Cognitive Radio Techniques

Spectrum Sensing, Interference Mitigation, and

Kandeepan Sithamparanathan Andrea Giorgetti
Localization

ARTECH HOUSE
BOSTON|LONDON
artechhouse.com

Contents
Preface
1 Introduction to

xxi

Cognitive Radios

1
1

1.1

Introduction

1.2

Definition of Cognitive Radios

1.3

Software-Defined Radios

1.4

The

Cognitive Cycle

1.5

The Radio Scene Analysis

1.5.1
1.5.2

Spectrum Occupancy Classification

Hidden Terminals

9
10

1.5.3
1.6 1.6.1

Locating Primary Users Dynamic Spectrum Access Spectrum Underlay

and and

Management

10

Overlay

11

1.7

Regulatory Aspects
vii

13

viii

Cognitive

Radio Techniques

1.7.1

The IEEE DySPAN Standards Committee

The IEEE 802.22 WAN Standards The ETSI-RRS Technical Committee

14 15 16

1.7.2
1.7.3

1.8

Application

Clusters

17 17
18

1.8.1
1.8.2

Cellular Mobile Networks

1.8.3 1.8.4 1.8.5 1.8.6 1.8.7

Energy Efficiency Public Safety Communications

Coexistence of UWB Radio

is Wireless Networks

18 18 19

Technology

Wireless Networks for Smart Grids Vehicular Networks

Defense

19
19

Application Systems

References

20

Parti
2

Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radios

Fundamentals of
and Detection

23

Spectrum Sensing
25

2.1

Introduction

25

2.2
2.2.1

Statistical Detection

Techniques

28

Maximum A Posteriori Detection

28 29 29 30

2.2.2 2.2.3

Maximum Likelihood Detection The

Neyman-Pearson Detector

2.2.4

The Bayesian Risk-Based Detector

Continuous and Discrete

2.3

Signal

Detection

30

2.4
2.4.1

Detection Performance Detection Performance Versus the SNR Detection Performance Versus the

31 33

2.4.2 2.4.3
2.4.4

Signal

Observation

Length

33

The ROC Curves

Area Under the ROC Curves

34 34

Contents

ix

2.5

Wireless Channel Models Mean Pathloss

35
35 35

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3

2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2

Shadowing
Small Scale

Fading

36 37
38 38 40

Basic Models for The

Spectrum Occupancy Poisson-Exponential Model

The Markov Modulated Poisson Process

The Poisson-Pareto Burst Process

2.6.3

2.7

Stochastic

Analysis

of Radio

Signals

40

2.8

Blind, Partial, and Complete Context

Aware

Signal Detection Signal

Detection

42

2.8.1

Blind

42

2.8.2

Partial-Context Aware

Signal

Detection

42

2.8.3

Fully

Context Aware Detection

42

2.9

Summary
References

43

43

Introduction to

Spectrum
45

Sensing Techniques
3.1 Introduction

45
Detection 46

3.2

3.2.1
3.2.2

Spectrum Sensing with Energy Energy Detector Energy Energy Energy

with
Detector in Detector in

46
47

Detector in Gaussian Channel

3.2.3
3.2.4

Fading

Channels

49

Fading Channels
51

Shadowing

Cognitive

Radio

Techniques

3.3

Energy

detection and noise power

uncertainty

52 53 53

3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3

ED Threshold Mismatch

SNRWall Existence of the SNR Wall

55

3.4

Spectrum Sensing with Cyclostationaiy

Feature Detection

56
57

3.4.1

Cyclostationarity Analysis

3.4.2 3.5

Cyclostationary

Feature-Based Detector

59

Spectrum Sensing with Matched

Filter Detection 60

3.6
3.6.1

Other

Spectrum Sensing Techniques

61 62

Covariance-Based Method

3.6.2 3.6.3
3.6.4

Eigenvalue-Based Method Wavelet-Based Edge Detection Spectral Estimation

Summary
References
Methods

63 63
64

3.7

65
65

Temporal Spectrum Sensing and Performance Analysis

Introduction

69

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2

69

Temporal Periodic-Spectrum Sensing

Primary User Spectral Occupancy
Model with Poisson Arrival

71

72

Exponential Random Spectral Occupancy Time Pareto Random Spectral Occupancy Time

73 73

Contents

XI

4.3.3

Classifying Primary Occupancy Levels

User

Spectrum
74

4.4

Detection Performance of Periodic-Sensing

with Poisson Arrival and Deterministic

4.4.1

Occupancy Time Spectral Occupancy Probability Probability

of Detection

75 75
76 78

4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5

False Alarm

Probability
Regions

Primary

User Misdetection Risk

80

4.6

Temporal Periodic-Sensing with Poisson-exponential Occupancy Model Temporal Periodic-Sensing with Poisson-Pareto Occupancy Model

