Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38

Calculation of the PV modules angular losses

under "eld conditions by means
of an analytical model
N. Martin*, J.M. Ruiz'
CIEMAT-DER, Avenida Complutense 22, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
'UPM-Instituto de Energia Solar, E.T.S.I.T., Ciudad Universitaria s/n, E-28040 Madrid, Spain
Received 30 March 2000; received in revised form 10 July 2000
Abstract
Photovoltaic (PV) modules in real operation present angular losses in reference to their
behaviour in standard test conditions, due to the angle of incidence of the incident radiation
and the surface soil. Although these losses are not always negligible, they are commonly not
taken into account when correcting the electrical characteristics of the PV module or estimating
the energy production of PV systems. The main reason of this approximation is the lack of
easy-to-use mathematical expressions for the angular losses calculation. This paper analyses
these losses on PV modules and presents an analytical model based on theoretical and
experimental results. The proposed model "ts monocrystalline as well as polycrystalline and
amorphous silicon PV modules, and contemplates the existence of super"cial dust. With it
angular losses integrated over time periods of interest can be easily calculated. Monthly and
annual losses have been calculated for 10 di!erent European sites, having diverse climates and
latitudes (ranging from 323 to 523), and considering di!erent module tilt angles. 2001
Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: PV modules; Optical losses; Angular losses; Re#ectance
1. Introduction
The optical losses of photovoltaic (PV) modules working in "eld conditions have
been reported in several recent publications [1}7]. In most PV applications, the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: #34-91-346-6672; fax: #34-91-346-6037.
E-mail address: nuria.martin@ciemat.es (N. Martin).
0927-0248/01/$- see front matter 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
PII: S 0 9 2 7 - 0 2 4 8 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 4 0 8 - 6
The over bar-on R indicates weighted by the product of the spectral response of the PV module by the
spectral distribution of the solar radiation, AM15G (ASTM Standard E892-87, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards 12.02, 1987). All the considered re#ectances or transmittances in this paper are weighted ones.
angles of incidence of solar radiation often di!er substantially from normal incidence,
which is assumed at standard test conditions [8]. As a consequence, re#ection losses
can become signi"cant when calculating the electrical PV generation. The importance
of this e!ect strongly depends on the module orientation, as well as on local latitude
and climate characteristics. In spite of the interest of this question, there are
few theoretical studies of the optical behaviour of PV modules applied to di!erent
technologies [2,3], and even these are merely systematic applications of Fresnel
formulae that include, in some cases, the matrix thin "lm theory. Other authors
[4}6] consider simpli"ed calculations of these analyses. As a consequence, a lack
of easy-to-use mathematical tools for integrated re#ectance e!ects calculations is
observed.
Although there is a mathematical model initially proposed by Souka and Safat [9]
and adopted by ASHRAE [10] (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning) and thus known as the ASHRAE incidence modi"er [11] which is
considered by some authors [6,7]. It is not speci"cally obtained for PV modules but
calculates transmittance as a function of the angle of incidence of solar radiation by
"tting one parameter. Nevertheless, it presents problems like a discontinuity at 903
and not good "tting results for high angles of incidence.
This paper proposes an alternate mathematical model, which is speci"cally ob-
tained from the optical analysis of commercial PV modules of di!erent technologies.
It avoids the above-mentioned problems having good "tting results in all cases. Its
"tting parameter supplies direct information about the angular behaviour of a PV
module, and is easily obtained from measurements. With it analytical expressions for
the calculation of the global e!ect of the angle of incidence have been obtained. The
result is a useful tool with which optical losses of PV modules under "eld conditions
can be quanti"ed.
2. The PV module angular losses
The angular losses (AL) of a PV module are calculated in reference to normal
incidence of radiation and clean surface, that are the conditions at which commonly
the electrical characteristics of a PV module are supplied. Being RM(0) the weighted
re#ectance of the module in such reference conditions, and M(0), AM(0) the correspond-
ing air-to-solar cells transmittance and absorptance (within the glass, encapsulant,
etc.), respectively, the angular losses at an angle of incidence can be calculated by the
following formula:
AL()"1!
M()
M(0)
"1!
1!RM()!AM()
1!RM(0)!AM(0)
1!
1!RM()
1!RM(0)
, (1)
26 N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38
where RM(), AM(), M(), are the re#ectance, transmittance and absorptance at the angle
. The complement to unity of the angular losses, named by the following angular
factor, f
'?
, represents, according to the "rst equality in Eq. (1), the relative angular light
transmission of the module. The experimental value of such a parameter can be
obtained by dividing the short-circuit current (I
'
) at an angle by the product of the
short-circuit current at normal incidence ("0) and the cosine of the angle:
f
'?
"
I
'
()
I
'
(0)
1
cos

