Colonization Era

Native Americans First Americans 30,000 years ago they migrated across the Bering Strait herded animals 10,000 BC: climate got warmer; large animal species died off

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No large draft animals (animals used for pulling vehicles) until the Europeans arrived

Toltec Peoples 100 750 AD in the Valley of Mexico main city: Teotihuacan Worshipped nature goddess

Olmec Peoples (1400 BC 500 BC) No true cities; ceremonial centers People lived in nearby farming villages Jaguars/serpents of Olmec art appeared in later Mayan art Created a calendar Created a form of writing

Mayans (300 AD 900 AD) Lived in the Yucatan Peninsula Farming Methods o o Built raised fields to hold rainwater Corn, bean, squash, fruit trees, cotton

Social Structure o o o o Ruler Priests Nobles Farmers

Kept recordings with a system of hieroglyphics on bark wood Accurate solar calendar Numbering system and concept of zero Decline o o o No one knows why Around 900 AD Theories: overpopulation or peasants revolts

Aztecs (Mesoamerica) Nomads destroyed Toltec empire (1150 AD) population center shifted to Valley of Mexico

Chichimec: small units Women: fields, houses, weaved, trained girls, peasants monogamous; inherit property; recognized rights but subordinate roles

Intrusive, no one liked them; good military, so used for alliances and mercenaries; moved at lakes

Agriculture: food tribute payments, chinampas (beds of aquatic weeds, mud, earth in frames of cane, rooted to the lake floor) floating islands

Tribute: food, slaves, victims, cloth Human Sacrifice: expanded tradition; military cult took captives in war victims o Flower Wars: staged; both sides took captives for sacrifices; political terror

oppressed neighbors united them kept traditional gods of nature o o o Tonatruh (warrior/sun) fertility/agriculture: Tlaloc (rain), water, maze, fertility Huitzilopochtli: most important; old sun god and warrior; needed strength to keep life and warmth in the world; needed hearts and blood

Incans (Andean South America) Twantinsuyu Horizon states: Tihuanaco and Huari groups preceded Incans split inheritance: oldest son gets title and political power, other kids get wealth, land, etc. to support cult of the Inca conquered because of cult of ancestors Inca = almost god; court at Cuzco Empire lasted as long as control: multiple possible successors led to civil war just before arrival of Spanish Tribute: land and labor (mita: church and state lands; building, mining, weaving) Mummified: seen as intermediaries with god Temple of the Sun in Cuzco Conquered peoples sent sons to Cuzco for education Communication: roads, bridges, way stations (tambos) for travelers and troops No writing: used quipu (knotted strings for numerical records) No use of wheel Pottery, cloth, metalworking (gold, silver, advanced copper, bronze)

Comparing Incas and Aztecs Similarities: success of imperial and military organization; intensive agriculture; controlled circulation of goods and redistribution; kinship groups replaced by social hierarchy; growth of imperial nobility, served in bureaucracy; reorganized ethic groups and political leaders; allowed local control if accept imperial power and pay tribute; military ineffective against

nomads; created empires by conquest of sedentary agricultural groups; variation of similar patters, similar systems of beliefs, cosmology, social structure Differences: climate, geography, trade, and markets (Aztecs); writing (Aztecs); social definition/hierarchy Contact between groups? unknown isolation led to unique character and vulnerability; enduring cultural tradition European Colonies Spanish Colonies Conquests o Mexico o Peru Spanish leader = Francisco Pizarro 1532: Spanish and Indian allies captured and killed Incan leader (Atahualpa) Colonial Society o o o o o o o Cities become centers Cultural blending Peninsulares = born in Spain Creoles = American-born descendents of Spanish Mezitos: North American and European Mulattoes = African and European Pyramid: Brazil New France Portuguese colony (Treaty of Tordesillas) Economy: no silver or gold, developed rare agriculture Settlement: coastal areas; Amazon basin Society: blend of European, Native American, and African traditions Peninsulares Creoles Mezitos Mulattoes Native American Native American + ex-African slaves African slaves Aztec leader = Montezuma II Spanish leader: Herman Cortez 1521: Spanish destroyed Aztec capital (Tenochtitlan)

1st settlement in Canada (Quebec) From Great Lakes to Mississippi Valley Little settlement, small French population Fur trapping and trading Louis XIV: no Protestants allowed

