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Caitlyn McBride 12/9/2013 Fall 2013 POLS 2326 Professor Bursey Final Paper

(Gorman; Deane; Nicgors ki ; Devine; Woo d "The Economic Dimensio n of Cicero's Political Though t: Property and State"; Wood "Cicero and the Political Tho ug ht of the Early English Renaissance"; Maass; Plato ; Aristotle; Cicero; Augu stine ; Aquinas)

Classical political thought reflects the structure and experiences of its time. The writings of Plato and Aristotle detail their view of the ideal polis. They failed, however, to recognize the inevitable weaknesses in the structure and the polis structure eventually withered away. Opening the door for a refreshed perspective on the individual, state, and ideal structure, the fall of the Greek polis system ushered in a new era of thought. This era manifests in three major schools of thought: Epicureanism, Christianity, and Stoicism. Each of the schools of thought influence political thought in tremendous and traceable ways, even today. The fall of the polis system forces individuals to seek new sources of fulfillment and the schools of Epicureanism, Christianity, and Stoicism develop in an effort to offer a realistic opportunity to achieve this fulfillment. Cicero and other stoic writers prove that Stoicism offers the most practical blueprint for a successful political society for the individual to achieve fulfillment within. It successfully addresses the issues of realistic implementation and tangible benefits that the other schools fail to prioritize, leading Stoicism to provide the clearest role to the individual after the fall of the polis, manifesting in the successful societal structure of Rome. Theories of the polis originate with Plato and Aristotle, laying the groundwork for many centuries of political and philosophical debate over the ideal organization of a state as well as the individuals position within it. The original polis, a term loosely translated as state is defined and analyzed by Plato and Aristotle most prolifically.1,2 The polis systems utilized by the Greeks and idealized within the writings of Plato and Aristotle were more far more complex and

1 2

Plato. "Republic." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter. Aristotle. "Politics." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter.

McBride 2 extensive than the simple idea of community that a polis is founded upon leads one to believe. A polis supports its people, making itself the most influential part of their lives.3 Ideal polities would be small enough to maintain a strong community, yet large enough to defend themselves from external threats.1 Citizens of these polities enjoy numerous civil rights, allowing for extensive participation within the polis, but are afforded no liberties, leaving an individual no rights against the polis. A polis truly is everything for its citizens, having a strong influence over not only justice and punishment, but arts and religion as well. All actions are done for the good of the community and an individual is meant to gain fulfillment by serving his polis faithfully. Greek polities never quite reach the ideal states imagined by either Plato or Aristotle. Even though they never attain perfection, internal structure is not the source of their downfalls. Instead, it is a set of externalities that put strain on the economic and military prowess of the polities.3 The Peloponnesian War is a turning point, effectively draining the resources of the Greek polities and igniting their decay. The polities ended up being too small to maintain a strong enough economic and militaristic presence to defend themselves. Once the polis system failed, the individual was left without the community he had so strongly valued and depended upon. Theory is left equally abandoned, suddenly facing the realities of the unknown. Individuals were alone and in dire need of new sources of fulfillment and meaning; they needed to become self-sustaining. Community was supposed to be the one constant in their lives and without it they had to seek belonging and support through other means. In addition, theory needed to adjust to the realization that the polis structure was no longer ideal or sustainable in the changing world. From the rubble of the Greek polities emerge three main schools of thought, each carving out different roles for the individual and perspectives on interactions with the state. One of these
3

Gorman, Robert. "Citizenship, Obligation, and Exile in the Greek and Roman Experience."

