Dan Lepard's Course Notes On starting a leaven A leaven is simply a fermented mixture of cereal flour (e.g.

wheat, barley or rye) with water. Before the growth of modern science, the occurrence of fermentation was thought to be spontaneous, or dependent on luck or the faithful repetition of long-established methods. or example, the American food writer !ohn "horne describes one traditional practice, of moistening the flour with rainwater, shaping it into a ball, then burying it for several nights under pine needles in a forest of fir trees. #arlier writers talk of the disaster that would befall a leaven if a bewitched woman were to touch or even ga$e upon it. And still we hear talk from bakers, chefs, and passionate food lovers about the magical way wild and %untamed& yeasts awaken the flour. "hough ' find the process remarkable, a little knowledge of botany and biology tells me that it is wrong to describe it as magical. Before humankind interfered, yeasts, bacteria, grains and animals were interacting to initiate the process of fermentation. '&d like to briefly go through the high-school science bit, as it is important in helping us understand what happens when we put together the ingredients for our %starter& (the initial fermenting mixture of flour and water). 't was a lesson ' missed at school, so if you&re like me, read on. But if you&re already up on your studies, skip it and move on to the recipes. "he life we see around us can be divided into ( distinct types, or )ingdoms. "he first is called *onera, and denotes single-celled organisms that do not have a nucleus, e.g. bacteria. Bacteria are often useful to man, in fixing nitrogen in the roots of legumes, in creating some foods such as yoghurt or cheese, and in the production of some antibiotics used in modern medicine. +actic acid produced by some bacteria can create that distinctive sour and acidic taste. ,owever, the flipside is that bacteria can also cause disease and food spoilage. Bacteria are commonly found in or on animals, water, plants, and the soil "he second is called -rotoctista, and denotes multicellular organisms that have a nucleus, but which do not fall into the other categories of ungi, -lantae or Animalia. .enerally, this kingdom describes algae, seaweed and kelp, along with microscopic organisms e.g. plankton. /ater collected naturally from rain and underground springs, if unfiltered, will contain many organisms from this kingdom. "he third is called ungi, and denotes an organism that has a nucleus, but is incapable of movement, and which develops from a spore. ungi break down dead organic material, recycling nutrients through the ecosystem, and many plants could not grow without the symbiotic fungi inhabiting their root systems. 0ther useful fungi include penicillin, yeasts and mushrooms, though fungi can also cause plant and animal diseases such as ringworm, athlete&s foot and leaf, root and stem rot. ungal spores are commonly found in or on animals, fruits and vegetables, plants and the soil. "he fourth is called -lantae, and denotes organisms that manufacture their own food using chlorophyll, e.g. mosses, ferns and seed plants. 'n order to do this, they need sunlight. /heat, rye, barley and corn are members of this kingdom. inally, the fifth is called Animalia, and that includes the worms, the sheep and you and me.