1!RM()
1!RM(0)
. (2)
The angular factor thus calculates the optical losses relative to the normal incidence
situation.
The frequently ful"lled condition of negligible absorption within the air-to-cell path
is the obvious one leading to the last approximate equality in both (1) and (2)
equations. It is, however, to be noted that the approximation should hold, even if
absorption is not negligible, provided the absorptance ratio, AM()/AM(0), is not much
di!erent than the transmittance ratio (or the angular factor), a not unrealistic case.
3. Analytical model for the re6ectance of a PV module
3.1. The model expression
From the optical analysis of di!erent PV modules con"gurations, considering
crystalline (x-Si) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) technologies, with or without antire#ec-
tive coatings, and looking for a simple analytical expression, the following formula for
the re#ectance of a PV module has been obtained:
RM()"RM(0)#[1!RM(0)]

exp(!cos a/a
'
)!exp(!1/a
'
)
1!exp(!1/
'
)
, (3)
where is the irradiance angle of incidence and a
'
the angular losses coezcient, an
empirical dimensionless parameter to "t in each case. The model has been applied to
the analysis of di!erent x- and a-Si modules. In all cases, the results are very
satisfactory. With it the expression of the angular losses becomes
AL()"1!

1!exp(!cos a/a
'
)
1!exp(!1/
'
)
. (4)
3.2. Model-xtting performance with analytical results
The results of applying the proposed model to di!erent x- and a-Si module
con"gurations are plotted in Fig. 1 and summarised in Table 1. The model describes
very accurately all the analysed con"gurations, as can be deduced from the "gure (see
also the high coe$cients of determination, r`, in Table 1).
It can be observed that there are modules that show low values of RM(0), like the ones
having the optimised triple coating or ZnS "lm, and other with quite high re#ectance
N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38 27
Fig. 1. Re#ectance calculated values (dots) and modelled ones (lines) for each indicated con"guration of
crystalline and amorphous silicon modules.
Table 1
RM(0) and a
'
values for each di!erent con"guration, relative asymptotic standard errors () and coe$cients
of determination (r`) obtained in each regression analysis. The triple coating consists on an optimised
(SiO
`
/Ta
`
O
`
/ZnS) one. The a-Si : H thickness is 400nm, d1"92 nm and d2"62 nm
Con"guration RM(0) a
'
(a
'
) r`
Air/glass 0.043 0.173 2.0E-03 1.000
Air/glass/Si 0.225 0.157 1.6E-02 0.998
Air/glass/SiO
`
/Si 0.260 0.155 5.4E-03 0.999
Air/glass/triple coat./Si 0.113 0.179 1.4E-02 0.999
Air/glass/ZnS/Si 0.085 0.168 3.1E-03 1.000
Air/glass/a-Si:H/Ag 0.358 0.136 1.8E-02 0.998
Air/glass/ITO(d1)/a-Si:H/Ag 0.267 0.138 1.4E-02 0.999
Air/glass/ITO(d2)/a-Si:H/Ag 0.203 0.163 1.4E-02 0.999
values at normal incidence, like the one with no antire#ective coating or with a layer
of SiO
`
. Nevertheless, angular losses depend on the shape of the spectral re#ectance
curve versus the angle of incidence. This e!ect is characterised by the parameter a
'
,
which increases for good relative angular responses. Considering our example cases,
although the &air/glass/triple coat/Si' con"guration presents low re#ectance at normal
incidence it has a not so good angular response. The opposite e!ect is observed with
a con"guration like &air/glass/SiO
`
/Si'.
With the a-Si con"gurations the obtained "tting results are also good. As it occurs
with x-Si modules, the interface &air/glass' is a "rst approach to describe the angular
in#uence of the re#ectance of an a-Si module. Nevertheless, the angular response
28 N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up for the measurement of the angular factor f
'?
of equivalent technology solar
cells (ETC).
Table 2
Regression analysis "tting results with the experimental data
a
'
Technology Estimated value (a
'
) r`
m-Si 0.169 1.2E-02 0.999
p-Si 0.159 1.5E-02 0.999
a-Si 0.163 1.8E-02 0.998
improves in general when considering the rest of the module materials. Also, good
performance at normal incidence can imply worse relative angular responses, as it
may occur with the transparent conducting oxide of indium-tin oxide (ITO) layer.
3.3. Validation of the model with experimental results
3.3.1. Experimental method
In order to validate the proposed model with experimental data, a testing system
has been developed. With it the angular factor f
'?
(Eq. (2)) of an equivalent technology
solar cell (ETC) of each PV module has been measured. As light source, a class A solar