McBride 3 schools is founded by its namesake. Epicurus is one of the most influential Epicurean thinkers and lays the groundwork for this major school of thought, developing from the Cyrenaic school. Epicurean thought and philosophy seek to quell the bitterness against the entirety of politics that was left within the individuals abandoned and hurt by the collapse of the polis. It seeks to minimize an individuals exposure to pain. In order to do so, it was understood that one should turn his back to the world of politics and society. In its stead, the individual should get together with a small assemblage of friends and live his life enjoying simple pleasures.4 Even something as simple as the absence of pain becomes measurable pleasure for Epicureans. In theory, this would give individuals the fulfillment and happiness that they sought after the fall of the polis. In reality, this system of thought fails to fully assist individuals in fleshing out their new roles in society because it is so distrustful of religion, the state, and collectivity. It is difficult to imagine a functioning society of fragmented groups merely enjoying the simple pleasures of life. There is pain in the world and if everyone refuses to face it and instead avoids it, progress will be almost nonexistent. The individual has almost nothing to look towards and is unlikely to take a risk due to the possibility of pain. An existence such as this is simply unsustainable and allows individuals no driving force other than an avoidance of pain. In stark contrast, Christianity offers individuals a strong, widespread organization and strict rules that create yet another state and societal structure. The Christian school of thought, propagated largely by Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, champions the individuals submission to the power of the state.5,6 However, rather than seeking to better the individual, Augustine sees humans as inherently flawed and therefore in need of an external peacekeeper. For Augustine,

4 5

Deane, Herbert. "Classical and Christian Political Thought." Political Theory 1.4 Augustine. "City of God." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter. 6 Aquinas, Thomas. "Summa Theologica and Statesmanship." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter.

McBride 4 the state takes this role, effectively serving to maintain the peace of Babylon and keeping order through fear and punishment.5 The Church is the overarching authority, even reaching above the state, but since the doctrine of the state is considered the word of God, rebellion is strongly discouraged and the threat of eternal ruin acts as a strong deterrent. Under this school of thought, individuals seek only to maximize their eternal souls.4 As a result, they expose themselves to the whims of the state as well as its power, punishment, and influence. The difference from the submission of these individuals and those involved in the polis is the expectation of improvement. By following the states doctrine, a Christian individual can have a peaceful life. But, in order to achieve fulfillment individuals in a Christian society must seek acceptance by the Church and state doctrine.4 As a result, individuals face punishment for their wrongdoings from both the state and Church, a role with similar commitment levels as the polis, but lacking the rewarding sense of community and support until the afterlife. This intangible sense of fulfillment can prove difficult for individuals to prioritize when pain must be endured in the present. The final major school, Stoicism, allows an individual to discover individuality and fulfillment on their own while ensuring that the state continually serves their best interests. In this way, Stoics create an environment conducive to sustainability and fulfillment. Stoics do not accept pain, like the Christians, or shy away from it, as the Epicureans. Instead, this school of thought implores an individual to be indifferent towards both pain and pleasure. Under this idea, writers like Cicero see the state develop as an assemblage of people associated in an agreement with respect to justice and a partnership for the common interest.7 A stoic ideal society is made of strictly the virtuous, all following Natural Law strictly. These wisemen form the ideal society, which is so strongly unified by the brotherhood of man and organized by Natural Law
7

Cicero. "The Republic." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter.

McBride 5 that no need for the state exists.8 This truly gives a role to the individual as having duties as a human to perpetuate Natural Law and be loyal to the overarching brotherhood of men. This connectedness is what leads to fulfillment since humans, by nature, are social beings. Middle Stoics are the first to introduce an idea of mixed government to stoic thought. These thinkers address the common individual and general society. The state becomes the guardian of private property and Natural Law,8 allowing individuals to thrive in an environment where they could discover their social connections amongst each other. The polis was a structured community, understood to always act in the best interest of the people. After its collapse, people lost their faith in the protection of the state so they needed to create their own communities. To suit this need, several state structures develop. However, not all are equal. Stoicism is the only school of thought that permits the disregarding of the state in the case that it oversteps, satisfying an effort to secure the common good for the overarching community of men. This point gives the individual a role in post-polis society that he had never enjoyed during the time of the polities. The individual gains this role as part of the universal commonwealth of reason in which the strong connection to others is drawn from.9 Unlike the strong guidance of the state within a polis structure, Stoic structure emphasizes that people can grow and improve through interaction with each other and their own self-virtue. This idea of a natural virtue is quite different from the polis thought that assumed all virtue must be thought and developed through the polis.10 These avenues to fulfillment can be eased and facilitated by the state, but are not necessary features. Stoicism assumes men seek [their] own advantage, but in a rational and

