Current Definitions of Revolution Author(s): Dale Yoder Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 32, No. 3 (Nov.

, 1926), pp. 433-441 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2765544 . Accessed: 13/04/2014 09:52
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CURRENT DEFINITIONS

OF REVOLUTION

DALE YODER ofIowa University ABSTRACT withinand withoutthe social science The term"revolution"is variouslydefined field. At least three distinctconceptionsare discernible.Revolution as a political phenomenon.-Bodin, Small, Adams, Sorokin,Ross, Martin, Dewe, Edwards, Weba purelypolitical phenomester,the Pauls, and Spargo appear to considerrevolution non, a changein the location of sovereignty.Revolution as abrupt social change.Le Bon and Ellwood suggestthat the termincludesany sudden or apparentlysudden social change,so that political revolutionis but one of several types. Revolution as is that of changeso drasticas to changein theentiresocial order.-A thirdconception involve all phases of the social organization. Revolutionmay be political,but it has and otheraspects. Hyndman states this concepalso religious, economic,industrial, tion, and Sumner,Parsons, and Finney appear so to use the term. Revolution a conceptionsof changein attitudes.-An explanationof such variationin the current in its entirety. revolutionappears in the fact that no writerhas describedrevolution there develops a wideWhen normal social change is, for any reason, obstructed, aspects of the spread unrestwhich attaches itselfto the most obviously offensive social structure.The unrestand the collectivebehavior which oftenfollows reprerevolution. The more significant changes have, however,alsent, to most writers, order. to the traditionalinstitutional ready occurredin the attitudesfundamental

is one of the mostused and, one susThe term"revolution" and without of words. Bothwithin misused most pects,one ofthe of of the social sciencesit has acquireda variety the literature as is the makeitas adaptableto personal purposes meanings which and skin. In general parlanceit carriesconnotations chameleon's highest thedeepestfearsas wellas the involve which significances threatenthemostformidable danger hopes. To someit represents theonlygleamofhopein a presto others, civilization; ingmodern is thepopularbeliefthatrevoluofdarkness.So general entworld to be avoidedat orderand a thing of thedirest tionis a calamity to it as the refer oftheday regularly anycostthatthenewspapers whichfaces modernnations. The one outstanding catastrophe social movemeans foropposingany present-day mosteffective thatit is a stepin or to suggest is to brandit as "revolution" ment thatdirection. of successthestories handand at thesametime, On theother of our traditions are themostcherished fulrevolutionary changes
433

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thebeginrepresents theReformation society.To theProtestants, beacon of theirfaith.To the citizenof the ningand the guiding War are among of theRevolutionary UnitedStates,thetraditions in themindsand hearts implanted are mostcarefully thosewhich theword"revoluAt thesametime, generation. ofeachsucceeding disaster.These twocontradicbloodshed, violence, tion"suggests anomaliesas thatof a give riseto such striking toryconceptions seriousness presentsin one modern whichin perfect newspaper of Americans of the friendship editorialcolumna denunciation whilein an adjacentcolumnit carries withRussianrevolutionists Americanism harangue againstthe slipshod an equallyvituperous a properemphasis upon the the schoolsto neglect whichpermits heroeswho embodied the "spiritof virtues of the revolutionary seventy-six." a failure from to define of thought, whichresults Confusion in popularspeechand the lay is to be expected terms carefully, that amongthose who press. But it is moreor less remarkable to scientific invesappropriate to speakin theterminology attempt than is rather the concept manipulated and description, tigation from a changein It is usedto describe defined. anysortofchange, to a a purelypoliticalphenomenon, the locationof sovereignty, thefundainthesocialprocesses and supporting underlying change ofsociety:thepolitical, structural elements relimental economic, gious,and otherinstitutions. of some uniformity upon thenecessity Burns,in commenting field in usage,within thescientific at least,suggests thatthepresin meanings is due to thefactthattheterm is used to entdiversity thetemper of thewriter rather thanto describe objective express reality.He says:
The word"revolution" and forthepurposesof mayhave manymeanings, it can be usefully by the same personsin contradictory employed controversy of all revolution can take it forgranted senses. Thus the professed opponents of throats and at the same timethe controlof sothatit involvesthe cutting can also do a little fanatics.The professed revolutionary cietyby intellectual and at the same time to confusethe issue by callingon us to shootcapitalists to love ourenemies.1
1 C. D. Burns,The Principlesof Revolution,p. iii.

