Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow INTRODUCTION:

Chapter Seven

EXPANSION WAVES ( PRANDTLPRANDTL-MEYER FLOW)

The discussion given in previous two chapters was concerned with waves that involved an increase in pressure, i.e., with shock waves. In this chapter, attention will be given to the types of waves that are generated when there is a decrease in pressure. For example, the type of wave that is generated when a supersonic flow passes over a convex corner and the type of wave that is generated when the end of a duct containing a gas at a pressure that is higher than that in the surrounding air is suddenly opened will be discussed in this chapter. These two situations are illustrated in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow PRANDTL-MEYER FLOW: In the preceding chapter, supersonic flow over a concave corner, i.e., a corner involving a positive angular change in flow direction, was considered. It was indicated there that the flow over such a corner was associated with an oblique shock wave, this shock wave originating from the corner when it is sharp. Consider, now, the flow around a convex corner as shown in the following figure. To determine whether an oblique shock wave also occurs in this case, it is assumed that it does occur, a sharp corner being considered for simplicity as shown in the following figure .

Flows involving a pressure decrease. Steady supersonic flows around convex corners will first be addressed in this chapter. Attention will then be given to unsteady flows.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow Consider the velocity components indicated in the above figure. For the reasons given in the previous chapter, L1=L2 and since V2 must be parallel to the downstream wall, geometrical considerations show that N2 > N1 . But N1 and N2 must be related by the normal shock wave relations and in dealing with normal shock waves, it was shown that an expansive shock was not possible since it would violate the second law of thermodynamics. It is, therefore, not possible for N2 to be greater than N1 and the flow over a convex corner cannot, therefore, take place through an oblique shock.

Assumed flow around convex corner.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow

In order to understand the actual flow that occurs when a supersonic flow passes about a convex corner, consider what happens, in general, when the flow is turned through a differentially small angle, d , this producing differentially small changes in the pressure, density and temperature respectively. The present analysis applies whether d is positive or negative i.e. whether the corner is concave or convex, the changes through the differentially weak Mach wave produced being isentropic (see later). The assumed flow pattern is, therefore as shown in the following figure.

Changes produced by a weak wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow By the reasoning previously given, the velocity component parallel to the wave, L , is unchanged by the wave. Hence, considering unit area of the wave, as indicated in the above figure, the equations of continuity and momentum give:

Compressible Fluid Flow Now, in the limiting case of a very weak wave being considered, dp/d will be equal to the square of the upstream speed of sound. Hence:

N 2 = a2

i.e.: N = a

N = ( + d )( N + dN ) i.e.: dN + Nd = 0
higher order terms having been neglected, and

This is indicated in the following figure.

p ( p + dp ) = N ( N + dN ) N i.e.: dp = NdN
Substituting for dN from the second to the first of these equations then gives:

N2 =

dp d

Velocity components near weak wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow Further, since L is unchanged by the presence of the disturbance, it follows that:

Compressible Fluid Flow The entropy change across the wave is given by:

(V + dV )cos ( d ) = V cos
Expanding and ignoring higher order terms then gives:

ds 1 dp d = ln 1 + ln 1 + R 1 p 1
Combining the above equations and using the definition of the Mach number M gives the following:

dV d = tan d = V M 2 1
Further, since the energy equation gives:

2 p 2 ( p + dp ) 2 + (V + dV ) 2 +V = 1 1 ( + d )
i.e., ignoring higher order terms:

dV = V

d M 1
2

dp = p

M2
M 1
2

M2 M 2 1

ds = 0

2 p dp dp p d + V 2 = 2VdV p dp 1 p

dM 1 2 d M = 1 + M 2 M 2 1

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow

Thus a differentially small change in flow direction produces an isentropic disturbance such that:

dV d d d ds = 0

dp d dM d

these changes also being indicated in the following figure.

Changes produced by a weak wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow Thus, if flow around a corner, which may be considered to consist of an infinite number of differentially small angular changes, as shown in the following figure, is considered: Mach waves at corner with finite angle.

Compressible Fluid Flow Thus, for negative changes in wall angle a region consisting of Mach waves is generated and the flow remains isentropic throughout. Such flows are called Prandtl-Meyer flows and their form is as shown in the following figure.

It follows from the preceding results that for positive angular changes, the Mach number decreases and the waves converge to form an oblique shock wave while for a negative angular change the waves diverge.

Prandtl-Meyer flow.

Compressible Fluid Flow In order to analytically determine the changes produced by such a flow, it is noted that proportional change equations given above must apply locally at all points within the expansion fan. Therefore, if the equation for is integrated it will give the relation between the change in Mach number and the change in flow direction at any point in the flow as indicated in the following figure. Change in flow direction in Prandtl-Meyer flow.