English Colonies 1st settlement: Jamestown, VA in 1607 Pilgrim settled in Plymouth in 1620 Survived with the help of native groups Small agriculture in North; plantations in South Slavery began with plantation agriculture War and disease decimated the native population Governed by Royal Governors Pilgrims o They were a group of English Puritans (a Calvinist group who wanted to purify the Church of England); thought it was too much like Catholicism o o Sought religious freedom, not profit Signed the Mayflower Compact (an agreement to govern themselves)

Differences Among the Colonies o Northern Colonies o Havens for persecuted religious groups Small farmers

Southern Colonies Founded for profit Plantation economy for cash crops like tobacco and cotton

Colonial Governments o o o o English colonies had a bit more self-government than France or Spain Governors were appointed by the king Each colony had their own representative body (House of Burgesses in Virginia) Not represented in Parliament

The Slave Trade Need for slave labor on large plantation African rulers and traders would seize captives and bring them to the coast. There they traded them for textiles, rum, and weapons Became more profitable for Europeans; demand for luxury grew in Africa

Triangular Trade A 3-part network of trade: Europe, Africa, the Americas Colonists sent raw materials to Europe

Europe exported manufactured goods to Americas and Africa Africa exported slaves, gold, and ivory to America and Europe The Middle Passage o o Slaves sent through the Middle Passage 50% would die on the journey

Muslim Empires of the Early Modern Era Ottoman Empire History o o o o Military o o o Conflicts: Venetians, Genoes; tried to take Vienna as late as 1683 Military leaders had great role in Ottoman government Calvary had Turkic strength warrior aristocracy Mongol invasions and fall of Abbasids opened door for Ottomans Expansion: 1350s, into Europe via Thrace Mehmed I: reunification of empire Took Constantinople under Mehmed II in 1453

Janissaries o o Mid 1400s infantry grew in importance, Janissaries because of use of artillery Janissaries: conscripted boys, military slaves, prepared for places in bureaucracy or army

Political o o o Early monarchs; capable protected dhimmis, effective admin Vizier took more power in bureaucracy Inherited problem from earlier Muslim succession; harems = many sons; threat of civil war

Culture o Mehmed II: began restoration of Constantinople; converted Hagia Sophia to mosque; new mosques, palaces o o o o Adapted Byzantine ideas aqueducts, markets, defenses Markets: cosmopolitician Coffeehouses: places for men to gather to talk politics Merchants/Artisans: commerce regulated by Ottoman government; guilds controlled trade o Linguistic heritage: Arabic used for law; Turkish preferred for arts

Decline o Long-lived, slow decline (empire lasted 600 years); decline reflects strength of institutions Ruled until 20th century

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Built on war and expansion no new conquests Growth of corruption rebellions Weakening of successors, secluded

Military Reverses o o Military feel behind Janissaries blocked further technology Sea Babble of Lepanto, 1571: Venice and Spain defeated Ottoman fleet Regrouped and held lands in North Africa, but had lost control of East Mediterranean Growing Portuguese influence along East coast of Africa

Enrichment of Europe ottomans lost revenue o Influx of Spanish silver inflation of stagnant economy

Europe kept gaining technology, commerce, warfare; old idea that Europe didnt matter, further added to decline; conservatism of Janissaries and religious scholars blocked adoption of Western innovations

Safavid Empire Origins Sufi mystic family near Caspian Sea o o Sail al-Din, leader jihad (campaign to purify to reform Islam) Ismail string of victories, proclaimed shah (emperor)

Chaldiran (Aug 1514): battle with Ottomans in West o Ottomans had artillery; Safavids relied on cavalry and lost

History o o o Ismail retreated after Chaldiran (seclusion) Abbas I, the Great (1587 1629): height of Safavid power Military slave regiments (similar to Janissaries) Abbas I used the most effectively Controlled artillery Had European advisors (Sherleys)

Politics o o o Persian preferred language Persian rituals, end of egalitarianism Claimed descent from successor to Ali

Religion o o o State-directed religious education Pressure for dhimmis to convert Religious leaders grew independent as dynasty declined

Culture and Arts: Abbas I o o Encouraged trade, regionally and with Europeans Building projects