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ofrevodifference in thevarious conceptions The moststriking of ofthefield writers is in theextent by scientific lution displayed their usageoftheterm.To one include within which they behavior observrestricted phenomenon is a verynarrowly grouprevolution and in a particular aspectof sociallife,the able onlyoccasionally of thosewhohave described phase. By farthemajority political in thatsense-to have used the term in their writings revolutions Bodinis giventhe in thelocation ofsovereignty. describe a change to describe a revosucha restricted usage. In hisattempt credit for behavior, process, a sequenceof stagesin revolutionary lutionary was he was speaking ofwhich thatthething specified he carefully been has The thus established precedent a politicalreversal.2 on thesame and kinwhohave written by others widelyfollowed dredsubjects. in thatthesociological interest explaining Small,forinstance, whichexistsbeconsistsin tracingthe relationship revolutions of suchphenomena and thefuncharacteristic thebehavior tween takeas a subthatthestudent damental human interests, suggests he theFrenchRevolution.3 Adams,although ject forexamination process The Theoryof styleshis analysisof the revolutionary the same to describe is clearlyusingthe term Social Revolutions, He makesreto whichBodin had reference. phenomena political in illustration of the to the FrenchRevolution peatedreferences and is clearcut in his declaration he seeksto elaborate, principles of administrative and adjustment are problems that revolutions is upon the economic placed major emphasis His readjustment. but causes whichappear to him to underlieall such disorders, he has in mindpoliticalchangewhenhe speaks of revolution more.4 nothing he relatesrevolution to a wide although Sorokin, similarly, manifestaof psychological, and endocrinal neurological, variety of thepoliticaluptions,sees all of theseas theaccompaniments similar to thatof Adamsin tracing heaval.5Ross takesa position
pp. 406-7. 2Jean Bodin, The Six Books of The Commonwealth, 'A. W. Small, GeneralSociology,pp. 5I5 f. 'Brooks Adams,The Theoryof Social Revolutions.
5Pitirim A. Sorokin,The Sociology of Revolution.

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thecauses of revolution to economic changes, and he restricts his a connotations.6 to its political Martinpresents usage of theterm leads suggestive analysisof thecrowdactivity which prepares for, from in up to,carries on, and emerges revolutions, usingtheterm the Reformation its politicalsense. Although he mentions as a interms revolution, his description proceeds ofthepolitical aspects In thisrestricted is used by sensethe concept of thatmovement.7 variousotherwriters, including Dewe,8Edwards,9 Webster,10 the Pauls,1'and Spargo.'2 in thesamefield thisusage is too To another groupof writers narrow.Revolution to thissecondgroup maybe political, but the one of number of politicalrevolutions are but a types. The term includesreligious, economic, industrial, political, and otherforms of upheavaland disorder.BothLe Bon and Ellwoodhave specifiof the termthereis ample cally statedthatin theirconceptions roomfor types ofrevolution other thanthepolitical.In bothcases, it is true,all of thebehavior whichtheyhave selectedas characteristic and all of the materialupon which of thatin revolution from thepolitical havebased their they analyseshas beenselected in forms, and thatfactdoesmuchto add to theconfusion involved the term.But each has stateda broaderdefinition of it. defining Le Bon,inhisintroductory in The Psychologyof Revostatements lutions,extends his usage to include"all suddentransformations, or transformations of beliefs, apparently sudden,whether ideas, or doctrines.""3 is maybe gathered How broadhis conception from thefollowhe makesof thosewhohold to the strictly which ingcriticism politicalaspects:
6E. A. Ross, Principles of Sociology, Russia in Upheaval, Russian Bolshevik Revolution,Russian Soviet Republic,Social Revolutionin Mexico. 'Everett Dean Martin,The Behavior of Crowds,esp. pp. I84 ff. 8Rev. J. A. Dewe, The Psychologyof Politics and History.

9Lyford Patterson Edwards, "The Mechanics of Revolutibn," St. Stephen's College Bulletin,LXIX, No. 2. "0Mrs.Nesta Webster, World Revolutionand The FrenchRevolution. Eden and Cedar Paul, CreativeRevolution. John Spargo, The Psychologyof Bolshevism. 3 Gustave Le Bon, The Psychologyof Revolutions, p. 25.

