ENT 162 Analog Electronics

Chapter 2 Diodes and Applications

Chapter Outline
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Diode Operation V-I Characteristics Diode Models Rectifiers Power Supply Filters Limiters and Clampers Voltage Multipliers

Diode Operation
A diode is a semiconductor device with a single pn junction and metal connections to leads. It has the ability to pass current in only one direction.
Anode
p n

Cathode

Depletion region

Symbol

Diode Operation
Typical diode packages
K K A A K A K A K A K K A K A A K K A K K

Biasing a Diode
-Forward Bias Biasing voltage refers to a fixed dc voltage that sets the operating conditions for the semiconductor devices. Forward bias or on condition establish by applying the negative voltage source terminal to n region (Cathode terminal) and positive voltage source to p region (Anode terminal). V BIAS must be greater than the barrier potential, VB.
Depletion region p region - + - + - + - + VBIAS n region

R limit

A diode connected for forward bias

Biasing a Diode
-Forward Bias When forward bias, the negative side pushes free electrons in n toward pn junction. As electron leave the n region, more electrons flow in from negative side of the source. Thus, current through n region is formed by the movement of electrons to junction. This flow of free electrons is called electron current. When the external bias voltage is sufficient to overcome the VB, electrons have enough energy to penetrate the depletion region and cross the pn junction. In the p region, these electrons have lost enough energy to immediately combine with holes in the valence band (become valence electrons). The positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence electrons towards the left end of the region p.

Biasing a Diode
-Forward Bias Then, they move as valence electron from hole to hole toward positive anode connection. Thus, current in p region is formed by the movement of holes toward the junction (hole current). The direction of current flow is opposite to the electrons flow from the positive terminal to negative terminal. As more electrons and holes flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions and the number of negative ions are reduced respectively. This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion region to narrow.

Biasing a Diode
-Reverse Bias Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevent current through the diode. Reverse bias establish by applying the negative voltage source terminal to p region (Cathode terminal) and positive voltage source to n region (Anode terminal).
Depletion region
p region - + + - + + - + + - + VBIAS n region

R limit

A diode connected for reverse bias

Biasing a Diode
-Reverse Bias In the n region, the positive side of the bias-voltage source pulls the free electrons away from the pn junction. As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional positive ion are created. This result in a widening of the depletion region. In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as valence electron and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create additional negative ions. This also result in a widening of the depletion region.

Biasing a Diode
-Reverse Bias As the depletion region widen, the availability of majority carriers decreases. As more of the p and n regions become depleted of majority carriers, the electric field between the positive and negative ions increases in strength until the potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS. At this point, the transition current essentially ceases except for a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.

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Biasing a Diode
-Reverse Current Reverse current, IR is the extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the transition current dies out is caused by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs. Minority electrons in p region are pushed towards the pn junction by the negative bias voltage. When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.

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Biasing a Diode
-Reverse Breakdown Reverse current is so small so that it can be neglected. However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase.

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Voltage-Current Characteristic of A Diode

-Forward Bias When apply 0 V across the diode, there is no IF.. When a forward bias voltage (VBIAS) is applied across the diode, the IF and voltage across the diode gradually increase. A portion of the forward bias voltage is dropped across the limiting resistor. When VBIAS is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7V (barrier potential, VB), IF begin to increase rapidly. If VBIAS > VB, IF continue to increase very rapidly but the voltage across the diode (VB) increases only gradually about 0.7V.

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V-I Characteristic
-Forward BiasIF (mA)

C B Knee 0.7V
Barrier potential (0.7V) VF

A 0

Relationship of voltage and current in a forward biased diode.

Point A corresponds to a zero bias condition. Point B corresponds to the VBIAS is less than VB. Point C corresponds to the forward voltage approximately equals the barrier potential.
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V-I Characteristic
-Forward Bias The resistance of the forward-biased diode is not constant over the entire curve. Because the resistance changes as you move along the V-I curve, it is called dynamic or ac resistance. The dynamic resistance of a diode is designated rd. Below the knee, the resistance is greatest, therefore the current increases very little. Then, the resistance begins to decrease in the region of the knee and become smallest above the knee where there is a large change in current for a given change in voltage.

