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2.500 Desalination and Water Purification

Spring 2009

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2.500 Desalination & Water Purification

Spring 2009 Tuesday/Thursday 1:00-2:30 Professor John H. H Lienhard V

Figure from Wilf, M., and M. Balaban. Membrane Desalination and Membrane Filtration. L'Aquila, Italy: European Desalination Society, 2007. Used with permission.

Ghana
Photo by Amy Smith. Used with permission.

2.500 Desalination and Water Purification

More than 1 billion people lack access to clean drinking water Half the hospital beds in the world are occupied by patients with easily prevented water-borne disease Half the people p in the world do not have sanitation systems as good as those in Ancient Rome. In 2000, unsafe water mortality amounted to 80 million years of lost life (Science, 25 Jan 2008) This situation is expected to get WORSE.

Image from Wikimedia Commons,

Tanzania

Yangon, Myanmar May 2008 after cyclone

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2008/05/05/world/0505-MYANMAR_index.html http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2008/05/05/nytfrontpage/23097528.JPG

Photo source: The New York Times, Times 7 May 2008

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: http://www.flickr.com/photos/andrewheavens/100063338/ http://jimbicentral.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/2007/09/18/water_scarcity.jpg

Sources: postnewsline.com; Andrew Heavens (flickr.com).

Europe 2% Latin America and Caribbean 6% Africa 27%

Asia 65%

Water supply, distribution of unserved populations

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

100

80

60 % 40

20

Africa

Asia

Latin America & Caribbean

Oceania

Europe

North America

House or yard connection for water

Connected to sewer
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Water stress means that the annual water supply is below 1700 m3 per person.

Water scarcity means that the annual water supply is below 1000 m3 per person. p

Source: Gardener-Outlaw & Engelman

Source: Gardner-Outlaw, Tom, and Robert Engelman. "Sustaining Water, Easing Scarcity: A Second Update." Population Action International, May 1997. (PDF)

Image by Philippe Rekacewicz for UNEP/GRID-Arendal. "Freshwater Stress." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2000. Accessed September 25, 2009. 9

UNEP/GRID-Arendal. "Areas of Physical and Economic Water Scarcity." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Map and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2008. Accessed September 25, 2009.

10

Aral Sea water diverted for agriculture

Image from NASA Earth Observatory.

Source: infranetlab.org

11

World Insolation (kWh/m2-day)

0.0-0.9

1.0-1.9

2.0-2.9

3.0-3.9

4.0-4.9

5.0-5.9

6.0-6.9

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. 12

Source: Wikipedia

Image from Tobler, W., et al. "The Global Demography Project." TR-95-6. Santa Barbara, CA: National Center for Geographic Information Analysis, 1995. Image is in the public domain.

13

14 UNEP/GRID-Arendal. "Areas of Physical and Economic Water Scarcity." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Map and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2008. Accessed September 25, 2009.

Per capita water consumption (m3/y)

Worldwide average Nigeria China Mexico Italy USA World desalting capacity 800 50 300 800 1000 2000 2

Source: Science, v. 319, 25 Jan 2008

laist.com

Image removed due to copyright restrictions. Please see: http://www.flickr.com/photos/peggyarcher/975676140/in/set-72157601398334771/

Cleaning a sidewalk in Long Beach, CA

16

Domestic 11% Industrial 10%

Domestic 8%

Agricultural 30%

Industrial 59% Competing water uses (high-income countries)

Agricultural 82% Competing water uses (low-and middle-income countries)

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Image by Philippe Rekacewicz for UNEP/GRID-Arendal. "Global Freshwater Withdrawal." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2002. Accessed September 25, 2009.

Authors definition of waste is not clear; however, it is common for municipal water distribution systems to lose 20 to 40% of water by leakage.
Image by Philippe Rekacewicz for UNEP/GRID-Arendal. "Trends and Forecasts in Water Use, by Sector." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2002. Accessed September 25, 2009. 19

Product Bovine (cattle) Sheep and goats Meat (bovine fresh) Meat (sheep fresh) Meat (poultry, fresh) Cereals Citrus fruit Palm oil Pulses, roots and tubers

Unit Head Head Kilogram Kilogram Kilogram Kilogram Kilogram Kilogram Kilogram

Equivalent water in cubic meters 4,000 500 15 10 6 1.5 1 2 1

Water requirement equivalent of main food production.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Bottled water exp portation

and and importation

21 Image by Emmanuelle Bournay. "Major Bottled Water Exporters and Importers." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2006. Accessed September 25, 2009.

