Algal biodiesel production from power plant exhaust and its potential to replace petrodiesel and reduce greenhouse

gas emissions

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K. Hundt * and B.V. Reddy Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada L1H 7K4

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Abstract
The production of biofuels and other products from algae is a technology that is rapidly developing. This paper presents an overview of algae, its benefits over other biofuel sources and the technology involved in producing algal biofuel. The case study in this report looks at the potential of algal biodiesel, produced using power plant exhaust, to replace our current petrodiesel supply and consequently reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The results suggest that using 60% of all coal and gas power plants would allow this new fuel source to replace petrodiesel entirely and thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 5%. The challenge at the present is to improve the efficiency of algal fuel production technology so as to lower the cost of algal biodiesel and thereby make it commercially competitive with petrodiesel. Researchers are currently developing various means of accomplishing this and successful commercialization is anticipated by 2018.

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Keywords: algae; biofuel; diesel; CO2; emissions

*Corresponding author: kevin.hundt@hotmail.com

Received 15 April 2011; accepted 21 June 2011

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1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been increasing concern about issues such as resource consumption, rising energy prices and environmental pollution. There is much speculation about the date of peak oil production and the viability of various sustainable alternatives. Another central issue is global warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Over half of these greenhouse gases result from the use of fossil fuels [1]. Alternative sources of energy are one obvious solution. In 2005, the fossil fuels oil, coal and natural gas, respectively, made up 37, 25 and 23% of world energy consumption [2]. This means that alternatives make up only 15% of our energy supply. There are several alternatives available for electrical power generation and heating including: nuclear, biomass, hydro, solar, wind and geothermal. However, for oil our largest energy source, this is not the case. Although we are heavily reliant on it for transportation, oil appears to have fewer alternatives. One is to use electric motors to power our vehicles. This requires fuel cell or battery technology, both of

which are under extensive research and development. A second alternative is to keep our existing engine technology and use fuels that do not contribute to global warming. Plants and similar organisms are an ideal source for fuel because they store energy and are abundant and renewable. This paper explores the production of biofuel from algae, its benefits and future potential.

2 OVERVIEW OF ALGAE BIOFUEL TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Why use algae for fuel feedstock?
With numerous sugar crops, oil crops, animal fats and waste cooking oil already established as suitable feedstock for biofuel production, why even consider algae? The reality is that there are not enough land resources and waste sources. Besides the current lack of suitable alternatives, there are a number of ways that algae show great promise as a biofuel feedstock. One obvious benefit of using algae is that they do not require fertile land for production. Instead, they can be grown

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in a wide variety of areas including sewage ponds, the ocean, on marginal land or in special reactor containers. Closed algal production systems also have the potential to consume much less water than plant crops. This means that algae energy is potentially available to most nations and using algae as a fuel source does not adversely affect food and water supply as do grains, oilseeds and other plant crops. Second, algae are the fastest growing photosynthetic organisms in the world and can double their mass in less than 24 h [3]. Research indicates that algae have the potential to produce many times more energy per unit of land area than the best fuel crops. Depending on the species and growth conditions, experts estimate algae to be anywhere from seven to several hundred times more productive per unit of land than other oil crops [4]. Since they grow rapidly and can be harvested on a daily basis, algae provide a continual supply of energy [5]. Also, algae grow best with a concentrated source of carbon dioxide. This means algae growers can utilize flue gas from power plants and capture a significant portion of carbon and nitrogen oxides from the exhaust, thus preventing it from entering the atmosphere [6]. This has clear benefits in the reduction in the global warming impact of power plants. Algae can also utilize another waste: contaminated water. Algae have high nutritional requirements which they can meet by purifying sewage or waste water. The wide variety of algal species offers researchers a lot of options for culturing algae in a wide variety of environments. Also, the simple structure of algae makes them relatively easy to study, test and even genetically modify. This is one of the most promising characteristics of algae as a future fuel source. Additionally, it may improve national energy security by reducing dependency on unstable, foreign sources of oil.