Compressible Fluid Flow Carrying out this integration gives:

dM + constant M M 1 + 2 The right hand side of this equation is easily integrated using standard techniques. Before giving the result, however, there are a couple of points to be noted. Firstly, since the change in flow direction must be negative for Prandtl-Meyer flow to exist, it is convenient to drop the negative sign on the left hand side. Secondly, to express the results in as convenient a form as possible, some standard condition is used to evaluate the constant. The initial boundary condition is, therefore, arbitrarily taken as:

d =

M 2 1

= 0 when M = 1 i.e., = 0 when V = a = a*

Compressible Fluid Flow The application of the results to flows in which the Mach number ahead of the corner is not 1 will be discussed later. Using the above equation then leads to:

Compressible Fluid Flow

+ 1 1 + 1 2 tan ( M 1) tan 1 M 2 1 1 1

Prandtl Meyer angle.

The relation between (usually expressed in degrees rather than radians as in the above equation) and M as given by the above equation is usually listed in isentropic tables. , of course, has no meaning when M is less than 1.

Compressible Fluid Flow Before discussing the application of the above equation it is worth considering the limiting case of M . In this case since tan-1 /2 as M , the above equation gives:

Compressible Fluid Flow Expansion through a greater angle would, according to the present theory, lead to a vacuum adjacent to the wall as indicated in the following figure.

+1 1 2 1

Expansion to zero pressure.

For the case of = 1.4 this gives the limiting value of as max = 130.5o. Thus, if a flow at a Mach number of 1 is turned through an angle of 130.5o, an infinite Mach number will be generated and the pressure will fall to zero.

Of course, in reality, the continuum and ideal gas assumptions cease to be valid long before this situation is reached.

Compressible Fluid Flow Next, consider the application of the equation derived above to the calculation of the flow changes produced by a Prandtl-Meyer expansion.

Compressible Fluid Flow i. From tables or graphs or from the equation find the value of corresponding to M1 i.e., 1. This is equivalent to assuming that the initial flow was generated by an expansion around a hypothetical corner from a Mach number of 1, the reference Mach number in the tables, to a Mach number of M1 ii. Calculate the value of for the flow downstream of the corner. This will be given by:

2 = 1 +
iii. Find, using tables or graphs or software or the equation, the downstream Mach number, M2, corresponding to this value of 2

Flow changes through a Prandtl-Meyer wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow iv. Any other required property of the downstream flow can then be obtained by noting that the expansion is isentropic and that the isentropic relations such as the following apply across the wave:

Compressible Fluid Flow

T2 = T1

1 2 1+ M1 2 1 2 1+ M2 2

v. If necessary, calculate the boundaries of the expansion wave. This is done by noting that they are the Mach lines corresponding to the upstream and downstream Mach numbers as indicated in the following figure.

p2 T2 1 T 1 = and 2 = 2 p1 T1 1 T1
Alternatively, where available, isentropic flow tables can be used, it being noted that the flow across the wave is isentropic so the stagnation pressure remains constant across the wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow REFLECTION AND INTERACTION OF EXPANSION WAVES: Just as with oblique shock waves, expansion waves can undergo reflection and can interact with each other. Consider, first, the reflection of an expansion wave from a straight wall as shown in the following figure.

Angles associated with centered expansion wave.

Reflection of an expansion wave from a flat wall. The various angles defined in this figure are given by:

sin 1 =

1 M1

, sin 2 =

1 M2

, = 2

Compressible Fluid Flow If 1 is the Prandtl-Meyer angle corresponding to the initial flow conditions, i.e. to conditions in region 1, then the PrandtlMeyer angle for the flow in the intermediate region 2 is given by:

Compressible Fluid Flow When expansion waves interact, the flow resembles that shown in the following figure.

2 = 1 +

Since the end flow, i.e. the flow in region 3, must again be parallel to the wall, the reflected wave must also turn the flow through an angle of so that:

3 = 2 + = 1 + 2
Once this angle is determined, the Mach number in region 3 can be found. Since the entire flow is isentropic, the conditions in region 3 can then be found in terms of those in region 1 using isentropic relations. Inside the region of interaction of the incident and reflected waves, the relation previously derived cannot be directly applied although the flow is isentropic throughout.

Interaction of expansion waves

Since the whole flow is isentropic, region 4 must be a region of uniform properties, no slipstreams being generated when expansion waves interact as was the case when shock waves interacted.

