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4
Hydraulic Structures for
Flow Diversion and
Storage
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
Lesson
7
Design and
Construction of
Concrete Gravity Dams
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
Instructional objectives
On completion of this lesson, the student shall learn:
1. The different types of embankment dams
2. Causes of failure of embankment dams
3. Design procedure for earthen embankment dams
4. Seepage control measures for embankment dams and their foundations
5. Computation of seepage through embankment dams
6. Stability calculations for embankment dams
7. Construction process for embankment dams
8. Instrumentation in embankment dams
4.7.0 Introduction
An embankment dam, as defined earlier, is one that is built of natural materials. In its
simplest and oldest form, the embankment dam was constructed with low-permeability
soils to a nominally homogeneous profile. The section featured neither internal drainage
nor a cutoff to restrict seepage flow through the foundation. Dams of this type proved
vulnerable associated with uncontrolled seepage, but there was little progress in design
prior to the nineteenth century. It was then increasingly recognized that, in principle,
larger embankment dams required two component elements.
Although the loads acting on the concrete gravity dam (discussed in lesson 4.6) is the
same acting on the embankment dam, the method of design and analysis of the two
differ considerably. This is mostly because the gravity dam acts as one monolithic
structure, and it has to resist the destabilizing forces with its own self weight mainly.
Failure to do so may lead to its topping, sliding or crushing of some of the highly
stressed regions. An embankment dam, on the other hand, cannot be considered
monolithic. It is actually a conglomerate of particles and on the action of the various
Hydraulic failures
This type of failure occurs by the surface erosion of the dam by water. This may happen
due to the following reasons:
1. Overtopping of the dam which might have been caused by a flood that exceeded
the design flood for the spillway. Sometimes faulty operation of the spillway gates
may also lead to overtopping since the flood could not be let out in time through the
i) Control of cracking
Cracking of the impervious core results into a failure of an earth dam by erosion,
piping, breaching, etc. Cracking occurs due to foundation settlement and/or
differential movements within the embankment. Differential moments may occur
a) Impervious core,
b) Inclined/vertical filter with horizontal filter,
c) Network of inner longitudinal drain and cross drains,
d) Horizontal filter,
e) Transition zones/transition filters,
f) Intermediate filters,
g) Rock toe, and
h) Toe drain.
The drainage system may comprise of either one or a combination of more than one of
these drainage features, and typical sections are shown for homogeneous dams, in
Figure 35 and for zoned dams, in Figure 36. The functions of each of the components
are described in the following paragraphs.
Concrete Diaphragm
A single diaphragm or a double diaphragm may also be used for seepage control
(Figure 46). Concrete cutoff walls placed in slurry trench are not subject to visual
inspection during construction, therefore require special knowledge, equipment and
skilled workmen to achieve a satisfactory construction.
Grout Curtain in Rock: Grout curtain in rock admit of routinized treatment if the purpose
is only to block the most pervious zones. These can be treated by cement grout with
suitable admixtures. Concentrated seepage would generally develop at the base of the
positive cutoff. This zone is particularly vulnerable when a narrow base width is used for
the cutoff trench in relation to the height of the dam. The depth of the grouted zone
would be dependent on the nature of the substrata and their vulnerability to subsurface
erosion.
Details about the method of grouting may be had from Bureau of Indian Standards code
IS: 11293(Part1)-1985 “Guidelines for the design of grout curtails: Earth and rockfill
dams”. An indicative illustration of grout curtain is shown in Figure 47.
The flow of the seepage water below the phreatic line can be approximated by the
Laplace Equation:
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ =0 (1)
∂x 2 ∂z 2
where φ is the potential head, and x and z are the coordinates in the horizontal and
vertical dimensions, respectively
It is assumed that the phreatic line which emanates at P, meets the horizontal drainage
blanket at B and is, for most of its downstream part, a parabola (first proposed by A.