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V-I Characteristic
-Reverse Bias When apply 0 V across the diode, there is no IR.. When a reverse bias voltage (VBIAS) is applied across the diode, there is very small IR (A or nA) and the voltage across the diode increases. When the applied bias voltage is increase to a value where the reverse voltage across the diode (VR) reaches the breakdown value (VBR), the IR begins to increase rapidly. As continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases very little above VBR. The most widely used diode has a breakdown voltage of greater than 50V.

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V-I Characteristic
-Reverse BiasBreakdown voltage, VBR

VR

0
Knee

IR (A)

Relationship of voltage and current in a reverse biased diode.

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V-I Characteristic

-No Bias, Reverse Bias, and Forward Bias-

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Diode Models - Diode Approximation

-Ideal Diode Model (Forward Bias)+ VF

Ideal diode model

IF R + VBIAS R

IF

VBIAS The ideal diode model

Forward bias connection showing the diode symbol

The forward current, IF is from anode to cathode. The forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential is from positive at anode to negative at cathode. When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch (short circuit).
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Diode Models - Diode Approximation

-Ideal Diode Model (Reverse Bias)V V
BIAS

I=0 R VBIAS

BIAS

I=0 R

VBIAS

Reverse bias connection showing the diode symbol

The ideal diode model

The reverse current, IR is extremely small and can be considered to be zero. The entire bias voltage (VBIAS) appears across the diode. When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch (open circuit).
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Diode Models - Diode Approximation

-Ideal Diode ModelIdeal V-I Characteristic Curve

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Diode Approximations
-The Ideal Diode Model-

The diode is assume to have zero voltage across it when forward-biased. VF = 0 V The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor, RLIMIT using Ohms law. IF = VBIAS/RLIMIT The reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero. IR = 0 A The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage. VR = VBIAS
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Diode Approximations
-The Practical Diode Model-

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Diode Approximations
-The Practical Diode Model The practical model includes barrier potential. When diode is forward biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent voltage source (VF) equal to barrier potential. VF = 0.7 V The forward current is determined by applying Kirchhoffs voltage law. VBIAS VF VRLIMIT = 0 VRLIMIT = IFRLIMIT Substituting and solving for IF, IF = (VBIAS VF) / RLIMIT For reverse bias, the diode is assume to have zero reverse current and the reverse voltage equals the bias voltage. IR = 0 A VR = VBIAS

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Diode Approximations
-The Practical Diode Model-

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Diode Approximations
-The Complete Diode Model-

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Diode Approximations
-The Complete Diode Model Is the most accurate approximation (which include barrier potential, small forward dynamic resistance, rd and large internal reverse resistance, rR). Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are include, the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when forward biased. VF = 0.7 V + IF rd IF = (VBIAS 0.7 V)/ (RLIMIT + rd ) When reverse biased, the reverse current is taken into account with the parallel resistance and is indicated by the portion of the curve to the left of the origin.

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Diode Approximations
-The Complete Diode Model-

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Diode Models
Ideal Model
VF = 0 V IF = VBIAS / RLIMIT IR = 0 A VR = VBIAS

Practical Model
VF = 0.7 V IF = VBIAS - VF / RLIMIT IR = 0 A VR = VBIAS

Diode
Complete Model
VF = 0.7 + IFrd IF =(VBIAS 0.7) / (RLIMIT + rd)

Diode Applications
Rectifiers Power supply filters Limiters Clampers Voltage multipliers

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Half-Wave Rectifiers
+ + t0 t1 t2 I RL

Vin
0

Vout
0 t0 t1 t2

During the positive alternation, the output voltage looks like the positive half of the input voltage. The current path is through ground back to the source.
t0 t1 t2 + Vout RL + 0

I = 0A

Vin 0

t0

t1

t2

During the negative alternation, the current is 0, so the output voltage is also 0.
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 A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts ac into dc. When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) positive, the diode is forward biased and conduct current through the load resistor. The current produces an output voltage across load, RL which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage. When input voltage (Vin) goes negative (2nd half of its cycle), the diode is reverse biased. There is no current and the voltage across the RL is 0 V. The average value of the half-wave output voltage, VAVG is the value you would measure on a dc voltmeter. Vp is the peak value of the voltage. VAVG is approximately 31.8% of Vp for half wave rectifier