"he order of the kingdoms suggests a rough evolution from single-celled life through to multi-celled organisms. ,owever, the relationship between the life in each kingdom is very complicated and symbiotic - that is, dependent on each other. 1o if we simply mix together, say rainwater and wheat-flour, then at once this action will involve members of at least one, and probably all five, of the kingdoms. "he action of collecting the ingredients involves us. /hat happens next depends on whatever species from each kingdom is present. "his is something we cannot strictly control but can encourage by placing together the ingredients that may contain the life forms we are looking for. "he analogy ' think of is that of the gardener and the garden. /e %husband& rather than control. "he recipe below adds both sour milk and a fruit, which are not strictly necessary. *y thinking behind the sour milk is that it adds lactic acids to the mixture, and sets the stage (though '&m not suggesting there is science behind this, only successful results). 2espite some suggestions to the contrary, grapes and currants do not add yeast to the ferment, but simply release sugars and nitrogen as they decompose. ,owever, ' find that both these ingredients and method works for me. Making the leaven ,ere we are trying to encourage the growth of yeasts and lactic bacteria in a mixture of flour and water. 3.453 kg buttermilk 3.453 kg warm water 3.4(3 kg white flour 3.363 kg rye flour 3.363 kg whole-wheat flour 3.363 kg currants Day 1 -our the water and buttermilk into a small bowl and mix together. 7ext stir in the flours, until you have a thick batter. inally stir in the currants, then cover the container and leave in a warm place for 86 hours, stirring once after 48 hours. 7ote, at the very beginning, and up until the fermentation takes hold, it is best to keep the water, dry ingredients and ambient temperature warm, at least above 869 but below 589. "his is because a warmer environment is preferable to encourage the growth of microscopic yeasts. ,owever, different types of yeasts will be present initially and only a few are useful or preferable in baking. 1ome yeasts are putratitive, and will create a disagreeable flavor and aroma. "he initial addition of acidity, with the lactic acids present in the buttermilk, will go a little way towards preventing unwanted yeasts taking hold. "hese acids will multiply best though at a lower temperature, ideally 469 - 4:9, so as soon as fermentation takes place, it is important to keep the mixture cool. Day 2 7othing will have visibly changed, other than the mixture being thinner than on the previous day. "he changes that are taking place are at a microscopic level so be patient. Add 3.8;3 kg water

and stir until the mixture has thinned evenly. 7ext stir in 3.4(3 kg white flour 3.363 kg rye flour 3.363 kg whole-wheat flour and stir until you have a thick batter again. 9over and leave in a warm place for 86 hours, stirring once after 48 hours Day 3 <ou should start seeing small bubbles forming, perhaps a slightly alcoholic smell =emove 3.6(3 kg starter 1tir in 3.8;3 kg warm water then pour through a strainer and remove the currants 7ext, stir in 3.833 kg white flour 3.3(3 kg rye flour 3.3(3 kg whole-wheat flour *ix until you have a stiff batter, then cover the container and leave in a warm place for 86 hours, stirring once after 48 hours. Day 4 By today, the mixture should be fermenting - that is, there should be bubbles forming and the smell should start to appear slightly wine like, though there may not be much acidity =emove 3.6(3 kg starter 1tir in 3.833 kg water "his time you are adding slightly less water, which will make the batter slightly thicker, 7ext, stir in 3.833 kg white flour 3.3(3 kg rye flour 3.3(3 kg whole-meal flour *ix until you have a stiff batter, then cover the container and leave in a warm place for 86 hours. 't is not necessary to stir the mixture again once the fermentation has begun Day 5 By now you should notice that the aroma has become sharper and more acidic. "his signals the development of lactic bacteria. rom now on the mixture will be mixed and kept cooler, to encourage the optimum development of these bacteria.

7ow it is time to start adapting the leaven, by the choice of flours and grains, which reflect your own taste in bread, and re>uirements for your final recipe. or example, if you want the final loaf to be white, then you might add? 3.(33 kg cold water (here we begin to keep the mixture cooler) 3.(33 kg white flour "hen each day ' will remove 4 kg of starter, and refresh the leaven with the ingredients and >uantities above - e>ual amounts of flour and water "he next step is to take this leaven and use it to create a loaf of bread. A naturally leavened loaf *akes 8 x ;(3g loaves (a strange weight, ' know, but it makes the measurements easier to convey) 3.;33 kg strong white flour 3.433 kg strong wholemeal 3.5@( kg white sour starter 3.(33 kg water 3.383 kg salt (5 level teaspoons) :.53 am 'n a large bowl mix together the flours, water and leaven. 1tir together with your hands until the mixture has been roughly and evenly combined.