and is a closed system. The water and algae are circulated through an array of clear tubes exposing them to sunlight or artificial light. Nutrients are continually added including a source of concentrated carbon dioxide. An ideal source is power plant exhaust. It helps with circulation and mixing and helps reduce fouling of the tubes. At the same time, the algaes consumption reduces the power plants greenhouse gas emissions. Oxygen and algal biomass are continually drawn off. Since it is enclosed, this system has the added advantage of avoiding contamination, a common problem in open systems. This allows more productive algal species (which can be over 50% oil by weight) to be used, many of which tend to be less aggressive than more hardy invasive species. When growing diatom algae in a photo-bioreactor 42 000 kg (46 t) of oil can be produced in 1 year on one hectare of land [8].

2.3 Extraction and processing of algal biomass

After the algal biomass has been produced, it must be harvested before it can be made into fuel. This can be done by filtration, centrifugation, flotation or flocculation. Although this biomass can be dried or gasified and then combusted, there is already an abundance of cheaper sources of solid biomass (like wood and straw) for this application. Algal biomass is generally grown with a high oil percentage with the intention of using it as a feedstock for biodiesel since it is well suited for this purpose. There are several methods of extracting the oil from the algal biomass. The first is to simply press the biomass which will extract most of the oil. The second method involves extraction by chemical solvents; hexane is a popular choice since it is inexpensive. Some researchers are exploring the use of ultrasound to generate tiny bubbles which burst and collapse algal cell walls and release the oil content [4]. The method that currently provides the most pure and concentrated oil is supercritical fluid extraction. In this process, a gas (generally carbon dioxide) is liquefied and heated, and then acting as a solvent it can extract almost 100% of the oils from the algal biomass. The remaining portion of the biomass can be used as fertilizer or high protein animal feed [6]. The remnants can also be converted to biochar via pyrolysis. This sequesters carbon and can improve the soil quality [9]. After extraction, the algal oil is in the form of triglycerides which have a very high energy density. However, the viscosity of oil is too high to be directly used in a diesel engine. A common way to convert the oil into lower viscosity biodiesel is through the chemical process of transesterification. In this process illustrated below, the triglycerides (algal oils) are combined with an alcohol like methanol or ethanol and a sodium- or potassium-based catalyst. The products are fatty acid esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. After this reaction, the products are separated and the excess alcohol is recovered for reuse. The esters are rinsed and dried resulting in biodiesel. Although transesterification is the most common method of reducing the viscosity of the algae oil, there are other options including dilution, microemulsification and pyrolysis [6].
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2.2 Algae production systems

For growth algae require light, water, carbon dioxide and inorganic nutrients. These nutrients include nitrates, phosphates, iron and trace elements. The optimum temperature for growth tends to be in the range 20 308C [6]. There are several ways of growing algae. The first and most basic is simply a shallow pond. Waste water or other nutrient rich substances are added and algae are filtered out. One benefit of this system is that it works well to remove nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage ponds. The water is purified and the high level of nutrients allow for fast algal growth. Though inexpensive, it is difficult to efficiently control growth and harvest algae from these ponds [7]. The second system uses what is called a racetrack design. It too is an open pond but it is a specifically designed circuit. Nutrients are continually added at a certain location and the algae are harvested in another. A water wheel keeps the water circulating which also helps with nutrient mixing and prevents solids from settling [6]. Though the most expensive to set up, the third system is becoming very popular. It is called an algal photo-bioreactor

K. Hundt and B.V. Reddy

2.4 Algal biodiesel

Algal biodiesel, though similar to petroleum diesel, does have some differences. The primary difference is the existence of oxygen in the fuel molecules. This results in a slightly lower energy density. Biodiesel has lower emissions of unburned hydrocarbons and close to 100% reduction in sulphur oxide emissions. Depending on conditions, biodiesel generally has higher nitrogen oxide emissions. Biodiesel has much lower toxicity and much better biodegradability. The existence of polyunsaturated oils in algal biodiesel means that it can degrade prematurely. On the plus side, it gives algae biodiesel lower viscosity and therefore better cold weather performance than biodiesel from other plant sources [6]. Although biodiesel is the most common, methane and ethanol can also be derived from algal biomass. The former can be produced by anaerobic digestion and the latter by fermentation or gasification.