Many countries that consume larg large e amounts of bottled water have excellent t water tap t

22 Image by Emmanuelle Bournay. "Total Bottled Water Consumption." UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2006. Accessed September 25, 2009.

(Ground water: lakes, etc.) (Precipitation over land)

Approximately 23% of renewable water is appropriated for human uses, including agriculture agriculture. Accessible annual run run-off off is about 12,500 12 500 km3/y, /y of which about 54% is acquired for human use.
Courtesy of Sandia National Labs. Used with permission.

Source: Miller, 2003.

Water flows (km3/y)

Precipitation on land 120,000
Evaporation on land 70,000 groundwater River runoff and g recharge 50,000

Available river flow and recharge h 12,000

Withdrawal for human use Agriculture 3,500 Industry d 1,000 Domestic 500

Source: Science, v. 319, 25 Jan 2008

World desalting capacity = 13 km3/y

Figures from Wilf, M., and M. Balaban. Membrane Desalination and Membrane Filtration. L'Aquila, Italy: European Desalination Society, 2007. Used with permission.

Source: Sommariva,2007

Water Quality Q y Characteristics

Biological Characteristics microorganisms i i Physical Characteristics taste, , odor, , color, Chemical Characteristics natural or manmade

Ref: Reynolds & Richards

Images from Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org

Bi l i l Biological

Bacteria Viruses Protozoa Coliform bacteria (indicate human waste) Helminths Fungi algae Fungi,

Physical

Total solids (dissolved and suspended) Turbidity Color (apparent and true) Taste & odor (organic compounds in surface water; dissolved gases in ground water) Temperature pH p Anions & cations (dissolved solids) Alkalinity (HCO3, CO32+,OH system) Hardness ( (Ca2+, Mg g2+) Dissolved gases (O2, CO2, H2S, NH3, N2,CH4) Priority pollutants (organic and inorganic) 27

Chemical

Microbial contamination is the #1 concern for f water

Protozoans
Amoeba, cryptosporidium, giardia, algae,

Bacteria
Salmonella, typhus, cholera, shigella,

Viruses
Polio, hepatitis A, meningitis, encephalitis,

Helminths
Guinea worm, hookworm, roundworm,

Principal transmission is by human waste Principal purification technique is chlorination, especially for bacteria.
Ref: Faust and Aly, 1998.
28

Some water borne diseases can be eradicated 3,500,000 cases of Guinea worm in 1986. 1986

<5000 cases in 2008 80% in Sudan.

29 Courtesy of The Carter Center. Used with permission.

Physical characteristics
Suspended p solids include silt, , clay, y, algae, g , colloids, , bacteriaremove by settling, filtration, or flocculation Turbidity interferes with passage of light, usually as the result of colloidal material Color is due to dissolved (true color) or colloidal ( (apparent t color) l ) materialiron, t i l i manganese, clay, l Taste/odor typically treated by aeration (to release dissolved gas from ground water) or activated carbon (to remove organics from surface water)

30

EPA Primary Standards for ~130 130 chemicals

Toxic metals Arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, Organic compounds insecticides, herbicides, PCBs, petrochemicals, PAH, benzene, halogenated hydrocarbons,very long list Nitrate or nitrite fertilizer byproduct Fluorine damages teeth and bones at high concentrations Radionuclides mainly natural alpha emitters Secondary standards for taste, odor, appearance: Cl, SO42, pH, color, odor, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, foaming agents
Ref: WHO, 2006.
31

Source: Twort et al.

Organic compounds Dissolved salts Ca, Mg, Na Colloids Organic macromolecules Bacteria Protozoan parasites 0.0001 m 0.001 m 0.01 m 0.1 m 1 m 10 m 100 m Algae

Viruses

Reverse osmosis Nano filtration p Ultra filtration Micro filtration Sand filtration

Comparison of treatment methods with particle size.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

32

Why not drink seawater?