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in his laterwriting Ellwood,especially on the subject, has expressed a similar idea of thenumerous forms of phenomena which the term"revolution" includes.In his earlierstatements he was rather specific in declaring thatthe phenomenon to whichhe rein use term ferred his ofthe was not"anysuddensocialor political changefrom to mutations in coups d'etat or 'palace revolutions' fashions or industrial due to greatinventions." changes "Rather," he says,"weare nowusingtheterm in its strictly politicalsense. As Bodin long ago pointedout, the mark of revolution in this senseis a changein thelocation of sovereignty."15 This statement thathe recognized maybe takento indicate thattheterm couldbe used in othersenses,and his morerecentdefinition makes clear thathe has cometo thatconclusion. Revolution is simply abrupt, violent social change.It is one of thetwogreatclassesof change is calleduponto deal. His continued thesocialscientist with which use of politicalrevolutions as examplesof such changessuggests one of theseveralforms. suchmovements thathe considers
Almost would thattheproblems of anyobserver say,at thepresent time, areproblems ofunity andchange, ourhuman world andhewould add probably thechanges that we areforced to dealwith inpractical that human affairs are which oftwotypes, andabrupt, gradual changes viomaybe called"growth,"

The suddenpoliticalrevolutions whichstrikethe historian most forcibly are oftenthe least important. The greatrevolutions are thoseof manners and thosewhichtransform thought.The truerevolutions, the destinies of people, are mostfrequently so slowlythatthehistorians accomplished can hardly point to their are by farthemostimportant.14 Scientific revolutions beginnings.

lentchanges, be called"revolutions."16 whichmight

There is another and moreinclusive sense in whichthe term is usedinthisliterature-aconception in revolution includes which oreconomic, notalonepolitical phenomena, political, religious, and as variousforms other ofrevolution, butwhich phenomena, makes theconcept all of theseaspectsofsociallife. According involve to it be thisconception, should is not clearlydewhich, remarked, fined thechangewhich by morethanone or twowriters, is revoluis basic,underlying. It involves theelementary tionary aspectsof
14Ibid., p. 25.

1 C. A. Ellwood, Sociology in Its PsychologicalAspects,p. I63. 6 C. A. Ellwood, The Psychologyof Human Society,pp. 20-2 I.

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and it is a changeso inclusive theinstitutions, thesocialstructure, The factthat is disorganized. thatthewholesociallifeofthegroup or economic arises, revolutions appear to be politicalor religious aspectsofthechange to thisviewpoint, becausetheovert according in relation of thesocial orare moststriking to someone element affects however, therevolution as a whole, ganization.Considered and perhapsless and includestheunderlying all partsof society obvious, and which are superficial, obviouschanges as wellas those spectacular. of thisidea appearsin thestatements of a numA suggestion use of theterm is suchas to raise ber of writers, buttheir general are clearly awareof theimplications ornotthey thequerywhether is theusageof Professor oftheir ownlanguage.Such,for instance, as a changein the revolution Sumner.In one place, he describes oftheunderlying social ofa group, a phenomenon obviously mores structure:
of old mores In highercivilizations crises producedby the persistency or reform.In revoluhave changedare solvedby revolution afterconditions tionsthe moresare brokenup... . A periodfollowsin whichthereare no up; theneware not formed.'7 mores. The old are broken

the sudden develophe describes But in anotherstatement, the urbanand rural of transportation whichhave brought ments of revolution as the greatest into closercommunication districts in its he uses the term all time. In the same connection political areitscauses. socialchanges thattheunderlying senseand suggests
between the greatcenters The cheapening of population of transportation land is thegreatest factof our time, massesof unoccupied and and theoutlying whichhas ever takenplace.18 economicand social revolution it is the greatest was due to thefactthata greatchangehad come The FrenchRevolution of economicpower betweenthe classes and in the about in the distribution to economic class moreswhichcorrespond power.'9

ofthebreadth Parsonsappearsto havea conception Similarly, but his of changeswhichoccur eitherin or beforerevolution, to it determine "unrest" makes impossible usage of the term an essential suchwidechanges he considers whether partof revo7W. G. Sumner, Folkways,p. 86. 8W. G. Sumner, Essays, p. I67.
9

Ibid., p. I67.

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lution or simply an inevitable causal situation withrespect to it.20 A similar statement maybe madewithregard to Finney.It is difficultto ascertain he sees revolution whether as including thevarious in changes the social lifeof a groupor whether it is his idea that therevolution merely occasions sucha widespread series ofchanges, thatsuchchanges are results of revolution.2' Hyndman has made themostexplicit statement of thisviewsees revolution pointwhich as an inclusive socialprocessinvolving all theaspectsofgroup lifein a sudden more or lessviolent change. He dignifies someaspectsof thatchangemorethanothers, forhe placesespecialemphasis upontheeconomic in revolution. changes But he is clearin his insistence thattherevolution is notcomplete, ofrevolution theconception itincludes is inadequate, unless change in all thevariousaspectsof social existence.
There are thustwo sides to everygreatchangein the conductof human in all progressive affairs. First,and mostimportant is the economic societies, development itself, which, up to thepresent era,has been forthemostpartunconscious, so faras themass of thepeople and even themostcapable brainsof the timewere concerned.Next to the growth of economicformscomes the mentalappreciation of them, led by its clearest whichenablesthe community, to comprehend in its comthinkers, whatis taking place.22 . . . . Revolution, plete sense, means a thorough economic,social, and political changein any greatcommunity.23