simulator has been used and the samples have been mounted on a rotary structure on
which any angle of incidence of the radiation can be obtained. The whole "xture has
been located inside a big black box where multiple re#ections between ETC and walls
are avoided (see Fig. 2). The angle of incidence and the irradiance at normal incidence
have been measured for calculating the angular e!ect. Also ETC temperatures have
been registered for correcting the obtained currents to the same temperature and thus
avoiding temperature e!ects.
3.3.2. Regression analysis with the experimental data
The experimental values of the angular factor have been "tted to the proposed
model equation. The obtained angular losses coe$cients (a
'
) for a representative
module of each technology are included in Table 2, together with the calculated
N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38 29
Fig. 3. Experimental f
'?
data (dots) of three PV modules of di!erent technologies and "tted curves obtained
with the proposed model.
30 N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38
coe$cients of determination. From these values and looking at Fig. 3 it can be
concluded that the model is in very good agreement with the experimental results and
describes correctly, for all possible angles of incidence, the angular variation of a PV
module re#ectance. Another signi"cant result is that the module technology has
a second-order in#uence in the angular response ("rst-order determined by the
&air/glass' interface), although better relative results are obtained in general with
polycrystalline (p-Si) and amorphous silicon PV modules. This fact does not mean
that with monocrystalline silicon (m-Si) technology the optical losses increase, in
absolute terms, which is mainly characterised by RM(0). In fact, most m-Si modules have
textured solar cells and antire#ective coatings and, as a consequence, low RM(0) values.
But this also may imply a not so good angular response, specially regarding textured
solar cells. This e!ect is characterised by the coe$cient a
'
, which increases with
angular losses.
3.4. The ewect of superxcial dust on the model parameters
As in real operating conditions the PVmodule contains a certain degree of dust, it is
interesting to check if the proposed model is also valid for these conditions. With this
aim, angular factor ( f
'?
) measurements have been performed on PV modules having
di!erent dust degrees. Although the dust characteristics can vary depending on its
nature and external factors and this could a!ect the optical transmittance of the
module, an approximate but e!ective way to characterise the dust thickness is by
means of the relative transmittance at normal incidence in reference to the clean
surface condition value.
But dust also modi"es the angular performance of the PV module by increasing
its angular losses. This fact is characterised by an increase of the angular losses
coe$cient, a
'
. Typical values of 0.17 for a m-Si module become 0.20 if a moderate dust
quantity is on its surface (I
'
(0)
'''
/I
'
(0)
'"
"0.98) or 0.27 for a high amount of dust
(I
'
(0)
'''
/I
'
(0)
'"
"0.92). The energetic consequences of these increments shall be
discussed afterwards in this paper.
4. Corrected expression of I
sc
with angular losses
The expression of the short-circuit current of a PV module considering the angular
losses of each radiation component (direct, di!use and albedo) is
I
'
"
IM
'
GM
B cos [1!F
"
()]#D
1#cos
2
[1!F
'
()]
#A
1!cos
2
[1!F
^
()]

, (5)
where IM
'
is the short-circuit current at standard test conditions, GM the standard
1000 W/m` irradiance, B the direct irradiance, D the di!use irradiance on the
N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38 31
Table 3
Results of "tting equations (6b) and (6c) to the &exact+ F
'
and F
^
values for typical a
'
values of silicon PV
modules
a
'
c
1
c
`
(c
`
) r`
0.16 4/(3) !0.074 !1.3E-02 0.999
0.17 4/(3) !0.069 !1.3E-02 0.999
0.18 4/(3) !0.064 !1.4E-02 0.999
horizontal plane, A the ground-re#ected irradiance on a horizontal plane facing the
ground, the module's tilt angle, the angle of incidence of solar radiation, F
"
the
angular losses factor of the solar radiation direct component, F
'
the angular losses
factor of the solar radiation di!use component and F
^
the angular losses factor of the
solar radiation ground-re#ected (albedo) component.
The angular losses factors F
"
, F
'
and F
^
are obtained by the formulae
F
"
()"
exp(!cos a/a
'
)!exp(!1/a
'
)
1!exp(!1/
'
)
, (6a)
F
^
()exp