Gender Roles o o Patriarchal Seclusion and veiling

IV. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India Introduction o Founding of the Mughal Empire o Babur said he was related to Mongols, but mostly Turkish Lost his kingdom in central Asia Afghanistan Pushed around in Afghanistan at 16

Babur takes over Northern India Cant reclaim homeland, settles for ugly green subcontinent Beat Indians rather easily 12,000 vs. 100,000 Lodi Superior firepower Scared the elephants, trampled Indians Lodis men hated him, had no problem changing sides

Babur pretty impressive guy Wrote history Fine musician, landscaper gardens for capital Butdidnt administerkept old Mongol system in place

After Baburs death a fight for power Humayan son inherits kingdom 18 Pushed out and lives with Safavids for awhile Returns fights, back, then dies falling down stairs while carrying books

Akbar and the Basis for a Lasting Empire o Successes of Akbar o Though only 13, pretty impressive fought back rivals Long rule, about the same time as Elizabeth

Military conquest and social/economic changes Realized need to administer properly Brilliant, illiterate but great memory, slept 3 hours a night

Long term religious plan Reconciliation and cooperation with Hindu princes Encouraged intermarriage Abolished head tax - jizya Promoted Hindus to highest ranks Muslims must respect cows

Tried to invent new religion Din-I-Ilahi Would forever end conflict in India

Connection between aristocrats and monarchy Military made nobility, but had to be prepared to fight Local leaders had relative autonomy

Social Reform and Social Change o Attempts to alter daily life o Improve calendar Living quarters for the poor Regulate consumption of alcohol son 20 cups of wine a day

Attempts to improve role of women Encouraged widow remarriage Discouraged child marriages Legally prohibited sati Even though it went against warrior class

Relief for women trapped in purdah

Mughal Splendor and Early European Contacts o Initial European reaction to Indian cities o Cities of Delhi, Agra, Lahore impressive Armies dwarfed European armies buthuge poverty and soldiers arent trained

Trade with Europe Trade gap no interest in European products, but huge for textiles Demand for Indian textiles Cloth finewondered in Europe daughter see through 3 layers Techniques of weaving and dying madras, muslin, pajamas

Artistic Achievement in the Mughal Era o o o Rulers start living the good life Jahangir and Shah Jahan patrons of the arts Mughal Architecture

Court Politics and the Position of Elite and Ordinary Women o o Elite women gain power in politics Role of women in rest of society declined

The Beginnings of Imperial Decline o o o o o Domestic problems Two ambitions of Aurangzeb Military conflict drains treasury Attempts to rid India of Hindu influence Threats from new groups

Gunpowder Empire

Used mass cavalry of nomads to conquer empires Gunpowder and firearms kept to buildings empires End of old feudal warrior aristocracies and defenses Some against new weapons scholar gentry in China, could lead to dominance of military in government; Japan, Tokugawa banned firearms that brought shogunate to power

Nomads obstacles fewer resources, lacked wealth for arms races Global balance now in favor of Europe, because gunpowder essential to rise to global power

Africa in the Age of the Slave Trade Portuguese established factories (points of contact with merchants and leaders from interior; ex. Mina) Africans received goods from Portuguese; Portuguese received ivory, pepper, animal skins, and gold Missionary efforts to convert rulers of African kingdoms success in Kongo Portuguese and Spanish had sugar plantations on Atlantic islands (later in Caribbean) Expansion o o Portugal was the first in the slave trade Gun and slave cycle

Organization o o Europeans went into the interior and took control of existing trade routes African kings already practiced slavery and traded slaves to Europeans for technological advancement

Gun-Slave Trade Cycle o o Europeans traded guns for slaves Enslavement of women was a key feature of the Trans-Saharan trade; men were focus of Trans-Atlantic trade o Slavery was a diffused form of labor control and wealth

Slaving and African Politics o o o o Europeans justified slaves by pointing out that slavery already existed in Africa Trade in slaves was the business of kings, rich men, and merchants Warriors/soldiers emerged as an important social type Central and West African trade was small and fragmented due to warfare

Assante and Dahomey o o o o Asante and Dahomey were the great slave empires of Africa Dedicated to power and money, traffic in slavery on an unprecedented scale Empires constructed on gold, guns, and slaves As organized as Imperial Rome

East Africa

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Swahili trading cities Europeans established plantation styled colonies Bantu states

