that gives the effect of pumping from below a pac!er rare". Lxpanding gas bubbles Ftic!leF the balls and seats valves", and the well comes to equilibrium pumping at very low efficiency and with an elevated fluid level. $he cure for $ype 1 gas loc! is to use either a snubber cage or a bac!pressure valve. 4 prefer the bac!pressure valve because it is easier to ad(ust and repair. $ype 2 7as 0oc! -orld +il Iune 1992 <ol. 21' %o ;" occurs when a volume of gas is trapped between the valves in a pump. 4n a $ype 2 gas loc!, the pea! pressure of the trapped gas on the downstro!e is insufficient to overcome the hydrostatic head on the traveling valve. $hen, the pressure is not reduced enough on the upstro!e to allow the standing valve to open and admit new fluid. Both valves are effectively stuc! in the closed position and the pump refuses to pump. $his is essentially the opposite of the $ype 4 gas loc!, but the results appear the same. Jsing a bac!pressure valve is not the cure for $ype 2 gas loc!sM the practice will actually ma!e the problem worse. Paraphrased with the Authors Permission) $he picture at the left shows a bottom hold down insert pump in the fully closed position as it would normally be sent out from most shops before 1992. 4t has a conventional seat plug and traveling valve assembly. $he red area is that part of the pump

where a $=,L 2 gas loc! would occur. $he best strategy would be to decrease the volume in the FredF area. $hat would give a higher compression ratio to the pump and the pressure on the gas could conceivably raised to a point where it would overcome hydrostatic load on the traveling valve. *ompression of this pump would be about 2:K1 and it would gas loc! easily at depths below '222 feet and stro!e lengths less than 122 inches" As pumps are run ever deeper the hydrostatic load becomes greater and the value of increased compression rises. *ommon methods of increasing compression include 1" 0onger valve rods, i.e. cut the valve rod such that $< to #< distance is 1/2F or less. 2" 4nstall Fhex type seat plugsF. $hese plugs add a small amount of length to the valve rod. '" Jse Fhigh compressionF standing valve cages. #tanding valve cages designed for maximum compression are available from such suppliers as HIVAC. Of course the most common method of increasing compression is lowering the rods until the pump "bumps". If you incorporate the mechanical ad antages outlined abo e you will ha e better success e en when you do ha e to "bump" the pump. As an aside it is much faster to ad!ust rod spacing on wells that ha e a "solid" spray metal polished rod than it is with the more common "liner" on a polished rod type.