that can potentially be produced from 1 kg of CO2 exhaust.

a emissions kg CO2 fraction of plant exhaust CO2 utilized CO2 conversion factor kg algae=kg CO2 oil conversion factor kg oil=kg algae biodiesel conversion factor kg bd=kg oil diesel specific volume l=kg bd 1
To calculate the potential global capacity to produce algal biodiesel from power plant exhaust, begin with the annual electrical production from all coal plants. This value is multiplied by the rate at which CO2 is exhausted from coal plants. The total is multiplied by the rate at which biodiesel is produced from CO2. This rate is found using Equation (1). The same calculation is performed using the values for natural gas power plants, and the totals for the two plant types are added together. The global potential for producing algal biodiesel from power plant exhaust b (litres of biodiesel per year) is calculated using the following equations:

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3 CASE STUDY
Due to concerns about its impact on global warming, researchers have been looking for ways to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. One method is to capture the exhaust CO2 from fossil fuel power plants and pump it underground. Another option, as mentioned previously, is to use exhaust CO2 to produce algal fuel and thus eliminate the CO2 emissions from the fossil fuel it displaces. This case study looks at the potential to produce algal biodiesel using fossil fuel power plant exhaust. More specifically, it determines how much algal biodiesel can be produced from a kilogram of exhaust CO2, and the estimated cost of doing so. It also looks at how much of the worlds petrodiesel demand could potentially be supplied by algae grown at power plants and the potential impact of this on greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, production cost for petrodiesel and algal biodiesel are projected into the near future under various scenarios so as to forecast the future economic competitiveness of algal biodiesel.

bc Global Coal Electricity Production MWh=year Coal CO2 exhaust rate kg CO2 =MWh biodiesel production rate l bd=kg CO2 bng Global NG Electricity Production MWh=year
NG CO2 exhaust rate kgCO2 =MWh biodiesel production rate lbd=kgCO2

3 4

btotal bc bng

To estimate the potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as a result of entirely replacing petrodiesel with biodiesel, it is convenient to begin with our total current diesel fuel demand. This value is multiplied by the ratio of CO2 produced per unit of fuel. The result is divided by the total CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emissions and then multiplied by 100%. Therefore, the reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions g (%) is as follows:

3.1 Methodology
To determine the amount of algal biodiesel that can be produced from power plant exhaust, it is simplest to begin with 1 kg of CO2. This is multiplied by the fraction of exhaust CO2 actually utilized by the algae. This in turn is multiplied by the CO2 conversion factor which indicates the amount of algal biomass produced per kilogram of utilized CO2. Next, this is multiplied by the oil conversion factor which accounts for the fraction of the algal mass which is converted into oil. The resulting value is multiplied by the biodiesel conversion factor which indicates the portion of the oil which is converted into biodiesel. Finally, we multiply by the specific volume of diesel (l/kg) and the result, a (litres), is the amount of algal biodiesel
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g diesel fuel demand l=year diesel CO2 conversion ratio kg CO2 =l of petrodiesel global greenhouse gas emissions year=kg CO2 eq: 100% 5
Finally, to forecast the future competitiveness of algal biodiesel, it is necessary to begin with both its estimated current production cost and that of petrodiesel. These two costs are then projected into the future based on different economic conditions. The production cost of petrodiesel is projected at the historic rate of price increase and conservatively, at half the historic rate. The historic rate is based on weekly diesel fuel prices in the USA from 21 March 1994 to 14 February 2011 [10]. The data are plotted and a linear trend derived. It is assumed that the production cost of petrodiesel tends to increase in

Algal biodiesel production from power plant exhaust

proportion to its sale price due to inflation and the increased cost of developing less easily accessible resources so as to meet growing energy demand. The production cost of algal biodiesel is projected in three scenarios: no increase in production efficiency; a 5% annual increase in production efficiency and an optimistic increase in production efficiency of 10% per year. An annual rate of inflation of 2% is also taken into account.