Seawater is usually about 3.5% by weight dissolved salts (35000 ppm) Human blood has the [osmotic] equivalent of about 0.9% salinity (~9000 ppm) Ingesting too much salt leads to excretion of water and deh dehydration. ydration. Seawater contains about 3x more dissolved salts than human blood. You cant drink it. It also tastes bad.
33

Characterization of Water Salinity

Minimum S li i TDS Salinity, [ppm or mg/kg] 15 000 15,000 1 500 1,500 500 0 Maximum S li i TDS Salinity, [ppm or mg/kg] 50 000 50,000 15 000 15,000 1,500 500
34

S Seawater t Brackish water River water (brackish) Pure water

After Fritzmann, 2007

(1982)

35

Courtesy of Robert H. Stewart. Used with permission.

Substance (amounts in mg/kg) Sodium, Na+ Magnesium, Mg2+ C l i Calcium, C Ca2+ Potassium, K+ Strontium, Sr+ Chloride, ClSulfate, SO42Bicarbonate, HCO3Bromide, BrBoric Acid, Acid B(OH)3 Fluoride, FlWater Total dissolved solids Nitrate, NO3 Retail Cost, US$/m3

Standard Seawater 10781 1284 412 399 13 19353 2712 126 67 26 1.3 965000 35200

Cambridge City Water 79 5 25 nr[1] nr 140 27 nr nr nr 1 320 0.46

Massachusetts Water Resources Authority 30 0.8 45 4.5 0.9 nr 21 8 nr 0.016 nr 1 110 0.11 1.18

Poland Springs Bottled Water 2.6-5.6 0.7-1.9 3595 3.5-9.5 0.74-0.88 nr 1.5-6.6 0.87-5.9 13-28 not detected nr 0.0-0.27 33-57 0.12-0.42 ~300 to 3000

Maximum Allowable aesthetics: 200 250 250 2-4 500 10 -

free?

1.05

[1]

nr = not reported.

36

Substance (amounts in mg/kg) Sodium, Na+ Magnesium, Mg2+ Calcium Ca2+ Calcium, Potassium, K+ Strontium, Sr+ Chloride, ClSulfate, SO42Bicarbonate, HCO3Bromide, BrBoric Acid, B(OH)3 Fluoride, FlSiO2 Nitrate, NO3 Total dissolved solids

Standard Seawater 10781 1284 412 399 13 19353 2712 126 67 26 1.3 2 nr 35200

High Salinity Brackish W t Water 1837 130 105 85 nr 2970 479 250 nr nr 1.4 17 5.0 5881

Low Salinity Brackish W t Water 90 11.7 96 6.5 nr 191 159 72.6 nr nr 0.2 24 nr 647

Massachusetts Water Resources A th it Authority 30 0.8 45 4.5 0.9 nr 21 8 nr 0.016 nr 1 3.3 0.11 110

Brackish compositions are representative; from M. Wilf, 2007

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Seawater purification
Work Fresh water

Desalination system t Seawater Concentrated brine Ideally, this requires 2.5 to 7 kJ per kg fresh water produced. Practi ticall lly, it t tak kes an ord der of f magnit itud de more energy.
38

Principal desalination techniques

Membrane techniques
Reverse osmosis (SWRO or BWRO) Electrodialysis (ED) Capacitative deionization (CDI) N Nanofiltration fil i (NF) Multistage flash evaporation (MSF) M l i ff distillation Multieffect di ill i (MED or MEE) Vapor compression distillation Solar thermal distillation (concentrating or not)

Distillation techniques

Related methods
Deionization Water softening

39

Installed desalination cap pacity y

S Brine <1% Pure 5% O Waste 6% U R C E Brackish 24% River 9%
Global
V Vapor C Compression i 3% Electrodialysis 5% Unknown <1% Brine <1% Pure 7% Waste 9% Unknown <1% Seawater 7% River 26%

Seawater 55%

US
Others 2%

Brackish 51% Ref: Wagnick/ GWI 2005

Multi-Effect Distillation 2% Others 2%

Nano Filtration 15% Nano-Filtration Multi-Effect Distillation 1% Vapor Compression 3% Electrodialysis 9% Multi-Stage Flash 1%

Multi-Stage Flash 40%

Global
Park Center for Complex Systems Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Reverse Osmosis 44%

US

P R O C E S S
Ref: Wagnick/ GWI 2005
40

Reverse Osmosis 69%

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

Source: Fritzmann et al., Desalination, 2007

41

1) Multi Stage Flash - MSF

Heating Steam from boiler Flash evaporation and heat recovery Chemical injection Seawater feed

Brine heater Product water Steam 90.6 C Condensate to boiler

O

Steam Brine

Steam Brine Blowdown 42oC

Brine

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

42

Ref: Sommariva, 2007

Courtesy of Corrado Sommariva. Used with permission.