Half-Wave Rectifiers -Ideal diode model-

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Half-Wave Rectifiers
-Ideal diode model-

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Half-Wave Rectifiers
-Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output When practical diode model is considered, the Vin must overcome the barrier potential before diode becomes forward biased (during positive 1st half). This result in a half wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V less than peak value of the input. Vp(out) = Vp(in) 0.7 V

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Half-Wave Rectifiers
-Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) The peak inverse voltage (PIV) occurs at the peak of each half-cycle of the input voltage when the diode is reverse biased (negative half cycle). PIV equal the peak value of the input voltage. PIV = Vp(in)

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Transformer Coupling
Advantages : allow the source voltage to be stepped down as needed and the ac source electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the second circuit. Vsec/Vpri = Nsec/Npri The secondary voltage of a transformer equals to turns ratio, n times the primary voltage. Vsec = n Vpri where n = Nsec/Npri The peak secondary voltage, Vp(sec) in a tranformer half wave rectifier is the same as Vp(in). Vp(out) = Vp(sec) 0.7 PIV = Vp(sec)

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Full-Wave Rectifiers

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
A full wave rectifiers allows unidirectional (1 way) current through the load during the entire input cycle. The average value for full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half wave. VAG = 2VP/ VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for full wave rectified voltage.

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The center tapped Full-Wave Rectifier A center tapped rectifier is a type of full wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to secondary of a center tapped transformer.

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The center tapped Full-Wave Rectifier-

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The center tapped Full-Wave Rectifier For a positive half cycle of the input voltage, D1 is forward biased, D2 is reversed biased. The current path is through D1 and the load resistor, RL. For a negative half cycle of the input voltage, D2 is forward biased, D1 is reversed biased. The current path is through D2 and the load resistor, RL.

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The center tapped Full-Wave RectifierEffect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage If the transformer ratio is 1, the peak value of the rectified output voltage equals half the peak value of the primary input voltage less the barrier potential. Vp(sec) = Vp(pri)

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The center tapped Full-Wave Rectifier To obtain an output voltage with a peak equal to the input peak (less the diode drop), a step up transformer with a turns ratio of n = 2 must be used (total secondary voltage (Vsec) is twice the primary voltage (2Vpri), so the voltage across each half of the secondary is equal to Vpri. In any case, the output voltage is always one-half of the total secondary voltage less the diode drop, no matter what the turns ratio. Vout = Vsec/2 0.7 V

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The center tapped Full-Wave RectifierPeak Inverse Voltage (PIV) The peak inverse voltage across either diode in a full-wave center-tapped rectifier is PIV = 2Vp(out) + 0.7 V

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier The bridge full-wave rectifier uses 4 diodes. When the input is positive, D1 and D2 are forward biased, D3 and D4 are reversed bias and a voltage is developed across RL. When the input is negative, D3 and D4 are forward biased, D1 and D2 are reversed bias and a voltage is also developed across RL.

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier During the positive half cycle, the secondary voltage appears across the load resistor (neglecting the diodes drop-ideal diodes). Vp(out) = Vp(sec) If practical diodes are considered, voltage drops of these diodes are taken into account. Therefore the output voltage is Vp(out) = Vp(sec) 1.4 V What happened during the negative half cycle for ideal diodes and practical diodes ? What is the output voltage?

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier-

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Full-Wave Rectifiers
-The Bridge Full-Wave RectifierPeak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Assume D1 and D2 forward biased (ideal model) and examine reverse voltage across D3 and D4. You can see that D3 and D4 have a peak inverse voltage equal to the peak secondary voltage, PIV = Vp(out) If the diodes drops are considered, PIV across each reverse bias diode in terms of Vp(out) is PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7 V

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Power Supply Filter

A power supply filter ideally eliminates the fluctuations in the output voltage of a half wave or full wave rectifier and produces a constant-level dc voltage.

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Capacitor-Input Filter

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Capacitor-Input Filter
During the first quarter-cycle of the input the diode is forward biased, allowing the capacitor to charge to within 0.7 V of the peak. When input begin to decrease, the capacitor retains its charge and the diode become reverse biased because the cathode is more positive than anode. During the remaining part of the cycle, the capacitor discharge through the load. During the first quarter of the next cycle, the diode will again become forward biased.