Casagrande). This curve is termed as the Base Parabola and is assumed to have its
focus at A, the upstream edge of the horizontal drainage blanket. The Base Parabola,
on its upstream part is assumed to meet the reservoir water surface at a point P0 that is
0.3L upstream of P, as shown in Figure 49. In order to obtain the Base Parabola, one
has to consider P0 as the centre, and draw an arc A-R, with the radius equal to P0-A.
The point R is on a horizontal line at the same elevation of the reservoir surface. From
point R, a perpendicular is dropped on to the top surface of the horizontal drainage
blanket to meet it at a point C.
h
Δh = (2)
Νd
If along the flow path, the length of the side of a flow net box between one potential and
the other is l, then the hydraulic gradient across the square is Δh/l
The discharge passing through two streamlines of the field (Δq) is given as
Δh
Δq = Κ ⋅ ⋅b (3)
l
h ⎛b⎞ ⎛b⎞ ⎛ Ν f ⎞
⎟⎟
q = ∑ Δq = Κ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ Ν f = Κ ⋅ h ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ (4)
Νd ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ Νd ⎠
The above calculations would give the quantity of water seeping through the body of the
dam. Similar calculations have to be done for the quantity of seepage taking place
through the foundation.
The details about the two methods of stability analysis for earthen embankment dams is
given in the Bureau of Indian Standards Code IS: 894-1975 “Code of practice for
stability analysis of earth dams”.
An earth dam has to be safe and stable during all phases of its construction and
operation of the reservoir. Hence, the analyses have to be carried out for the most
critical combination of external forces which are likely to occur in practice. The following
conditions are usually considered critical for the stability of an earthen embankment
dam:
• Case I - Construction condition with or without partial pool: Check stability of upstream
and downstream slopes
• Case II - Reservoir partial pool: Check stability of upstream slope
• Case III - Sudden drawdown: Check stability of downstream slope
• Case IV - Steady seepage: Check stability of downstream slope
• Case V - Steady seepage with sustained rainfall: Check stability of upstream and
downstream slopes
Case I - Construction Condition With or Without Partial Pool (for Upstream and
Downstream Slopes)
This represents a situation when the structure is just constructed. In this condition the
pore pressures developed as a result of dam material compression due to the overlying
fill are not dissipated or are only partly dissipated. If the rate of raising of dam is less
than about 15 meters per year, this condition may not become critical as the residual
pore pressure in the dam and foundation are expected to be negligible except in highly
clayey foundation with high water table, for example, marshy areas.
Construction pore pressures may exceed the pore pressures likely to be developed due
to the seepage from the reservoir and consequently may control the design of dam. The
magnitude and distribution of these pore pressures depend primarily on the construction
water content in embankment and natural water content in the foundation, the
properties of the soil, rate of raising, the height of dam and the rate at which dissipation
may occur due to internal drainage.
The above values of pore pressures are based on a drawdown rate of 3 m/month.
For the core material which is generally impervious full pore pressures shall be allowed
for the core zone lying in the drawdown range. If a zone of random material with the
properties intermediate between core and the shell material is provided in between
upstream shell and core of the dam, the pore pressures for sudden drawdown condition
shall be allowed for in the same way as for the core.
As was discussed for concrete dams in Lesson 4.6, arrangements have to be made to
divert the river while constructing an embankment dam. This temporary exclusion of
river flow is necessary to provide dry or semi-dry area for the work to continue.