9over the bowl, either with a plate, cling film, or a dampened cloth, and leave for 83 minutes. A.33 am Add salt, and knead gently on a flour-dusted work surface for 4 B 8 minutes. 9over and leave for 4 hour. 43.33 am =epeat above 44.33 am =epeat above 48.6( pm 2ivide into 8 x :33g pieces, give initial shape

4.33 pm =ound dough once more, and place seam side up in rye flour-dusted linen baskets. +eave at room temperature (.53 pm 9heck breads have risen, turn oven on and heat to 8839 ;.53 pm Bake at 8839 for 63 minutes covered with foil (see note), then reduce the heat to 4A39 and bake for a further 53 minutes, or until the loaf feels light in weight and sounds hollow when tapped on the base. =emove from the oven and leave to cool on a wire rack.

On simple ingredients "he characteristics of the breads typical to each region around the world owe as much to the ingredients used as to the hands and skills that shape and construct them. 'f we assume that the basic ingredients used to make bread are flour and a li>uid (usually water) often accompanied by salt and a leavening, then the >ualities of those basic ingredients help define and create the characteristics of the final loaf. -erhaps we take this for granted when we think of the other compound foods, wines, and cheeses produced in a region. /e might speak sweetly about a wine as we describe each nuance from the grape to the cask. But there is a complexity to the structure and chemistry of wheat and flour that is often overlooked. 0ften bakers talk mindlessly of gluten and protein content, laugh when >uestioned on the >uality of the water, yet will happily weave a web of myth around their secret leavening, or keep guarded the source of their mineral rich salt. On flour. /hen a baker looks for >uality in flour, assuming there is a variety to choose from, they often look at the flour&s protein content. "his first step is taken because there is a relationship between the levels of protein a flour contains, and its ability to produce gluten when mixed with water.

.luten is a complex, sticky, elastic substance, which traps the carbon dioxide released by the yeast cells as they multiply inside the dough, and for many breads it is vital to help create a bold, well-risen loaf. ,owever, not all the protein in flour will potentially become gluten, nor is gluten a simple part of protein. Cp to 4D of the protein in wheat-flour is soluble, only thickening with the application of salt or heat, much like the white of an egg, and once dissolved will eventually add to the texture of the finished baked loaf. But the remainder of the proteins, insoluble in water, forms a complex substance called gluten, bound together with very small >uantities of carbohydrates, fats, and minerals present in the flour. "he gluten itself has no flavour or aroma, though some may be trapped in its form. 't is like the skeleton to the loaf. 1tarches and lipids (oils) in the flour carry the flavours and aromas from the wheat. ,ost bacteria and en$ymes found naturally in the flour, or introduced by the yeast or ferment, add to the final characteristics of the flavour. 1o, as these elements add to the taste of the loaf, surely they are important criteria when determining the >uality of the flour. "he two main constituents of gluten are gliadin, a sticky substance that helps to bind the gluten into a cohesive compoundE and glutenin, which gives the compound gluten strength and elasticity. But these constituent parts of gluten will vary widely in different flours, both in >uality and >uantity. 1o, though two flours might have similar protein levels, and might be termed as %high gluten flours& by millers and bakers, these flours might produce >uite different types of doughs. or example, some proteins might absorb water more slowly than others. As 4Ath century writer !ohn #dmund 2river notes, Fthe gluten from one flour may be extremely tough and tenaciousE that from another may be soft and springy. 'n this connexion, it will be recalled that gluten is a complex mixture, and not a single chemical compound.G 't sounds simple, doesn&t itH ,ave gluten flour, have good bread. But in order to mix the perfect dough for the bread you want to bake, then achieving to right match of flour to a recipe becomes more complex. "o answer this, we must first look at what happens when wheat flour is mixed with water. .luten is created when the gliadin and glutenin are hydrated with water and mixed together. /hat kneading does, in this respect, is to make the moisture evenly available to all the protein in the flour, and potentially hydrates all of the insoluble protein (the gliadin and the glutenin). or each turn, stretch and fold the dough takes while it is kneaded, moisture and protein combine to create the compound gluten. 0nce the gliadin and glutenin are fully saturated, they bind to form the gluten that gives the dough its strength and elasticity. 7ow, in newly-milled flour there is one obstacle. "here is a naturally occurring chemical called glutathione dehydrogenase (.1,), that can inhibit the bonding of the gliadin and glutenin. As this chemical naturally oxidises over time, aged flour often produces a better result. But time is money, and it is expensive to store flour. 'f Iitamin 9 is added, this potential problem can be overcome. /hat happens, during a series of chemical reactions, is that ascorbic acid (Iit 9) oxidises during fast mixing, becoming another compound (ascorbate oxidase), which then removes any excess .1,. As all of the ingredients in the dough are evenly combined, with minerals and nutrients dissolved, the temperature of the dough rises both through the action of the yeast and the speed of the mixing. As the ferment is spread evenly throughout the dough, it is in contact with nitrogen, maltose, and dextrose present in the flour. "hese are the foods yeast thrives on and uses to reproduce. But we will never know the sort of gluten flour contains, though we may have a rough idea from the label. 'f a flour is termed %strong bakersJ flour&, we can assume it has a high level of protein with a combination of gliadin and glutenin that will produce a good balance of elasticity and strength in the

