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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANA A CITY, YEMEN
Sharafaddin Abdullah Ahmed Salleh (1) and Taha Muhammed Taher (2)
Abstract
Water resources in Yemen are limited, and water is becoming scarce everyday due to ever-increasing demand due to the rapidly increasing population and to the drought climate the country is characterized with. Increasing overdrawn from groundwater causes a deficit of 900 Mm3 annually leaving the country to seek alternative resources. All major cities in Yemen facing water problems resulting in a mainly socio-economic change beside other challenges- that produce unrest and unforeseen conflicts to acquire water when needed especially in the capital city of Sana!a where groundwater levels drop annually by an average of 6 m. Rainwater harvesting systems have been used since ancient times and evidence of roof systems date back to more than 4000 years ago in the middle east as the principal water source for drinking and domestic use. This paper summarizes the findings of a substantial work by the authors during the past three years in providing a reasonable, alternative solution to the water scarcity problem through dealing with water harvesting as an
alternative resource. This paper estimated the amount of water that can be harvested annually from roof tops 11.31 Mm3 for urban areas using runoff coefficient of 0.75 and 0.172 Mm3 for rural areas using runoff coefficient of 0.6. This indicates that there will be an annual reduction in the usage of groundwater in urban and rural areas by 22% and 33% respectively. Simple and easy harvested water volume guide tables were developed for different run off coefficients of 0.6, 0.7, 0.75 and 0.8. It also presents a the main factors for the design of a complete Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System for the city of Sana!a.
Key word: Roof Tops, Water Harvesting, Design Tables, Guideline, Sana!a, Yemen
1-Assistant Professor of Hydraulics and Water resources , Civil Engineering Department, faculty of Engineering, Water and Environment Center (WEC), Sana!a University e-mail: sharaf1960s@gmail.com, sharafaddens@yahoo.com., 2- Associate Professor of Water resources, Civil Engineering Department, faculty of Engineering, Water and Environment Center (WEC), Sana!a University P.O. Box 14636, Sana'a Yemene-mail: tmtahiri@y.net.ye, tmtahiri2011@gmail.com
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
1. Introduction
1.1 History of Water Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting systems have been used since ancient times and evidence of roof catchments systems date back to early Roman times. Roman villas and even whole cities were designed to take advantage of rainwater as the principal water source for drinking and domestic purposes. Rainwater harvesting is an ancient technique enjoying a revival in popularity due to the inherent quality of rainwater and interest in reducing consumption of treated water. Archeological evidence attests to the capture of rainwater as far back as 4,000 years ago, and the concept of rainwater harvesting in China may date back 6,000 years. Ruins of cisterns built as early as 2000 B.C. for storing runoff from hillsides for agricultural and domestic purposes [1]. 2000 B.C. In the Negev desert in Philistine, tanks for storing runoff from hillsides for both domestic and agricultural purposes have allowed habitation and cultivation in areas with as little as 100mm of rain per year. The earliest known evidence of the use of the technology in Africa comes from northern Egypt, where tanks ranging from 200-2000 m3 have been used for at least 2000 years many are still operational today. The technology also has a long history in Asia, where rainwater collection practices have been traced back almost 2000 years in Thailand. The smallscale collection of rainwater from the eaves of roofs or via simple gutters into traditional jars and pots has been practiced in Africa and Asia for thousands of years. In many remote rural areas, this is still the method used today. The world's largest rainwater tank is probably the Yerebatan Sarayi in Istanbul, Turkey. This was constructed during the rule of Caesar Justinian (A.D. 527-565). It measures 140m by 70m and has a capacity of 80,000 cubic meters. According to UNESCO, arid regions are defined as areas where potential evapo-transpiration is much greater than precipitation. Table (1) shows the extent of aridity in the Medial East and North Africa region (MENA) as reflected in rainfall data. It also shows that arid and semi-arid areas amount to about 96% of the North African part and 95% of the Asian part of the MENA region.
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
Sub-region
85 79 84
11 16 13
96 95 97
Many countries, therefore, in the Middle East increasingly suffer from water shortages due to the unavailability of renewable water resources and to the rabid increase in population (see table 2).
Table2: Indicates water deficiencies in some Arab countries [3] .