Compressible Fluid Flow In flows over bodies, expansion waves often interact with a shock wave, the shock being attenuated (weakened) by the interaction. An example of such an interaction being shown in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow An expansion wave can also be generated by the reflection of an oblique shock wave off a constant pressure boundary. To see how this can happen, consider a wedge shaped body placed in a two-dimensional supersonic jet flow as shown in the following figure.

Reflection of an oblique shock wave from the edge of a jet flow.

Interaction of an expansion wave with an oblique shock wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow The edges of the jet are exposed to the stagnant surrounding gas and must, therefore, remain at the pressure that exist in this ambient gas. The flow ahead of the body, because it is a parallel flow must also all be at the ambient pressure as indicated in the above figure. Oblique shock waves are generated at the leading edge of the body, these shock waves increasing the pressure. Expansion waves are therefore generated at the edges of the jet at the points at which the shock impinges on these edges, the expansion waves being of such a strength that they drop the pressure back to that in the ambient fluid as shown in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow

BOUNDARY LAYER EFFECTS ON EXPANSION WAVES: For the same reasons that the presence of a boundary layer causes a spreading out of the pressure change when a shock wave impinges on a wall, the presence of a boundary layer modifies an expansion wave in the vicinity of a wall. This is illustrated in the following figure. The extent of the interaction again depends on the thickness and type of boundary layer.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow FLOW OVER BODIES INVOLVING SHOCK AND EXPANSION WAVES: Many bodies over which an effectively two-dimensional supersonic flow occurs in practice can be assumed to consist of a series of flat surfaces. For example, the type of body shown in the following figure is similar to the cross-sectional shape of the control surfaces used on some supersonic vehicles.

Example of type of body being considered.

Interaction of an expansion wave with a wall boundary layer.

Compressible Fluid Flow The flow over such a body can be calculated by noting that a series of oblique shock waves and expansion waves occur that the cause the flow to be locally parallel to each of the surfaces as shown in the above figure. Provided that the body is slender any secondary waves generated as a result of the interaction of the shock waves and expansion waves generated by the body will not impinge on the body and their presence will not have an effect on the flow over the body. The flow over the body and the pressure acting on the surfaces over the body can then be calculated by separately using the oblique shock and the expansion wave results. Once the pressures on the surfaces of the body are found, the net force on the body can be found.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow UNSTEADY EXPANSION WAVES: A type of flow that is related to the Prandtl-Meyer flow discussed above is the unsteady expansion wave. To understand the basic characteristics of this flow consider a piston at the end of a long duct as shown in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow If the piston is suddenly given a velocity, dV, in the direction of withdrawing it from the duct, the gas adjacent to the piston must have a velocity, dV, in the same direction as the piston and a weak wave (a sound wave) must propagate into the stationary gas at the local speed of sound, a. Across this wave there will be decreases in the speed of sound and pressure of magnitudes da and dp respectively. If the piston is then given another sudden acceleration to a new velocity, 2dV, as shown in the above figure, then another weak wave will be generated which will move relative to the fluid at velocity a da, i.e. the local velocity of sound. However, since the fluid ahead of this second wave already has velocity dV in the opposite direction to that of wave propagation, the actual speed at which the wave propagates relative to the duct is a da - dV. This is shown in the above figure.

Generation of first wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow

The initial wave propagates at a speed a1 into the fluid so that the position of the head of the expansion is given by:

Head:

x = a1t

The tail of the wave propagates at speed a2 relative to the fluid in region 2 and, therefore, since the fluid in this region has velocity Vp in the direction of piston motion, the velocity of the tail of the wave relative to the walls of the duct is:

If the piston had, in fact, been smoothly accelerated up to a velocity Vp then the acceleration can be thought of as consisting of a series of differentially small jumps in velocity each of which produces an expansion wave which propagates down the duct at a lower velocity than its predecessor, thereby leading to an ever widening expansion region. The process is conveniently shown on an x - t diagram where x is the distance along the duct and t is the time. Such a diagram for the process being considered is shown in the following figure.

Tail:

x x f = ( a2 V p )( t t f

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow If the piston is instantly accelerated, the x - t diagram takes the form shown in the following figure.

x - t diagram for wave system generated by accelerating piston.

x - t diagram for instantly accelerated piston case.

Compressible Fluid Flow Here, the path of the tail of the expansion wave is given by:

Compressible Fluid Flow

Tail:

x = ( a2 V p ) t

and the width of the expansion region at any instant of time is given by:

Unsteady expansion waves can be generated in other ways notably by the rupture of diaphragms separating regions of high and low pressure. These will be discussed later.

w= a1 ( a2 V p ) t

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow

In order to apply the equations discussed above, a2 has to be known. To find this, consider the wave to be split into a series of wavelets, as previously explained, each produced by a differentially small jump in piston velocity and each producing a differentially small change in velocity, pressure, etc. If the local gas velocity in the wave is V, the wavelet is propagated with velocity (a V ) relative to the tube walls as shown in the following figure.