8 9

Devine, Francis Edward. "Stoicism on the Best Regime." Journal of the History of Ideas 31.3 Wood, Neal. "Cicero and the Political Thought of the Early English Renaissance." Modern Language Quarterly 51.2 10 Nicgorski, Walter. "Cicero's Paradoxes and His Idea of Utility." Political Theory 12.4

McBride 6 enlightened way. 11 Following this thought, each individual is left to their own fulfillment, yet remains connected and grounded to others around him due to the brotherhood of men. According to Wood, externals tend to be the source of destruction and only a good stoic is able to be indifferent to the conflict and subsequently avoid the conflict of externals.8 In this mindset, it is clear that the stoic community is supposed to be more stable than the polis proved to be. This is because a stoic society is not defined by the state or any other structure. Instead, it is unified by each individuals connection to each other. It is through the discovery and maintenance of this connection that an individual simultaneously finds fulfillment and the state finds optimal structure. Every man knows his place and accepts his duty towards it. Those who rebel against the tenets of Natural Law face the consequences from the state due to its designation as a guardian.9 By following Natural Law, every stoic individual has a fulfilling role within society and does not have to wait for the afterlife to fully appreciate and reap the rewards of fulfillment. In theory, the polis structure seems like a reasonable solution to most problems within society. It provides for its citizens and allows them to reach their full potentials, shaping them into their best form. However, in practice the resources required to operate on a large scale in and a more global environment, the polis struggles to maintain military and economic survival. In the end, individuals lost their tightly knit and regulated communities and theory had to rethink optimal political structure. Moving away from Plato and Aristotle, three schools developed. Epicureanism shuns itself from interaction with more than a few friends in the effort to avoid as much pain as possible, especially in regards to that which is associated with states and societal organization. Christianity brings back the connection with others, but is fueled by fear and the

11

Wood, Neal. "The Economic Dimension of Cicero's Political Thought: Property and State." Canadian Journal of Political Science 16.4

McBride 7 threat of punishment, calling upon the individual to tirelessly work towards goals that were ultimately unattainable until the afterlife. Finally, the third school, Stoicism offers a role for the individual that translates to the large scale and also allows for fulfillment in the present life. Stoics remain indifferent to pain and pleasure, instead pursuing Natural Law, reason, and moderation. In this way, a state develops to defend their ability to pursue these objectives and obtain resources like private property. Through the brotherhood of men, individuals find themselves following a moral compass echoed by the state and society, establishing connections and accountability between them. In the aftermath of the polities, this type of society is the most reasonable and fulfilling for individuals. Stoicism allows for individuals to operate individually, but still provides for the societal structure necessary to keep the bad people in line and states operating smoothly. In addition, in the likely event that an imperfect system is ever leveraged against the common good, Stoicism allows for rebellion in the unified pursuit of Natural Law. Finally, Stoic theory allows for the individual to evaluate and react to his relationship with the state in the name of something bigger and more rational, Natural Law.

McBride 8 Works Cited Aquinas, Thomas. "Summa Theologica and Statesmanship." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000. 508-46. Print. Aristotle. "Politics." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000. 377-443. Print. Augustine. "City of God." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000. 463-504. Print. Cicero. "The Republic." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000. 446-60. Print. Deane, Herbert. "Classical and Christian Political Thought." Political Theory 1.4 (November 1973): 415-25. Devine, Francis Edward. "Stoicism on the Best Regime." Journal of the History of Ideas 31.3 (July-September 1970): 323-36. Gorman, Robert. "Citizenship, Obligation, and Exile in the Greek and Roman Experience." Public Affairs Quarterly 6.1 (January 1992): 5-22. Maass, Ruchard. "Political Society and Ciceros Ideal State." Historical Methods 45.2 (AprilJune 2012): 79-92. Nicgorski, Walter. "Cicero's Paradoxes and His Idea of Utility." Political Theory 12.4 (November 1984): 557-78. Plato. "Republic." Readings in Classical Political Thought. Ed. Steinberger, Peter: Hackett Publishing Company, 2000. 166-317. Print. Wood, Neal. "Cicero and the Political Thought of the Early English Renaissance." Modern Language Quarterly 51.2 (1990): 185-207. Wood, Neal. "The Economic Dimension of Cicero's Political Thought: Property and State." Canadian Journal of Political Science 16.4 (December 1983): 739-56.

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