Annual renewable resources 106 M3 Annual consumption 106 M3 Deficiencies 106 M3 Deficiencies % Level of deficiencies
No
Country
1 2 3 4 5 6 9 8 9 10
Iraq Kuwait Qatar Libya Jordan Bahrain UAE Yemen Oman Saudi
42560 508 259 3980 880 157 1050 1500 345 2900
47330 640 334 5580 1280 250 2230 3600 1417 23100
10 21 22 29 31 37 57 58 76 87
Therefore, rainwater harvesting in some rural areas seen as the main source for water supply but in other communities is the only feasible water supply. In both cases, rainwater harvesting is an option for improving the living conditions of many communities facing serious water supply shortages by providing an improved water source qualitatively and quantitatively. Rainwater Harvesting in Yemen is a traditional practice, and in many areas Cisterns are used to conserve rain water. The cisterns of Tawaila (rain flood harvesting), or the Tawaila Tanks are Aden!s best historic sites. Mareb dam is an example of a water harvesting technology started 2000 years B.C in Yemen to provide agricultural and domestic waters to the left
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
thunderstorms may bring some rain during these months. Sixty-five to seventy-five percent of the rain falls during the months January-June. The number of rain days with rainfall amounts above 5 mm/day varies between 5-15 days. The average amount of rainfall per rain day is about 16-17 mm. The potential evapotranspiration (PET) for an average year varies depending on altitude, wind exposure and latitude. The PET varies between 3-3.5 mm/day during the dry, cold period and 5-6 mm/day during the months May-June. The average total amount of evapotranspiration per year is about 1700 mm.
4 19 11 20 83 29.5 19 30 13 1 52.5
27.80
6 0 0 3 6 2 0
11 0 0 0 45 34 6.5 2.5 7 0 2
9.60
12 0 0.5 39.5 19 1 124 111.5 350 316.5 201.5 341 146 1 0 146
39.17
0 0 0.5
1.28
49 49 0
22.95
The selection of the 2001 year to be used for the calculation of the maximum storage requirement is based on the following: 1.It is one of ten years data which is the minimum requirement for the numbers of years of data.
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
2.The year value it has is more than the average year. 3.It has 12 months of reading Arranging the rainfall in descending order: 350, 341, 330, 316.5, 303, 227, 201.5, 124.5, 124, 111.5 The 350 mm/year is equaled or exceeded only once in ten years, and the average 243 mm/year is equaled or exceeded in five years. Use 243 mm/year for the design. More accurate estimation was done through analysis of rainfall data from additional source i.e. NASA Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) in order to validate the above selection of rainfall rate. TRMM is a joint mission between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (disc2.nascom.nasa.gov) of the United States and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). Using the TRM model, the authors have obtained table (4) for 10 years (1999-2009)
Table 4: Sana a rainfall for the range from 1999 to 2009
latitude
Longitude
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Average rainfall
Selected parameter: 3-hourly TRMM 3B42(V6) Accumulated Rainfall Selected area: lat=[15N,16N], long=[44E,45E], (44"13'E, 15"28'N, Elevation: 2190m) Selected time period: (21Z31Jan1999-21Z31Dec2009) Unit: (mm)
The average of 243 mm/yr. coincides with the previous one obtained from NWRA data. Therefore, calculations of the harvested water volume are based on an annual average rainfall of the year!s period of 243 mm (see table 5 above).
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
Runoff coefficient (see table 5) For flat slopes or impermeable soils use higher values For flat slopes or permeable soils use lower values, For steep slopes or impermeable soils use the higher values.
Table5: Runoff coefficients
Area Description Business Downtown Neighbourhood Residential Single-Family Multi-units, detached Multi-units, attached Residential (suburban) Apartment Industrial Light Heavy Parks, cemeteries Playgrounds Railroad yard Unimproved Character of surface Pavement Asphaltic and concrete Brick
Roofs
Runoff Coefficient C 0.70-0.95 0.50-0.70 0.30-0.50 0.40-0.60 0.60-0.75 0.25-0.40 0.50-0.70 0.50-0.80 0.60-0.90 0.10-0.25 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35 0.10-0.30 Runoff Coefficient C 0.70-0.95 0.70-0.85 0.75-0.95
Simple design tables where developed applying the above simple equation as basic guidance to estimate the water harvested volume based on several run off coefficients of 0.6, 0.7, 0.75 and 0.8, the rainfall and the surface area. Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9 illustrating the water volume harvested from roof tops using rainfall average of 243 mm/year with different roof surface areas.