Wavelet considered in analysis of unsteady expansion wave.

Compressible Fluid Flow Consider the flow relative to the wave as indicated in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow Applying the momentum equation to the flow across the wave gives:

p ( p + dp ) = a ( a + dV ) a i.e.: dp = adV
But:

dp = a2 d
d

so the previous equation can be written as:

Vp

dV a
2 1

Integrating this equation across the complete wave gives:

Flow relative to wavelet considered.

dV =
0

Compressible Fluid Flow But since the entire flow is isentropic, a is related to by:
1

Compressible Fluid Flow

a 2 = a1 1 Using this, the integrations in the previous equation can be carried out which leads to the following: a2 1 V2
a1

This is the basic equation of unsteady expansion wave flow. Once this is known, the other changes across the wave can be calculated by noting that the flow through the wave is isentropic so that:

= 1 2 a1

In the above discussion, unsteady expansion waves associated with the motion of pistons were considered. As was noted earlier, however, such waves can be generated in other ways. As an example, consider a tube which is initially sealed at both ends and contains a gas at a pressure above atmospheric pressure. If one end of the tube is suddenly opened, the pressure at this end of the tube will drop to atmospheric and an unsteady expansion wave will propagate down the tube inducing flow out of the tube. This situation is shown in the following figure.

p2 a2 1 = p1 a1

and

2 a2 1 = 1 a1

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow

The flow is equivalent to that which would have been generated by the instantaneous acceleration to velocity, V2. From the previous work it therefore follows that across the 2 expansion wave: p2 1 V2 1 = 1 p1 2 a1 Combining these equations and noting that p2-pa, the atmospheric pressure, gives:
pa 1 V2 1 = 1 p1 2 a1
2

from which it follows that:

1 p 2 2a V2 = 1 1 a 1 p1

Unsteady expansion wave produced by sudden opening of the end of a tube.

which gives the velocity at which the gas will be discharged from the tube.

Compressible Fluid Flow It will be noted that no matter how large the initial pressure, p1, there is a maximum velocity at which the gas will be discharged, this being:

Compressible Fluid Flow An unsteady expansion wave is also generated when a moving shock wave reaches the end of an open duct as indicated in the following two figures.

2a V2 max = 1 1
This is, then, the maximum velocity which can be generated by an unsteady expansion wave propagating into a gas at rest. It should not be confused with the maximum escape velocity previously discussed which was the maximum velocity that could be generated by a steady isentropic expansion.

Generation of expansion wave by reflection of a moving shock wave from the open end of a tube.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Compressible Fluid Flow Situations arise in a number of practical situations in which unsteady shock waves and expansion waves are simultaneously generated. One of the simplest examples of this is the flow that occurs in a so-called shock tube. In its simplest form, this consists of a long constant area tube divided into two sections by a diaphragm which is typically made from a thin sheet of metal which often has groves cut into it to ensure that it can be easily and cleanly broken. The tube contains a high pressure gas on one side of the diaphragm and a low pressure gas on the other side of the diaphragm as shown in the following figure.

x - t diagram for flow associated with the reflection of a moving shock wave from the open end of a tube.

Simple shock tube arrangement.

Compressible Fluid Flow When the diaphragm is broken either by mechanical means or by increasing the pressure in the high pressure side of the diaphragm, a shock wave propagates into the low pressure section and an expansion wave propagates into the high pressure section as illustrated in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow

Between the shock wave and the expansion wave a region of uniform velocity is generated that can be used for many different types of experimental studies. For example, a body can be placed in the flow and the forces on it can be measured. The flow in a shock tube only lasts for a short period of time, of course, because the waves are reflected off the ends of the tube. However, this device has been widely used in many studies of compressible flows.

Waves generated in shock tube following rupture of diaphragm.

Compressible Fluid Flow The velocity that is generated in a shock tube is determined by noting that the velocity and pressure behind the shock wave must be equal to the velocity and pressure behind the expansion wave as indicated in the following figure.

Compressible Fluid Flow

The shock wave increases the temperature of the gas whereas the expansion wave decreases the temperature of the gas. If the temperatures in the high and low pressure sections of the tube are initially the same, it follows that there will not be a uniform temperature between the shock wave and the expansion wave. This is shown in the above figure.

Velocity, pressure and temperature variations in shock tube.