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

Source: Fritzmann et al., 2007

44

Image removed due to copyright restrictions Please see: http://library.tedankara.k12.tr/chemistry/vol1/balances/trans76.jpg

Courtesy of Dennis Freeman, Martha Gray, and Alexander Aranyosi. Used with permission. Please also see: http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/aencmed/targets/illus/ilt/0007ff2f.gif

Osmosis. to achieve equilibrium Osmosis equilibrium, water will diffuse through a semi-permeable membrane into a solution. This occurs until sufficient hy ydrostatic pressure develop ps to offset the osmotic pressure

Sources: http://encarta.msn.com (left) http://library.tedankara.k12.tr/

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

If pressure is applied to the solution, the direction of osmotic flow can be reversed. In this way solvent can be driven through the membrane, purifying it.
Source: Fritzmann et al., 2007
46

Source: Sommariva,2007
Figures from Wilf, M., and M. Balaban. Membrane Desalination and Membrane Filtration. L'Aquila, Italy: European Desalination Society, 2007. Used with permission.

First stage has 32 pressure vessels; second stage has 14 (Wilf & Balaban ,2007)
Figures from Wilf, M., and M. Balaban. Membrane Desalination and Membrane Filtration. L'Aquila, Italy: European Desalination Society, 2007. Used with permission.

CONVENTIONAL ELECTRODIALYSIS
The process principle

Courtesy of Heiner Strathmann. Used with permission.

ions are removed from a feed solution and concentrated in alternating cells a cation and an anion-exchange membrane, and a diluate and concentrate cell form a cell pair

Strathmann, 2007

CONVENTIONAL ELECTRODIALYSIS
The electrodialysis stack

Courtesy of Heiner Strathmann. Used with permission.

an electrodialysis stack is composed of 100 to 400 cell pairs between electrode 50 compartments Strathmann, 2007

CONVENTIONAL ELECTRODIALYSIS
Water desalination costs
cost 10.0 []
ion-exchange electrodialysis reverse osmosis

Process principles of electrodialysis and reverse osmosis

+ + + + + - + + + + + + H2O + + +

distillation
1.0

0.1

surface water t
0.1 1

brackish t water
10

sea water
100

H2O

- +

feed water cncentration [g/L]

electrodialysis

reverse osmosis

costs estimated for a required product concentration of < 0.2 g/L (200 ppm)

irreversibl ible energy l loss proportional to ion transport (Eirr = zi F Ci U V)

irreversible i ibl energy l loss proportional to water transport ( Eirr = p Vwater)

Strathmann, 2007
Courtesy of Heiner Strathmann. Used with permission.

Solar Distillation
Sun radiation

Optimally bad?
Product Brine Schematic of simple solar still. Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare. Solar radiation 2nd cover 1st cover Absorber plate Tube Bond Insulation Water vapor Feed seawater

~ 1 L/m2-day

Reflection

..obvious improvements multiple glazing to control IR and convective loss

Sheet-and-tube solar collector. Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

52

Refs: Ettouney & Rizzuti, 2006; Duffie & Beckman, 2006

Humidification Dehumidification Desalination (HDH) Air heating, open cycle

Preheated seawater

Humidifier

Warm humid air i

Dehumidifier

Condensate Dry y air in

Solar Collector

Brine out Cold seawater in

Air out

53

Concepts from concentrating solar power can be applied to solar distillationgenerate lectri ici ity, th hen mak ke el water from waste heat or electricity

theoretical performance can be ~100X 100X better than solar still

Ref: Trieb et al., Nov. 2007

Courtesy of Franz Trieb and DLR. See www.dlr.de/tt/aqua-csp. Used with permission.