However, for concrete dams, after the initial levels in touch with the foundation have
been built, the river water during floods may be allowed to overtop the partially
completed structure during monsoons. In case of embankment dam, it is rarely allowed
as overtopping would generally lead to a washout of the downstream face first and the
rest follows the collapse. Hence, for embankment dams, the diversion measures require
the detouring of the whole flood water through bye-pass. In only special cases, has an
embankment been constructed that has been allowed to overtop only when partly
constructed. The downstream face has to be sufficiently protected in that case with
concrete blocks or gabions. Details of river diversion for dams may be found in the
Bureau of Indian Standards Code IS:10084-1984 (Part 2) “Design of diversion works-
Criteria” from where the following has been called. Figure 55 shows a typical example of
a diversion channel for earth/rockfill dam project in a narrow river. The layout and
principal dimensions, specifically the cross-section of the diversion channel is governed
by several considerations such as topography, volume of flood to be handled, water
levels during passage of monsoon and non-monsoon floods in consonance with raising
of the dam and requirement of excavated material from the diversion channel for use in
constructing the earth dam, etc. The coffer dams in such a case form an integral part of
the earth and rockfill dam in the finally completed stage, and are also not allowed to be
overtopped. Because of the considerable expenditure and time involved in the
construction of diversion channel for earth dams, these channels are designed to be
useful for other purpose also such as spillway tail channel or power house tail channel.
Although, initially such channels may be without protective lining on the sides, they are
protected at a subsequent stage when utilized for spillway or power house tail race
channel.
Foundation preparation
The principles of foundation treatment for concrete gravity dams have been outlined in
Lesson 4.6, Similar methods have to be adopted for embankment dams, too. However,
the Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 11973-1986 “Code of practice for treatment of
rock foundations, core and abutment contacts with rock, for embankment dams” deals
specifically with the requirement of an embankment dam. Some important points from
this standard are explained below.
Basically, the surface under the entire core and under a portion of the upstream filter
and downstream transition zone shall be completely excavated to such rock as will offer
adequate resistance to erosion of fines in the core.
All loose or semi-detached blocks of rock should be removed. The quality of rock shall
be judged characteristic of core material. Rock of ‘Lugeon’ values in percolation test
within 10 (Ten) will generally be free of cracks larger than 0.025 mm. Erosion of fines
from core materials commonly used would not occur through such cracks. Grouting may
be necessary to bring down ‘Lugeon’ values to above allowable limits in the contact
zone.
The amount of care required in treating the rock surface is controlled by the character of
the core material. If the core material is resistant to piping, especially if it contains
considerable coarse material with adequate proportion of sand, surface treatment is
less demanding than if the core material is susceptible to piping; for example, a fine silty
sand and very lean clays. In the latter case, extreme care should be taken and the core
material should be placed only after very careful inspection of the treated surface. For
dispersive clays, special precautions, such as protection by filter fabric or plastic
concrete may be required.
Small ribs and similar irregularities should be filled with plastic concrete to produce
slopes not steeper than about 1:1 where the difference in elevation is a few centimeters
to a meter or so. Surface treatment in this fashion should extend upstream to
approximately the mid-point of the upstream filter and downstream at least 0.6 to 0.9 m
beyond the downstream edge of the fine filter. In particularly adverse situations, such as
where there are joints wider than the coarser particles of the filter, surface treatment as
described may be necessary under the entire transition zone.
The final rock surface should have smooth contours against which soil can be
compacted by heavy equipment. Hand compaction is generally unsatisfactory and it is
advisable to place plastic concrete in core contact areas of conduit trenches and other
irregularities transverse to the dam axis for a width at least 0.5 H or preferably 1.0 H.
Surface treatment as described may be difficult to accomplish on steeply sloping
abutments. In this case, gunite may be used for filling depressions after the cracks and
joints have been cleaned and sealed. If there is extensive jointing, especially if the joints
Grouting
There are three main objectives in the grouting programme (see also IS : 6066-1984).
These are as follows:
To reduce the seepage flow through the dam foundation;
To prevent possible piping or washing of fines from the core into cracks and
fissures in the foundation; and
Quality Control
The performance of an earth or rockfill dam depends upon the control exercised during
construction, supervision and inspection. An entirely safe design may be ruined by
careless and shoddy execution. Proper quality control during construction is as
important as the design. The skill, experience and judgment required of the engineer in
charge of construction, is in no way lesser than that of the design engineer. Hence, the
Bureau of Indian Standards has published the following publication which provides
guidance for construction of embankment dams with regards to quality control IS:
14690-1999 “Quality control during construction of earth and rockfill dams-
recommendations”.