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Capacitor-Input Filter
Ripple Voltage The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and discharging is called the ripple voltage.

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Capacitor-Input Filter
Ripple Factor The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and is define as r = Vr(pp)/VDC where Vr(pp) = peak to peak ripple voltage and VDC = dc average value of the filters output voltage Vr(pp) and VDC for a full wave rectifiers with capacitor input filter are given in the following equations. Vr(pp) = (1/fRLC)Vp(rect) VDC = (1 1/2fRLC) Vp(rect)

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Diode Limiters

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Diode Limiters
Diode limiter or clipper limits or clips the positive or negative part of the input voltage. For a diode positive limiter, when input voltage positive, the diode forward biased and conduct current . Point A is limited to +0.7 V when input voltage exceed this value. When voltage input < 0.7 V, the diode reverse biased and appears as an open. The output voltage is determined by voltage divider form by R1 and RL. Vout = Vin [RL /(R1 + RL)] For a diode negative limiter, the diode is forward biased during the negative input voltage. Point A is held at -0.7 V by the diode drop. When the input voltage goes above -0.7 V, the diode is no longer forward biased. A voltage appears across RL proportional to the input voltage.

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Diode Clampers
Clamper adds dc level to ac signal. Also knows as dc restorers. When input goes negative, diode is forward biased, capacitor charge to Vp(in)-0.7 V. When past negative peak, diode become reverse bias coz cathode is held near Vp(in) -0.7 V by the capacitor charge. Capacitor can only discharge a little through high resistance RL. So capacitor retains charge equal to Vp(in) -0.7 V. Capacitor voltage act as a battery in series with input signal. If diode is turned around, a negative dc voltage is added to input signal to produce output signal.

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Diode Clampers

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Voltage Multipliers -Voltage DoublerHalf wave voltage doubler A voltage doubler is a voltage multipliers with a multiplication of factor of two. During the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, D1 is forward biased and D2 is reversed biased. C1 is charged to the peak of the secondary voltage (Vp) less the diode drop. During the negative half cycle of secondary voltage, D2 is forward biased and D1 is reversed biased. Since C1 cant discharge, the peak voltage on C1 adds to the secondary voltage to charge C2 to approximately 2Vp VC2 = 2Vp

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Diode Voltage Multipliers -Voltage Doubler-

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Selected Key Terms

Forward bias The condition in which a diode conducts current.

Reverse bias The condition in which a diode prevents current.

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Selected Key Terms

Rectifier An electronic circuit that converts ac into pulsating dc; one part of a power supply. Filter In a power supply, the capacitor used to reduce the variation of the output voltage from a rectifier.

Regulator An electronic device or circuit that maintains an essentially constant output voltage for a range of input voltage or load values; one part of a power supply.
Ripple Voltage The small variation in dc output voltage of a filtered rectifier caused by charging and discharging of the filter capacitor.

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Selected Key Terms

Line The change in output voltage of a regulator for Regulation a given change in input voltage, normally expressed as a percentage.

Limiter A diode circuit that clips off or removes part of a waveform above and/or below a specified level.
Clamper A circuit that adds a dc level to an ac voltage using a diode and a capacitor.

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Test yourself..
1. The forward biased knee voltage in a semiconductor diode is approximately equal to the a. bias supply voltage b. breakdown voltage c. output voltage d. barrier potential

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Test yourself..
2. Using the ideal diode model, the current in the circuit shown is a. 0.73 mA b. 0.80 mA c. 0.87 mA d. 1.2 mA
+
VBIAS R 10 kW

8.0 V

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Test yourself..
3. Using the practical diode model, the current in the circuit shown is a. 0.73 mA b. 0.80 mA c. 0.87 mA d. 1.2 mA
+
VBIAS R 10 kW

8.0 V

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Test yourself..
4. The diode model which includes the large reverse resistance is the a. ideal model b. practical model c. complete model d. all of the above
+
VBIAS R 10 kW

8.0 V

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Test yourself..
5. For the circuit shown, the PIV will occur when the input waveform is at point a. A b. B c. C d. D
Vin

B C
RL

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