!
1
a
'

sin #
!sin
1!cos
#c
`

sin #
!sin
1!cos
`

(6b)
F
'
()exp

!
1
a
'

sin #
!!sin
1#cos
#c
`

sin #
!!sin
1#cos
`

(6c)
While the factor F
"
is directly calculated from the model expression, both F
'
and
F
^
are calculated by solving two integrals that consider the contribution of each solid
angle unit incident on the PV module (assuming an isotropic distribution of di!use
and albedo radiation). Expressions (6b) and (6c) are two approximate analytical
solutions of these integrals, with c

"4/(3) and c
`
as a "tting parameter (see Table 3).
The coe$cient of determination of such approximation is always greater than 0.999
for the typical a
P
values, as it is shown in Table 3. Fig. 4 represents F
'
and F
^
versus
the tilt angle of the PV module for two representative a
'
values.
In good approximation it can be demonstrated [12] that relative power variations
are proportional to short-circuit current ones, being the proportionality factor slightly
bigger than unity, commonly in the range [1, 1.1]. This fact permits to calculate the
relative power (or energy) losses in PV generation due to current losses and, in most
cases, to consider that they are practically similar.
32 N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38
Fig. 4. Angular losses factors of the di!use and albedo radiation components for typical a
'
values of a m-Si
module (0.17 for clean surface and 0.2 for a medium dust quantity).
5. Angular losses calculation at di4erent European sites
With the aim of applying the proposed model to some illustrative cases of interest,
the angular losses of a south-oriented standard monocrystalline PV module shall be
calculated at di!erent sites and considering several tilt angles. For that purpose, the
typical meteorological year of ten di!erent European sites [13}16] having diverse
climates and latitudes has been considered. Table 4 summarises the geographical and
climatic characteristics of each location.
5.1. Monthly average losses
PV modules angular losses are mainly determined by the angle of incidence of
direct radiation, and thus, the module tilt angle, local latitude and solar position
are the most in#uencing parameters. Considering Europe, in southern sites
PV modules su!er the highest monthly average losses in June}July for vertical
position, while in locations with higher latitudes the maximum angular losses are
obtained in December at horizontal position. On the other hand, minimum values
are obtained in all considered cases in December}January (at 803 tilt angle in
northern sites and 703 in the southern ones). Table 5 summarises the monthly
average values of the angular losses calculated on each considered site and
Fig. 5 represents the yearly evolution of the monthly losses for some selected
cases.
N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38 33
Table 4
Geographic and climatic characteristics of the considered sites for the calculation of the PV angular losses
Site name Latitude (deg) Longitude (deg) Altitude (m) Clime KoK ppen [17]
Betdagan 32.0N 34.82E 30 BSw (semiarid)
Seville 37.4N 6.0W 10 BSh (warm steppe)
Murcia 37.79N 0.80W 3 BSh (warm steppe)
Athens 37.97N 22.72E 7 Csa (mediterranean)
Madrid 40.45N 3.71W 664 Csa (mediterranean)
Logron o 42.5N 2.5W 384 Csb (mediterranean, moderate summer)
Nice 43.65 7.2E 4 Csa (mediterranean)
Paris}Trappes 48.78N 2.0E 123 Cfb (mild winters fresh summers)
Ucle 50.8N 4.35E 100 Cfb (marine west coast)
De Bilt 52.1N 5.18E 3 Cfb (marine west coast)
Table 5
Monthly average angular losses calculated at each di!erent considered site. The table shows the minimum
and maximum values and the correspondent tilt angle.
Monthly angular losses
Minimum Maximum
Site name Value (%) Month Tilt angle
(deg)
Value (%) Month Tilt angle
(deg)
Betdagan (32.0N) 1.8 Dec 70 14.7 Jul 90
Sevilla (37.4N) 1.4 Dec 70 13.5 Jul 90
Murcia (37.8N) 1.4 Dec 70 13.3 Jun 90
Athens (38.0N) 1.5 Jan 70 14.8 Jun 90
Madrid (40.5N) 1.7 Jan 70 12.6 Jun 90
Logron o (42.5N) 1.6 Jan 70 11.0 Jun 90
Nice (43.7N) 1.3 Dec 70 11.1 Jul 90
Paris-Trappes (48.8N) 1.5 Dec 80 10.5 Dec 0
Ucle (50.8N) 2.0 Dec 80 9.4 Dec 0