Table 1. Case study results

Natural Gas Power Plant Algal biodiesel production rate Algal biodiesel production cost Algal biodiesel competitive production cost Global algal biodiesel production capacity (potential) Portion of coal and NG power plants requiring refit to replace petrodiesel with biodiesel Reduction in greenhouse gas emissions if algal biodiesel replaced petrodiesel
a

Coal Power Plant 114 l/MWh

0.12 l/kg COa 2 60 l/MWhb $1.54/l ($0.308/kg CO2) $0.62/l ($0.124/kg CO2) 258 billion l/year 60%

3.2 Assumptions
In order to complete the calculations required to obtain the desired results, it is necessary to make certain assumptions regarding the characteristics of algae and current production and processing technology. All assumed values are listed and referenced below. (i) Algae utilize 66% of exhaust CO2 (based on an average of 50% on cloudy days and 82% on sunny days) [11]. (ii) 1.83 kg of utilized CO2 makes 1 kg of algal biomass [12]. (iii) The algae species cultivated yield 50% oil by weight [6]. All of which is extracted. (iv) 60% of the mass of algal oil is converted into fatty acids (biodiesel). The remaining 40% consists of glycerides and impurities [13]. (v) Algal oil has a similar density as soybean oil: 0.92 kg/l [14]. (vi) Biodiesel and petrodiesel have mass densities of 0.88 and 0.83 kg/l, respectively. (vii) Current global petrodiesel fuel consumption is 700 billion litres per year [15]. (viii) An equivalent amount of greenhouse gases are released in the production of biodiesel and petrodiesel. (ix) Combustion of 1 l of petrodiesel emits 2.67 kg of CO2 [16]. (x) Natural gas and coal power plants emit 500 and 950 kg CO2/MWh, respectively [17]. (xi) Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are 40 1012 kg CO2 equivalent per year [1]. (xii) Current world electricity production from coal and natural gas is approximately the same as it was in 2008 (8 262 523 and 4 300 963 GWh, respectively) [18]. (xiii) It costs $1.40/l to produce algal oil [12]. To be competitive with petroleum diesel, this needs to be reduced to $0.48/l. The cost of converting bio oil into biodiesel is $0.14/l [6].

946 billion l/year

4.7%

In Table 1, kg CO2 refers to a kilogram of CO2 exhausted from the power plant. b In Table 1, MWh refers to a megawatt hour of electrical power output from the power plant.

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Figure 1. Projected production costs of petrodiesel and algal biodiesel.

competitive. Figure 1 illustrates how algal biodiesel is expected to be economically competitive with petrodiesel by 2018 in all but the most pessimistic case where the production cost of petrodiesel increases at half the historic rate and algal biodiesel sees no increase in production efficiency. If all natural gas and coal power plants were utilized, the total global potential to produce algal biodiesel is estimated to be 12 billion litres per year. Only 60% of gas and coal power plants require refit in order to replace petrodiesel with algal biodiesel. The result would be a 4.7% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

3.3 Case study results

As shown in Table 1, algal biodiesel can be produced at a rate of 0.12 l/kg of exhaust CO2. This is equivalent to a rate of 60 114 l/MWh depending on the plants fuel type. The current cost of producing algal biodiesel using a photobioreactor and power plant exhaust is estimated to be $1.54/l. However, a production cost of $0.60/l is currently considered