82

4.7

84

4.8

Temporal Periodic-Sensing Performance

Comparison
with Deterministic and

Random Occupancies 4.9

4.10

85
in Noise

Temporal Periodic-Sensing Temporal Periodic-Sensing

86

in Noise with

Signal
91

Fading/Shadowing
4.11

Optimum Sensing Period

Reality of Spectrum Occupancy Models
Summary
References

92

4.12

93 93 94

4.13

xii

Cognitive

Radio Techniques

Cooperative Spectrum Sensing

Introduction

97

5.1 5.2
5.2.1 5.2.2

97

Spatio-Temporal Fusion Strategy Synchronized Reporting Nonsynchronized Reporting

Hard Decision Fusion

99 100
100

5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2

101

Chair-Varshney

Fusion

Strategy Strategy

102

The Af-out-of-A^Fusion

103
106 107 108 109

5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3

Soft Decision Fusion

Optimal Soft Decision Fusion Equal Gain Soft Decision Fusion

Maximal Ratio Soft Decision Fusion

5.5

5.5.1 5-5.2 5.5.3

Cooperative Spectrum Sensing Space-Divisional Cluster Frequency-Divisional

Cluster

Cluster-Based

109
110

111
111

Time-Divisional Cluster

5.6 5.7
5.7.1

Noisy Reporting Channels

Other Issues in

113 115
116 116 116 117 117

Cooperative Sensing
the

Cooperation Overhead and Reporting Channel

Unreliable

5.7.2

Reporter

and Accreditation

5.7.3 5.7.4 5.7.5

5.8

Security Spatial

Issues Distribution

Knowledge

Limitation

Summary
References

117
118

Contents

xiii

6 6.1
6.2

Distributed Spectrum Sensing

Introduction

121
121

Parallel

Topology-Based Distributed Sensing

Distributed

123

6.3
6.3.1

Sequential Topology-Based Sensing

Detection Performance
Tree

125 127

6.4 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2

Topology-Based

Distributed

Sensing

127

Ring-Around Distributed Sensing Message Passing in Ring-Around Sensing

Hard Decision Fusion with the OR Rule

128 130

130
131

6.5.3

Equal Ratio Combining Soft

Fusion

Decision-Based

6.6

Summary
References

132

132

Advanced

Spectrum Sensing Topics

135
135

7.1 7.2

Introduction

Spectrum Sensing in UWB Radios with Frequency Sweeping Spectrum Sensing in Frequency
OFDM

136

7.3
7.3.1 7.3.2

Systems

139

The Likelihood Ratio Test

140
141

Domain Detection

7.4 7.4.1

Combined Localization and Detection of

Primary

Users

142

Detection

Using the Likelihood

143

Function fr\Hi{v\H^

xiv

Cognitive

Radio Techniques

7.4.2

Detection

Using

the

Output of

144

7.5

7.5.1
7.6

Sequential Spectrum Sensing The Sequential Probability Ratio Test Spectrum Sensing with Ordered
Statistics

145 145
146

7.7

Spectrum Sensing with Reconfigurable

Antennas

147
148 150

7.7.1 7.7.2

Frequency Reconfigurability
Radiation Pattern

Reconfigurability

7.8

Spectrum Sensing in 3D-Space Summary

References

150 153
154

7.9

Part II

Coexistence and Interference

Mitigation Techniques
8

157

Fundamentals of Coexistence and

Interference

Mitigation Techniques Cognitive Radio and

159

8.1

Interference in

its Characterization
8.1.1

160

Intentional Interference: From

to

Jamming
160

Emulation

8.1.2

Unintentional Interference
Metrics
to

163 163 167

8.1.3

Quantify Interference and

its Effects

8.2
8.2.1

Coexistence Scenarios

Spatial Configuration
From Narrowband The Coexistence
to

of the

Systems

169

8.2.2 8.2.3

Ultrawideband

170
172

Region

Contents

xv

8.3 8.3.1

Interference
Interference

Mitigation Techniques Mitigation in Spread Spectrum

173

CRs
8.3.2 8.3.3 Power Control Band Relocation

174 175 175

8.3.4
8.3.5

Spectrum Shaping Adaptive

Antenna

175

Techniques

176

8.4

Summary and Further Readings

References

176 176

Coexistence

Analysis Heterogeneous

181

9.1

Coexistence Between

Wireless Systems
9.2 9.2.1 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3