dough. 1cientists and biochemists are constantly searching, creating hybrid wheat strains, and testing new varieties in order to discover their bread-making potential and, in that search, analysing the gluten produced from the flour. But since it is very difficult for anyone outside the science of cereal production to know and understand the >ualities of the gliadin and glutenin present in the protein of any given flour, why the emphasis and concernH 2o we want a flour that produces a specific loaf we have in mind, or do we want to work with a flour to determine what bread it will best produceH Are we willing to change our techni>ues and recipes to enhance the >ualities present in the flour we buyH or the industrial baker supplying the strict specifications of the supermarket and wholesaler, flour that is predictable, consistent, and reliable is desiredE a >uality many demand from the food they buy. or some bakers, ingredients that can be mixed into a dough and then extruded and positioned for the factory production line, is the aim. 'ngredients change with the seasons, and to my mind that is part of their >uality, their beauty perhaps. /e have become demanding customers, looking for consistency, regularity, and %perfection& in the food we buy. But like the wines we pri$e for the excellence of a particular year, the >ualities produced and enhanced by the grape-vines& adaptation to the prevailing weather conditions are a dominant part of the final wine. /inemakers could look at all changes to the year&s crop of grapes as faults. Iery few do, and in the name of consistency, some rogues will taint the fermented Kuice with chemicals to enhance characteristics. But most don&t, or need to. "here are two ways of analysing the flour used to create different breads. irstly, look at the typical traditional breads produced in a region by bakers using locally grown and milled wheat. +ook at the crumb structure, the baked height of the bread, and the texture of the crust. 't is probable that the particular >ualities inherent in the local flour have helped create these breads, in addition to local custom, e>uipment, and techni>ue. 1econdly, think about the type of bread you want to make and ask yourself? L/hat are the >ualities ' need this flour to haveLH 'f you are proving the dough in flour-dusted baskets, cloth-lined or not, then these contain the dough and stop it from spreading. /hy would there be a need to do thisH 't could be that the dough and ferment used need protection from the atmosphere and warmth during their final prove. 't could be that the water content of the dough was so high that the basket would help keep the shape of the loaf, allowing it to rise upwards rather than outwards. -erhaps it could be that the type of gluten available traditionally in the flour used was low in elasticity and strength and needed support during the final hours of its fermentation. By looking in detail at the recipe and techni>ue, we can either include or discount the first two reasons. But in the third might be the evidence of the particular >ualities of the local flour. Potato & por ini fo a ia 5(3g leaven (refreshed 86 hours earlier) 4(3g warm bottled sparkling water 4 tsp easy blend yeast 4 tsp malt extract 4 tsp runny honey 5(3g J33J flour 8 tsp fine sea salt 43 tbs extra-virgin olive oil