Major concerns in desalination systems

Cost: hardware, , site development p Cost: energy consumption Cost: maintenance
Scaling, from precipitation of salts (has a controlling influence on design of thermal systems) Fouling, Fouling from bacteria and other deposits Degradation of membranes Corrosion of hardware

Disposal of brine efflux, environmental impact Reliability, R li bili distribution, di ib i

55

Figures from Wilf, M., and M. Balaban. Membrane Desalination and Membrane Filtration. L'Aquila, Italy: European Desalination Society, 2007. Used with permission.

Source: Sommariva,2007

Prices for consumers in office sp paces occupy pying g 4180 m2 of city space and using 10,000 m3/y

Country Germany Denmark Belgium Netherlands France United Kingdom Italy Finland Ireland Sweden Spain U.S.A. Australia South Africa Canada
Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

$/M3 $1.91 $1.64 $1.54 $1.25 $1.23 $1.18 $0.76 $0.69 $0.63 $0.58 $0.57 $0.51 $0.50 $0.47 $0.40

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Some notes on 2 2.500 500 this semester

Term project j on purify ying g villag ge well water in Haiti

(will be introduced in March) Visit Koch Membrane Systems in Wilmington on Tuesday March 10 Tuesday, Visit GE Ionics in Watertown on Friday, March 13 Final project presentations on Tuesday May 12
GRADING

Approximately: homework (55%) (55%), term project (35%) (35%),

class participation (10%)

Listeners must register as listeners

58

Readings to accompany this lecture, all on Course Web s site

Michael Specter, The Last Drop, The New Yorker,

23 October 2006, pp. 60-71. W t for Water f People, P l Water W t for f Life Lif , UNESCO, UNESCO 2003 (skim) Section on Water Quality from Reynolds & Richards, Unit Operations,1995 EPA Primary y Drinking g Water Standards Peruse the other general articles on water if you are interested

59

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 18 19.

Water for People, Water for Life, United Nations World Water Development Report. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 2003. UNESCO Photobank, http://photobank.unesco.org/exec/index.htm J.P. Holdren, Science and Technology for Sustainable WellBeing, Science, 319 (25 Jan 2008) 424434. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Maps and Graphics Library. http://maps.grida.no/ T. GardenerOutlaw, R. Engelman, Sustaining Water, Easing Scarcity: A Second Update. Washington DC: P Populati l ion A Action i International, i l 1997. 1997 J.E. Miller, Review of water resources and desalination technologies, Sandi report SAND20030800, 2003. Albuquerque: Sandia National Laboratory. Water quality results obtained from web sites of the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority, the Cambridge City Water Department, and the Poland Spring Water Company. T. . Reynolds T.D. Reynolds and P.A. Richards, Richards, Unit Operations and Processes in Environmental nvironmental Engineering ngineering, 2nd ed. Boston: PWS Publishing Co., 1995. A.C. Twort, D.D. Rathnayaka, and M.J. Brandt, Water Supply, 5th ed., IWA Publishing. M. Wilf, The Guidebook to Membrane Desalination Technology. LAquila Italy: Balaban Desalination Publications, 2007. C. Fritzmann, J. Lowenberg, T. Wintgens, T. Melin, Stateoftheart reverse osmosis desalination, Desalination, 216 (2007) 176. 76 M. Wilf and M. Balaban, Membrane Desalination and Membrane Water Filtration, European Desalination Society intensive course notes, LAquila, Italy, February 2007. S.D. Faust and O.M. Aly, Chemistry of Water Treatment, 2nd ed. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers/CRC, 1998. WHO Guidelines for drinkingwater quality, 3rd edition. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2006. Seawater Salinity Graphic from Texas A&M University Physical Oceanographic Course Web site. http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter06/chapter06_03.htm M. AlGhamdi, Saline Water Conversion Corporation: Challenge, Achievement, and Future Prospective. Lecture notes, April 2006. C. Sommariva, Short Course Notes on Reverse Osmosis Desalination, 2007. H Strathmann, H. Strathmann Electromembrane processes: Stateoftheart processes and recent developments, developments lecture notes, 2007. Dr. Franz Trieb et al., Concentrating Solar Power for Seawater Desalination, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Technical Thermodynamics, Nov. 2007.

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