182

Channel Model
Block

183
185 185 186 186 187

Fading

Channel

Interference
Gaussian Tone

Modeling

Approximation
Approximation

Approximation

Multitone

9.3.4

Band-Limited Gaussian Process

Approximation
9.3.5 9.3.6

188
188

Pulse Train Model

Modeling

the

Interfering

Power

188

9.4

The Effect of Narrowband Interference

a

on

Wideband Communication
WB Communication in

189
190

9.4.1

Single-Carrier

the Presence of NB Interference

9.4.2 Multicarrier WB Communication in the Presence of NB Interference

203

xvi

Cognitive Radio Techniques

9.5

The Effect of Wideband Interference

on a

Narrowband Communication Communication in the

208

9.5.1 9.5.2

Single-Carrier NB
Multicarrier

Presence of WB Interference NB Communication in the

209

Presence of WB Interference

217

9.6

Summary and Further Readings

References

217

218

10
10.1

Coexistence in Network Scenarios

223

Coexistence Between

Heterogeneous
223 224

Networks
10.1.1

Network Scenario Definition Statistical Characterization of Network Interference

10.2

226

10.2.1

Interference Generated Outside the Guard Zone 229 231

10.2.2

Interference From the Whole Plane

The Effect of Interference Performance

10.3

on

of Coexisting Networks
10.3.1 10.3.2 Transmission Characteristics of the Nodes

236
236

Narrowband Communication in the

Presence of Wideband Network Interference 237

10.3.3

Wideband Communication in the

Presence

of Narrowband Network Interference

240

10.4

Performance

Examples

of Heterogeneous 243

Coexisting Networks
10.5

Summary

and Further

Readings

245 246

References

Contents

xvii

11

Interference

Mitigation Techniques
249

Enabling Coexistence
11.1

Cognitive

Radio Transmission

Techniques
250 250
251

Enabling Coexistence
11.1.1

11.1.2

11.1.3

Spectrum Interweave: Interference Avoiding Behavior Spectrum Underlay: Interference Controlling Behavior Spectrum Overlay: Interference Mitigating Behavior
The

252

11.2

Secondary

User

Perspective: Performance

of CR Transmission 11.2.1
11.2.2

Strategies

253 254

System Model

Comparison of the
The

SU Achievable Rates

255

11.3 11.3.1
11.3.2

Primary

User

CR Transmission The Scenario

Perspective: Impact of Strategies

as a

256
257

Cognitive Network Interference

Misdetection Problem
PU

259

11.3.3

Outage due to

Misdetection

by a
260 in
a

Single SU
11.3.4

11.3.5

Outage due to Misdetections Cognitive Network A Case Study Summary

and Further

PU

261 262

11.4

Readings

265 266

References

12

Advanced Interference

Mitigation
269

Techniques
12.1

Interference

Mitigation Techniques

in 270

UWB Radios

xviii

Cognitive

Radio

Techniques

12.1.1

Interference

Mitigation Mitigation

in UWB

Impulse Radio
12.1.2

271
in MB-OFDM 279

Interference UWB Radio

12.2

12.2.1

Mitigation in Spatial Example: MIMO Beamforming

Interference

Domain

283 284

12.3

Summary
References

and Further

Readings

287

287

Part III

Localization and Radio

Environment

Mapping Ranging and Localization

291

13

Fundamentals of for

Cognitive

Radio

293

13.1

Ranging Techniques

and

Enabling
294
294

Technologies
13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.3 Time-Based

Ranging

RSS-Based
Other

Ranging Ranging Techniques

Ranging

296
297 298

13.1.4

Error Sources in Time-Based

13.2

Performance Limits of Time-based

Ranging:
13.2.1 13.2.2

From

Theory to

Practice

302 303 304

Theoretical Performance Limits

Practical Schemes

13.3

Cognitive Ranging
Localization

306

13.4 13.4.1 13.4.2

Techniques
Localization

308

Single-Hop

309
311

Multihop Localization

Contents

xix

13.4.3

Anchor-Free Localization

312 313

13.4.4 13.4.5

Location
Case

Tracking Study

314 316 316

13.5

Summary and Further Readings

References

14 14.1
14.1.1

Localization of

Primary Users

321

Localization of Noncollaborative Emitters

322 323

Range-Free Localization of PUs Semirange-Based

Other
Localization of PUs RSSI-Based Localization of PUs

14.1.2
14.1.3

324
325 329

14.1.4 14.1.5 14.1.6

14.2

Range-Based Algorithms Tracking of PUs Case Study

Radio Environment
Radio

330
331

Mapping

334
336 338

14.2.1
14.2.2

Cartography

Database for SU Access Control

14.3

Summary and Further Readings

References

339

339

15

Conclusions and Future Work

343

Glossary
About the Authors

349 355 357

Index