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The content of the initial literature review and the results of the case study both indicate that algal biodiesel has enormous potential as a future fuel source. Algae require minimal land resources and have minimal impact on the food supply. They have a rapid growth rate, high oil content and can utilize waste streams for nutrition. If all global coal and gas power plants
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were harnessed to supply exhaust for photobioreactors, 12 billion litres of algal biodiesel could be produced annually. The global current consumption of diesel fuel is only 7 billion litres per year [19]. Replacing petrodiesel with algal biodiesel would reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by 4.7%. Currently, the production cost of algal biodiesel is 60% higher than the production cost of petrodiesel. However, due to anticipated increases in algal fuel production technology, increasing demand for diesel fuel and increasing petrodiesel production costs, it is forecasted that, in all but the worst-case scenario, algal biodiesel will become commercially competitive with petrodiesel by 2018. These results are in general in agreement with other studies on the potential of algal fuel technology. One such example is Commercialization potential of microalgae for biofuels production by Singh and Gu [4]. In this paper, the authors list three main steps to the success of algal biofuel: selection of the most desirable species, development of low cost production technology and production and marketing of other products derived from algae. Since these steps are being addressed, these authors also predict that algal biofuel will become commercially available in the near future [4].

REFERENCES
[1] Pachauri R (ed). IPCC fourth assessment report (AR4). Synthesis Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. [2] World Energy Resources and Consumption. (n.d.). http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption (November 5 2010, date last accessed). [3] Schneider D. (n.d.). Grow your own?: Would the widespread adoption of biomass-derived transportation fuels really help the environment. American Scientist 94:408 409. [4] Singh J, Gu S. Commercialization potential of microalgae for biofuels production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;9:2596 610. [5] Sheehan J, Dunahay T, Benemann J, et al. A look back at the US department of energys aquatic species programBiodiesel from Algae. Lab Report. U.S. Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 1998. [6] Demirbas Da. Algae Energy: Algae as a New Source of Biodiesel. Springer-Verlag London Limited, 2010. [7] Pittman JK, Dean AP, Osundeko O. The potential of sustainable algal biofuel production using wastewater resources. Bioresour Technol 2011;102:17 25. [8] Demirbas AH. Inexpensive oil and fats feedstocks for production of biodiesel. Energy Educ Sci Technol Part A 2009:23:1 13. [9] Sohi S, Lopez-Capel E, Krull E, et al. Biochar, climate change and soil: a review to guide future research. CSIRO Land and Water Science Report. CSIRO, 2009. [10] U.S. Energy Information Administration. Weekly Gasoline and Diesel Prices. U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2011. http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_gnd_a_epd2d_pte_dpgal_w.htm (22 February 2011, date last accessed). [11] Stauffer NW. MIT Energy Initiative, 2010. http://web.mit.edu/erc/ spotlights/alg-all.html. [12] Chisti Y. Biodiesel from Microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 2007;25:294 306. [13] Levine RB, Pinnarat T, Savage PE. Biodiesel production from wet algal biomass through in situ lipid hydrolysis and supercritical transesterification. ACS Energy Fuels 2010;24:5235 43. [14] Weyer K, Bush D, Darzins A, et al. Theoretical maximum algal oil production. Bioenergy Res 2010;3:204 13. [15] EPA. A comprehensive analysis of biodiesel impacts on exhaust emissions. Draft Technical Report. US Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. [16] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Average Carbon Dioxide Emissions Resulting from Gasoline and DieselFuel. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005. http://www.epa.gov/oms/climate/420f05001.htm. [17] Jaramillo P, Griffin WM, Matthews S. Comparative life cycle air emissions of coal, domestic natural gas, LNG, and SNG for electricity generation. Environ Sci Technol 2007;41:6290 6. [18] International Energy Agency, 2010. www.iea.org/. [19] Steinbach A. A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel, 2010. http://www. biodieselmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=1917.

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5 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, two important points can be made with regard to algal biofuel. The first is that algae shows great potential as a biofuel source with several major advantages over other sources. Some of them are: low impact on land use and the food chain; ability to utilise waste streams for nutrients; rapid growth rate and high oil content. Due to the positive characteristics of algae and an abundant supply of power plant emissions, algal biofuel has the potential to be produced on a scale large enough to entirely replace petrodiesel and thereby reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by around 4 5%. Second, algal biofuel production technology is still somewhat new and uneconomical. The efficiency of growth, harvesting and processing systems must be further improved before the technology can be commercialized. As a result, many researchers and companies are currently developing ways to make this technology more economical. It is forecasted that algal biodiesel will become competitive with petrodiesel by 2020.

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