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN Table6: Harvested water volume guide table using run off coefficient (C=0.6)
Rainfall (mm) Roof areas (m2) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN Table7: Harvested water volume guide table using run off coefficient (C=0.7)
Rainfall (mm) Roof areas (m2) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32 35 42 49 56 63 70 105 140 175 210 245 280 315 350 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 16 21 26 32 37 42 47 53 63 74 84 95 105 158 210 263 315 368 420 473 525 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 84 98 112 126 140 210 280 350 420 490 560 630 700 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16 18 26 35 44 53 61 70 79 88 105 123 140 158 175 263 350 438 525 613 700 788 875 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19 21 32 42 53 63 74 84 95 105 126 147 168 189 210 315 420 525 630 735 840 945 105 0 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN Table 8: Harvested water volume guide table using run off coefficient (C=0.75)
Rainfall (mm) Roof areas (m2) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34 38 45 53 60 68 75 113 150 188 225 263 300 338 375 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 17 23 28 34 39 45 51 56 68 79 90 101 113 169 225 281 338 394 450 506 563 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 15 23 30 38 45 53 60 68 75 90 105 120 135 150 225 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17 19 28 38 47 56 66 75 84 94 113 131 150 169 188 281 375 469 563 656 750 844 938 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20 23 34 45 56 68 79 90 101 113 135 158 180 203 225 338 450 563 675 788 900 1013 1125 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500
Harvested Water Volume from Roof Top (m3), C= 0.75 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24 26 39 53 66 79 92 105 118 131 158 184 210 236 263 394 525 656 788 919 1050 1181 1313 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 7 10 14 17 20 24 27 30 34 51 68 84 101 118 135 152 169 203 236 270 304 338 506 675 844 1013 1181 1350 1519 1688 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34 38 56 75 94 113 131 150 169 188 225 263 300 338 375 563 750 938 1125 1313 1500 1688 1875 9 14 18 23 27 32 36 41 45 68 90 113 135 158 180 203 225 270 315 360 405 450 675 900 1125 1350 1575 1800 2025 2250 11 16 21 26 32 37 42 47 53 79 105 131 158 184 210 236 263 315 368 420 473 525 788 1050 1313 1575 1838 2100 2363 2625 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 360 420 480 540 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 14 20 27 34 41 47 54 61 68 101 135 169 203 236 270 304 338 405 473 540 608 675 1013 1350 1688 2025 2363 2700 3038 3375 15 23 30 38 45 53 60 68 75 113 150 188 225 263 300 338 375 450 525 600 675 750 1125 1500 1875 2250 2625 3000 3375 3750 23 34 45 56 68 79 90 101 113 169 225 281 338 394 450 506 563 675 788 900 1013 1125 1688 2250 2813 3375 3938 4500 5063 5625
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN Table 9: Harvested water volume guide table using run off coefficient (C=0.8)
Rainfall (mm) Roof areas (m2) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000
2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1500
6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 168 196 224 252 280 420 560
700 840 980 1120 1260 1400
6 10 13 16 19 22 26 29 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 192 224 256 288 320 480 640
800 960 1120 1280 1440 1600
7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 216 252 288 324 360 540 720
900 1080 1260 1440 1620 1800
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 280 320 360 400 600 800
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
10 14 19 24 29 34 38 43 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 288 336 384 432 480 720 960
1200 1440 1680 1920 2160 2400
11 17 22 28 34 39 45 50 56 84 112 140 168 196 224 252 280 336 392 448 504 560 840 1120
1400 1680 1960 2240 2520 2800
13 19 26 32 38 45 51 58 64 96 128 160 192 224 256 288 320 384 448 512 576 640 960 1280
1600 1920 2240 2560 2880 3200
14 22 29 36 43 50 58 65 72 108 144 180 216 252 288 324 360 432 504 576 648 720 1080 1440
1800 2160 2520 2880 3240 3600
16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 480 560 640 720 800 1200 1600
2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 1800 2400
3000 3600 4200 4800 5400 6000
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
3. Public building with an average roof surface area of 200 m2 and 4. School building The examples of the sample calculations of the above surface areas of the aforementioned buildings can be applied to similar buildings with different roof surface areas. Accordingly, the only variables in the calculations are roof surface area and the average rainfall of that specific location, however, rainfall can be estimated generally as an average for the whole city leaving the surface roof area the only variable. The following example clarifies the steps of calculations for the RWH quantity and storage tank capacity. Example Site: Public building, Sana!a Yemen Given data: Roof area: 200 m2 Annual average rainfall: 243 mm per year Runoff coefficient: 0.75 (concrete roof) Required parameter to be found: 1. Harvested volume/ month 2. Harvested volume/day 3. Storage capacity Solution: Annual available water (assuming all is collected and using Rational Method) = 200 0.243 0.75 = 36.45 m3 /yr. or from table (7) you can get directly the same value. 1. Monthly water requirement = 2. Daily available water =