Sudan and Interior West Africa o o o o o Islamicization Reform movements Usuman Dan Fodio preaches Islamic reform ideology Jihads established new states (Jihad: usually inner struggle) Literacy widespread

Southern Africa o o o o o o South Africa, little affected by the slave trade Dutch set an outpost in South Africa in 1652 Cape Colony depended on slave labor from Asia, Indonesia, later African Boers arrived; eventual war between Boers and indigenous groups Shaka united Zulu states Britain takes over South Africa, Boers migrated north (called the Great Trek)

Slaving and Human Society o o o o Many forms of servitude peasant status, chattel slavery, indenture service Most societies placed some limits on the slaveholders authority or power One of the first international trades Argument that slavery was an important feature in the rise of capitalism and Industrial Revolution o Slavery was rarely questioned natural phenomenon; text of ancient India, Old Testament, writings of Greece o Aristotle: idea that some people were born to serve

Attack on slavery grew from Enlightenment, a reformist Christian tradition, economic changes in Western Europe and North America

Asia in an Age of Global Change Asian Trading and the Coming of Europeans Asian sea trading o 3 zones; choke points; peaceful commerce; informal rules

Portuguese trading empire o Forts, factories, and monopolies

Portuguese vulnerability (poor military) Rise of Dutch and English o o Ships and technology better Dutch: Java; English: India, costal trade, textiles

Tribute States: settlement and conversion

Returns? o o Gradual decline of indigenous centers of trade Little impact of disease; new foods

Ming China Founder: Zhu Yuanzhang Revival of scholar gentry o Society o o o Reforms helped peasants lives Landlords power grew Neo-Confucianism conservatism reigned Expansion of exams; reforms discipline

Economic Growth o o o Commerce, handicrafts Limited European contacts (Macao and Canton) Technology: little innovation

Population Growth o New foods: corn, sweet potatoes, peanuts

Arts o o Visual arts: ceramic, painting; more color, but traditional Literature: innovation in novel

Expansion: Zheng He o o o Unprecedented initiation of contact 7 voyages: proved capability to expand Conscious choices to stop court factories

Arrival of Europeans o Missionaries

Ming Decline o o o Dynastic decline Rebellions from within Power vacuum open to Manchus

Europe o Rapid development (socially and economically) o o o Competition among nations Smaller but better trained armies Limiting resources, but efficient at mobilizing o o o o

China Larger and more populous; difficult to mobilize resources Not very aggressive Large armies Drawn inward to deal with problem and

invasions

Motivated: rulers wanted wealth and power (mercantilism); traders wanted profits

Lack of motivations: single emperors goal,

not overall; only curiosity and desire to impress; merchants felt little need; scholar- gentry hostile to eunuchs and waste

Advantage in animal and machine power

Tokugawa Japan Process of unification after Ashikaga European challenge o o Goods traded: firearms, printing press, clocks Use of missionaries

Isolation o o o o Fear of subversion Banned Christianity 1614 Limits on traders 1616 Banned Western books

Internal Focus o o o Extension of bureaucracy Monitored European innovations 1850s: better able to understand Europeans than China was

People and Places to Know Timur-I Lang: leader of Turkic nomads; beginning in 1360s from base at Samarkand, launched series of attacks in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and Southern Russia; empire disintegrated after his death in 1405 Janissaries: Ottoman infantry divisions that dominated Ottoman armies; forcibly conscripted as boys in conquered areas of Balkans, legally slaves; translated military service into political influence, particularly after 15th century Mehmed II: Ottoman sultan called the Conqueror; responsible for the conquest of Constantinople in 1453; destroyed what remained of the Byzantine Empire Suleiman the Magnificent: a Safavid sultan; the Suleymaniye mosque was built in the 1550s during his reign Safavids: originally a Turkic nomadic group; family originated in Sufi mystic group; espoused Shiism; conquered territory and established kingdom in region equivalent to modern Iran; lasted until 1772 Abu Bakr: One of Muhammads earliest converts; succeeded Muhammad as first caliph of Islamic community Red Heads: name given to Safavid followers because of their distinctive red headgear Babur: founder of Mughal dynasty in India; descended from Turkic warriors; first led invasion of India in 1526; died in 1530