Sucharethegenerally expressed conceptions oftheterm "revolution."To someit is an exclusively political change, a shifting in thelocation of sovereignty. To others it is a changein any of several aspectsof the lifeof society, and it takesits particular form to the institution withwhichit is mostobviously according assoit is an extensive ciated. To stillothers and inclusive socialchange all thevarious the affecting aspectsofthelifeofa society, including and familial economic, religious, industrial, as wellas thepolitical. This confusion in theuse of theconcept seemsto resultfrom the factthatnone of the writers has considered in its revolution to all of its ramifications has givenattention at one time. entirety,
20P. A. Parsons,An Introductionto Modern Social Problems,pp. 235

ff.

Ross L. Finney,Causes and Cures for the Social Unrest,pp. 35-37. 22Henry M. Hyndman,The Evolution of Revolution,pp. II-I2. " Ibid., p. I2.
21

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thatare broadand thatare inclusive, in society Thereare changes the thesocialstructure, supporting basicattitudes deep,thataffect as well as the instituand conventions customs, folkways, mores, tionsof the group. It is to thesechangesin the social attitudes whichdetermine the social structure, and support whichunderlie thatalone make any social of habitsand sentiments the complex maybe properly "revolution" thattheconcept ordera possibility, applied. The situais continual. in which change Social lifeis a process stateof find themselves are in a continuous societies tionsin which of otherculand thecontributions discoveries, flux as inventions, environment. The the material and reorganize turesdisorganize its existence and maintain groupwhichis to continue organized and continual readjustment its statusmustbe in a stateof regular to newsituadjustments The successful situation. to thechanging and as folkways to generation generation ationsarepassedon from of these organization mores.The gradualand usuallyunconscious basis peculiarto any socigivestheinstitutional behavior patterns these institutional patterns staticsocial order ety. In a relatively of the various crises enable the societyto meet the exigencies guardedand inculcated carefully thatarise. They are, therefore, and theytake on, in each succeeding generation, through tradition of emotional approval. as timepasses,a highdegree there comesa basic to sociallifechange, But as theconditions are unableto meet theold institutions, theold folkways, when time of the demandsof the new situation.They may becomethings ofthegroup members to thegroup.To a portion disutility positive theyare modified positivevalues. Sometimes theyare no longer and thegroupsetsaboutto ofthesituation, through a redefinition its continued exisand facilitate to permit devisenewmechanisms itsstatus, or theyfallintodisuseor improve tenceand to maintain as new behavior adjustments complex and pass out of theculture This gradualand non-spectacular are foundmoreadvantageous. of itslifewe conditions to thechanging ofa group accommodation socialchange. as normal define thereare forone reason or another, however, Occasionally, old the to desire which order, the preserve groupswithin society

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CURRENT DEFINITIONS

OF REVOLUTION

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folkways, mores,coninstitutions, the time-tried the traditional eventhough thebehavior theydefine is inventions, and customs, adequate in the presentsituation.So long as such a grouphas thenewproblems remain untheold definitions, powerto enforce societyis unable so to changeas to make life solved,organized members. and The old institutions to all ofitsindividual tolerable and itsmembers and customs failto servetheneedsof thesociety of social structure of suchnewelements prevent the introduction demands.They have thennot onlyceased to be as the situation of thegroup;theyhave becomeof valuesto themembers positive value. In such a situation thereis discontent, distinctly negative becomedisorganized. The ununrest individuals becomes general, unorganized, without head or objective;thegroup restis inchoate, members thatare at work.As timegoes on do not see the forces of the social order theirdiscomfort to thatportion theyattribute in whichthemaladjustment is mostobvious. Thus, the resulting or economic as thediscomfort disorder religious, maybe political, to oneof thesephasesofthesocialorganiis most easilyattributed attackuponone of these whichcenter their zationby thecrowds aspects. on thesubjecthave attackwhichthewriters It is thisviolent and it is because this overtact is directed called "revolution," someparticular thattheyhave partof thesocial structure toward or religious arepolitical oreconomic.But thatrevolutions assumed occursfarbelowthesurface of the social life. thereal revolution of thecitizenry toward theunderIt is thechangein theattitudes or customs which have cometo stand basisoftheinstitutions lying The realrevolution in thewayofa tolerable is the life-experience. and values basic to the traditional changein the social attitudes industrial, or economic order.The political, institutional religious, of the deeperchangewhich changesare but overtmanifestations takenplace. has previously

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