Geology 11

Handout 12: Earthquakes

2nd sem. AY 12-13

Earthquake intense ground shaking caused by sudden release of energy can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions, large extraterrestrial impacts and sudden slippage along faults Elastic Rebound Theory Before an earthquake, areas on opposite sides of a fault are subjected to force and accumulate energy. They undergo deformation until such time that their internal strength is exceeded, which will cause a sudden release in energy (earthquake).

Parts of an earthquake:

Fault hypocenter/focus- source of earthquake; point in a fault plane where slippage occur Epicenter- point on the surface directly above focus

Seismology study of behavior of seismic waves Seismometer instrument that records ground motion Seismograph instrument that records seismic waves Kinds of Seismic Waves 1. Body waves emanate from the focus and emanate in all directions through the Earths interior P-wave compressional (primary wave); fastest waves; can travel through solids and liquids [push-pull motion] S-wave movement is perpendicular to propagation (secondary or shear wave); can travel through solids only [side to side motion] 2. Surface waves travel along paths nearly parallel to the Earths surface but not through the interior Love wave horizontal motion that is perpendicular to propagation [side to side motion] Rayleigh wave rolling surface wave that moves the ground up and down

Describing the strength of an earthquake Intensity is the degree of ground shaking at a given locale based on the amount of damage (Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale; Philippine Earthquake Intensity Scale) Magnitude is calculated from seismic records and estimates the amount of energy released at the source (Richter Scale) Locating the epicenter: at least 3 seismic graph is needed, their intersection is the epicenter of the earthquake Visit: http://www.sciencecourseware.org/virtualearthquake/vquakeexecute.html Structural damage due to earthquake vibrations depends on: Wave amplitudes Duration of vibrations Nature of material upon which the structure rests ( ground shaking on bedrock is lesser than shaking in sandstone) Design of structure

1 Mendoza, J.A.

Geology 11

Handout 12: Earthquakes

2nd sem. AY 12-13

Secondary effects of earthquakes Tsunamis offshore faults movement causes the water to displace, this displacement causes the formations of waves and waves accumulates to bigger waves as it approaches the shore landslides fire ground subsidence liquefaction soil shakes as a liquid (i.e earthquake in sediment) Earthquake prediction: short term Monitor to look for patterns of recurrence Strange animal behavior Increase in seismic tremors (mini-quakes) Seismic gaps Gas emissions Electromagnetic signals Earthquake prediction: earthquake cycles Seismic waves and the interior of the earth Much of what we know about the interior of the Earth comes from knowledge of seismic wave velocities and their variation with depth in the Earth. Body wave velocities are as follows:

where K = incompressibility = rigidity = density

Higher density, higher velocity If the earth were homogeneous, it is possible to predict when a seismic signal will travel any given distance. If the seismic wave velocity in the rock above an interface is less than the seismic wave velocity in the rock below the interface, the waves will be refracted or bent upward relative to their original path. Propagation of seismic waves through the earth: P waves are refracted S waves do not propagate through a certain depth Layers of the Earth Crust Mantle seismic wave velocities increase rapidly at the Moho Core P wave velocities suddenly decrease and S wave velocities go to zero (outer core); at depth of ~4800 km, P wave velocities suddenly increase (inner core)

Philippine Earthquake Generators Oblique convergence of two subducting oceanic plates Collision zones Active faults - Moved for the past 10,000 years - Observable geomorphic features

2 Mendoza, J.A.