Aurangzeb: son and successor of Shah Jahan in Mughal India; determined to extend Mughal control over whole of subcontinent; wished to purify Islam of Hindu influences; incessant warfare exhausted empire despite military successes; died in 1707

Shah Jahan: Mughal emperor of India from 1628-1658; patron of the arts; his reign was the golden age of Mughal art and architecture; built the Taj Mahal for his wife; built the city of Delhi and made it his capital

Ismail: Sufi commander who conquered city of Tabriz in 1501; first Safavid to be proclaimed shah (or emperor)

Abbas the Great: Safavid ruler from 1587-1629; extended Safavid domain to greatest extent; created slave regiments based on captured Russians, who monopolized firearms within Safavid armies; incorporated Western military technology

Nadir Khan: soldier-adventurer following fall of Safavid dynasty in 1722; proclaimed himself shah in 1736; established short-lived dynasty in reduced kingdom

Akbar: son and successor of Humayan; oversaw building of military and administrative systems that became typical of Mughal rule in India; pursued policy of cooperation with Hindu princes; attempted to create new religion to bind Muslim and Hindu populations of India (religion called Din-i-Ilahi)

Nzinga Mvemba: king of Kongo south of Zaire River from 1507-1543; converted to Christianity and took title of Alfonzo I; under Portuguese influence, attempted to Christianize all of kingdom

Kongo: Kingdom based on agriculture, formed on lower Congo River by late 15 th century; capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy

Benin: City-state formed in 14th century under Ewuare the Great; control extended from Niger River to coast near modern Lagos; came into contact with Portuguese in 1485 but remained relatively free from European influence; remained an important commercial and political entity until 19th century

Gold Coast: empire of Asante prospered in slave trade; region of gold and kola nut production

Royal African Co.: chartered in 1660s to establish a monopoly over the slave trade among British merchants; supplied African slaves to colonies in Barbados, Jamaica, and Virginia

Indies Pieces: term utilized with the complex exchange system established by the Spanish for African trade; referred to the value of an adult male slave

Sudanic States: kingdom that developed during the height of Ghanas power in the region; based at Takrur on the Senegal River to the west and Gao on the Nigel River to the east; included Mali and Songhay

Asante: established in the Gold coast among Akan people settled around Kumasi; dominated by Oyoko clan; gunpowder empire; very involved in slave trade

Usuman Dan Fodio: Muslim Fulani scholar; preached the reformist ideology in the Hausa kingdom rebellion new kingdom based on the city of Sokoto; thought of himself as gods instrument

Zulu: a chiefdom in Africa that, under Shaka, absorbed and destroyed its neighbors; most impressive military force in black Africa until the end of the 19th century; beginning of the mfecane (wars of crushing or wandering); Sulu power was crushed by Great Britain in 1870s

Great Trek: movement of Boer settlers in Cape Colony of southern Africa to escape influence of British colonial government in 1834; led to settlement of regions north of Orange River and Natal

Middle Passage: Slave voyage from Africa to the Americas; generally a traumatic experience for black slaves, although it failed to strip Africans of their culture

African Diaspora: slave trade was how the history of the Americas and Africa became linked and a principal way in which African societies were drawn into world economy; carried many Africans away from their homelands

Obeah: African religious ideas and practices in the English and French Caribbean islands Candomble: African religious ideas and practices in Brazil, particularly among the Yoruba people

John Wesley: a Christian abolitionist; helped abolish British slave trade in 1807 Malacca: Portuguese factory or fortified trade town located on the tip of the Malayan peninsula; traditionally a center for trade among the southeastern Asian islands

Treaty of Gijanti: signed in 1757; reduced remaining Javanese princes to vassals of Dutch East India Company; allowed Dutch to monopolize production of coffee on Java

Robert di Nobili: Italian Jesuit missionary; worked in India during the early 1600s; introduced strategy to convert elites first; strategy later widely adopted by Jesuits in various parts of Asia; mission eventually failed

Zheng He: led a series of 7 overseas trade expeditions under Ming Emperor, Yunglo; led by court eunuch Zheng he between 1405-1433; only Chinese attempt to create worldwide trade empire

Hongwu: first Ming emperor in 1368; originally of peasant lineage; original name Zhu Yuazhang; drove out Mongol influence; restored position of scholar-gentry

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