for the topping? 4 large potato, unpeeled, washed and finely sliced 4 small onion, finely sliced 8 fresh porcini mushrooms, or a handful of sliced dried 8 tsp *aldon sea salt 8 tbs extra-virgin olive oil 'n a large, warm bowl mix together leaven with the water, yeast, honey and malt extract and whisk together until the leaven has combined with the water. 7ext add the flour, and salt, and s>uidge the mixture together with your hand (' try and do this with one hand, keeping the other hand clean and dry B helps keep things neatM) "he mixture will be very soft, slightly lumpy and very sticky. "his is good. 1crape the dough down from around the sides of the bowl, then give your hands a good wash to remove any excess dough. =eturn to the bowl and tip a tablespoon of extra virgin olive oil on to the palms of your hands. -ick the dough up out of the bowl, and rub the oil all over the surface. -lace the oiled dough on the worksurface and knead ( times (about 43 seconds). 9over the dough with cling film and leave for 43 minutes. =ub an additional tablespoon of oil on the dough&s surface and knead 48 times (83 sec). 9over again and leave for a further 43 minutes. )nead the dough for a further 48 times (83 sec). 9over and leave to prove for 53 minutes. "hen knead the dough a further 48 times (83 sec). 9over and leave the dough a further 53 minutes. "he dough should, after kneading, be elastic. -repare the tray and the topping? -reheat the oven to 8839. "ake 8 x (53cm x 63cm) trays and rub the inside surface liberally with olive oil. 'n a small bowl mix together the thinly sliced potatoes, onions and mushrooms, together with 8 tablespoons of olive oil and a good large pinch of salt. 1tir the lot together until the potato slices are well coated with the oil. -ut to one side while you finish the dough. 2ivide the dough in two, and knead each piece into a ball. -lace each ball of dough on a tray, and with a rolling pin lightly flatten the dough out. 2on&t worry at this point if the dough springs back. !ust cover the tray with cling film and leave in a warm place for 83-53 minutes. After this time, pick up the corners of the dough and stretch them out until they reach the corners of the tray. "he idea at every stage is to keep the dough as aerated as possible. 7ext tip the potato mixture evenly on top of each sheet of dough. 9over the dough with cling film and leave for a further 4( minutes. =emove the cling film and dimple the surface of the dough with your fingers. 1prinkle with a little additional *aldon sea salt. Bake for 53 B 6( minutes, until the surface is golden brown and the potatoes tender. =emove from the oven, and slide the focaccia off onto a cooling wire.

Pane Pugliese

5(3g leaven (refreshed 86 hours before) N teaspoon easy-blend yeast 433g water, sparkling 5(3g %33& flour 8 tbs farina di ceci (chickpea flour) optional 8 tsps fine salt extra virgin olive oil 'n a large, warm bowl mix together leaven with the water and yeast, and whisk together until the leaven has combined with the water. 7ext add the flour, (chickpea flour, if you are using it) and salt, and s>uidge the mixture together with your hand until you have a soft, slightly sticky dough. "ip an extra teaspoon of extra virgin olive oil on to the palms of your hands, and knead the dough 48 times (about 83 seconds). 9over the dough with cling film and leave for 43 minutes. 7ext knead the dough 48 times (83 sec) once more, cover again and leave for a further 43 minutes. inally knead the dough for a further 48 times (83 sec). 9over and leave to prove for 53 minutes. 7ext take a small bowl measuring 4(cm B 4:cm in diameter (and roughly the same depth) and line it with a small tea towel (or old cloth napkin). 2ust it lightly with flour, then knead the dough into a ball and place that ball seam side upward in the cloth-lined bowl. +ightly fold the corners of the cloth loosely over the top of the dough, and leave in a warm place for 6( minutes. -reheat the oven to 883O9. +ightly dust a metal tray with semolina or polenta. .ently peel back the cloth from the top of the dough, then >uickly and carefully upturn the dough on to the palm of your hand. 7ext peel off the cloth from the base of the dough, and then finally place the dough seam side up into the centre of the tray. -lace the tray in the centre rack in the oven and bake for 6( - (( minutes, or until the loaf is a good dark golden brown and sounds hollow when tapped underneath. +eave to cool on a wire rack before serving.