4.7.8 Instrumentation
Numerous embankment dams constructed in India and abroad and the height achieved
ever increasing, like the Nurek Dam of Russia (Figure 57). From the point of view of
safety as well as to garner knowledge about the physical behaviour of these dams,
instrumentation has been recommended all medium and large sized dams. The data
obtained from these measurements also help the commonly made either explicity or
implicity in an embankment dam design. In fact, it is very important to monitor the
behavior of the dams under earthquake loadings and those constructed in regions of
high seismic activity need to be instrumented carefully.
Pore Pressure
The measurement of pore pressure is probably the most important and usual
measurement to be made in the embankments. Their measurement enables the
seepage pattern set up after impounding of reservoir to be known, the danger of erosion
to be estimated, at least partially, and the danger of slides in the dam and abutments to
be estimated if the reliable shear strength is known. Valuable information about
behaviour during construction and drawdown is obtained.
Seepage
Measurement of seepage through and past a dam, may indicate erosion or blocking of
downstream drains and relief wells, by increase or decrease of seepage, respectively at
constant reservoir conditions. Seepage and erosion along the lines of poor compaction
and through cracks in foundations and fills may specially be indicated by such
measurements.
Surface Markers: Surface marker points consist of steel bars which are driven vertically
into the embankment or the ground and embedded in concrete. A reference base line is
established on a firm ground outside the area of movement due to reservoir and
embankment load. Position of surface stakes or markers fixed on the embankment are
determined by survey with reference to this line. It measures horizontal movements
also. Surface markers may be established on lines parallel to the centre line of the dam
at 50 to 100m centres. The lines may be at the edge of the top width of the dam, at the
edge of berms or at suitable intervals along the slope, at the toe. of the dam and at 50
m and 100 m from toe if foundation soil is not firm. These may be provided both on
upstream and downstream slopes except in locations on upstream slope which remain
throughout the year below lake water.
Cross-Arm Installation: It consists of telescopic steel casing to which are attached
horizontal cross-arms at predetermined vertical intervals. As the soil settles, sections of
Induction Coil Type Extensometers: This induction coil type extensometers consist of an
electrical probe made of PVC and having a diameter of 35mm or 43mm which houses a
primary electrical exit. The probe is connected to an indicator electrical cable. Indicator
has a volt/ammeter to measure the voltage/current increase when the primary coil
enters a secondary coil, when there is a steel marker ring or plate, it will indicate a
current/voltage which could be read through the indicator. Series of marker rings
installed over a corrugated PVC pipe installed over a PVC access tubes or inclinometer
tube should help monitoring the settlement.
Piezometers
Piezometers are installed in embankment dams to monitor the pressure of water within
the soil or rock fragment. Typical installation locations of these devices are shown in
Figure 58 and the details of some particular types are described below.
Earth Pressure Cells: The usual instrument to measure earth pressure is the earth
pressure cell. It uses a stiff diaphragm on which the earth pressure acts. The action is
transmitted through an equalizing, confined, incompressible fluid (Mercury) on to a
second pressure responsive element, the deflection of which is proportional to the earth
pressure acting. The deflection is transformed into an electrical signal by a resistance
wire (unbonded strain gauge) or vibrating wire strain gauge and transmitted through a
cable embedded in the earth work to a receiver unit on the surface. The measure of the
electrical signal indirectly indicates the earth pressure by appropriate calibration.
Instruments for measuring effects of dynamic loads due to earthquake include
seismographs, accelerographs, and structural response records, details of which may
be had from the Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 4967-1968 “Recommendations
for seismic instrumentation for river valley projects”.