De Bilt (52.1N) 1.9 Dec 80 10.8 Dec 0
5.2. Annual losses: The latitude and tilt angle inyuence
The angular losses for each considered place versus the module tilt angle are
represented in Fig. 6. Highest angular losses correspond in all cases to vertical
position (facades in buildings) and di!erent minimum values are obtained for each
location, depending mainly on the latitude: the lowest losses in a yearly basis are
achieved with tilt angles some degrees under the local latitude. This observed behav-
iour is more clearly observed in Fig. 7, which represents the annual angular losses
34 N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38
Fig. 5. Monthly angular losses of a standard m-Si module at di!erent sites, plotted versus the number of the
month. Two extreme tilt angles are considered (03 and 903).
Fig. 6. Annual angular losses of a standard m-Si module at di!erent sites, plotted versus tilt angle.
versus the di!erence latitude-tilt angle. All the curves "t quite accurately quadratic
functions (coe$cients of determination '0.98) and moreover they can be grouped
into two more general equations, one for the Mediterranean sites (Betdagan, Seville,
Murcia, Athens, Madrid, Logron o, Nice) and the other one for central Europe ones
(Paris-Trappes, Ucle, De Bilt):
N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38 35
Fig. 7. Annual angular losses of a standard m-Si module at di!erent sites, plotted versus latitude-tilt angle.
Mediterranean Europe:
AL
`'
(%)"11.3;10"(!)`!11.9;10`(!)#2.87.
Coefficient of determination"0.97; standard error"0.19;
(7a)
Central Europe:
AL
`'
(%)"8.4;10"(!)`!11.0;10`(!)#3.49.
Coefficient of determination"0.96; standard error"0.13.
(7b)
An approximate value for minimum annual angular losses at medium latitude sites is
3% and is obtained with a tilt angle some degrees under the local latitude. Also an
important consequence of the above-obtained results deals with the integration of PV
in buildings, where the angular losses can become especially signi"cant if PV modules
have to be installed at orientations and tilt angles quite di!erent from the ideal ones.
For medium latitude locations, especial attention should be paid to re#ection losses
when dealing with facades integration. A good alternative is to install the PV modules
into well-oriented roofs, or awnings.
5.3. The dust inyuence in the average angular losses
The existence of dust increases substantially the angular losses by a factor that can
vary typically between 1.3 and 1.5, depending on the dust thickness (from moderate to
very signi"cant). Fig. 8 shows for the particular case of Madrid the dust e!ect on the
annual angular losses, considering a typical moderate dust degree (I
'
(0)
'''
/I
'
(0)
'"
"
0.98) and a very high one (I
'
(0)
'''
/I
'
(0)
'"
"0.92).
36 N. Martin, J.M. Ruiz / Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 70 (2001) 25}38
Fig. 8. Annual angular losses of a standard m-Si module at Madrid, plotted versus tilt angle, considering
three di!erent surface dust degrees.
6. Conclusions
With the proposed analytical model angular losses in PV modules working in real
conditions can be easily calculated. The model depends on a "tting parameter called
the angular losses coe$cient that characterises the relative angular response of the PV
module. The model has been applied to the calculation of monthly and yearly losses in
10 di!erent European sites, considering their typical meteorological years. While
module technology does not in#uence meaningfully the angular losses, dust does:
besides reducing the light transmittance at normal incidence, it also increases the
relative angular losses. These losses present an annual evolution, which is very
dependent on the latitude and the tilt angle, with an average value that is function of
the di!erence latitude-tilt angle. A minimum annual value of about 3% is found for all
the considered sites.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to Luis Zarzalejo and EstefanmH a Caaman o for
providing the typical meteorological years radiation data.
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