3.038 = 0.1013 m3/ day 30 3. The calculation of the storage tank is listed in table 10 below
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
(1) Month
(5) Demand (based on total requirement (m#) 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 3.04 36.48
(7) Difference between column (4) and (6) 1.31 14.47 16.08 14.99 12.10 9.06 13.37 13.63 13.74 14.15 12.16 9.27
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Totals
4.35 16.20 4.65 1.95 0.15 0.00 7.35 3.30 3.15 3.45 1.05 0.15 45.75
4.35 20.55 25.20 27.15 27.30 27.30 34.65 37.95 41.10 44.55 45.60 45.75
3.04 6.08 9.12 12.16 15.20 18.24 21.28 24.32 27.36 30.40 33.44 36.48
Column (2): The median year rainfall is used (refer to table 3) Column(3): Rainfall Harvested (m") = (C # Average Rainfall#Roof Area)/1000 Column (4): Cumulative rainfall harvested (m") Column (5): Demand ( Calculated from the step 2 of the example above) Column (6): Cumulative demand based on column (5) Column (7): The tank storage capacity [select the max value] Table 10 explains the process taken to calculate the storage tank capacity by taking into consideration the incoming and the outgoing cumulative water quantity. The storage tank capacity is taken as maximum value in column (7) as the difference between the water harvested (incoming) column 4 and the water requirement for the building (outgoing) in column 6 in any month. This value is shown in the month of March to be 16.08 m3. According to this value the tank size can then be designed with an extra of 25% of the water volume in to accommodate any higher rainfall might occur. Graphically we can calculate the storage capacity from the rainfall data graphically by comparing the water harvested and the amount that can
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
be supplied to the building using the harvested water. It can be noted that there are two rainy seasons with dry periods (see figure 1). The month of January yields some quantity after the dry months of November and December. If we therefore assume that the tank is empty at the end of December, we can form a graph of cumulative harvested water and cumulative demand and calculate the maximum storage requirement (figure 2) which occurs in March. All this water will have to be stored to cover the shortfall during the dry period.
Figure1: Comparison of the harvestable water and the demand water for each month [7]
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
Figure2: Showing the predicted cumulative inflow and outflow from the tank [7]
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
In addition to the cost and saving advantages motioned above there are some other advantages of RTRWH in Sana!a city Include: Roof top rainwater harvesting can co$exist with and provide a good supplement to other water sources and utility systems, thus relieving pressure ground water as the unique water source in Sana!a city. Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply for the city areas which are not cover by water supply network especially during rainy seasons. Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply for use in times of emergency or breakdown of the public water supply systems, particularly during natural disasters. Water received is free of costs, so the use of this water significantly reduces water bills for purchased water from municipal supply. Harvesting rainwater is not only water conserving, it is also energy conserving since the energy input required to operate a centralized water system designed to treat and pump water over a vast service area is by-passed. Rainwater harvesting can reduce storm drainage load and flooding in streets, so it reduce local soil erosion and flooding caused by the rapid runoff of water from impervious cover such as pavements areas and roofs. Also, the RWH reduced level of storm water requires smaller sized storm water drainage systems and helps in reducing soil erosion into the waterways. Rainwater Collected From Roof and Stored Underground or in Storage tanks Scarcity Period to meet Increasing Demand for Water in Urban Areas. Rainwater Collected From Roof can be used for groundwater recharge through the shallow dry wells which was installed inside the house or near of it, which will help in control decline of water levels (Recharge the aquifers) Rainwater Collection in ponds through the water ways inside the city will contribute in recharging groundwater as well as for gardening and street trees irrigation by Tankers water for these ponds instead of watering them by groundwater.
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN Table 11. Water harvesting and consumption estimation for Sana a city Description No. Urban Houses No. rural Houses No. of total Houses Roof area (average) Average rainfall Urban runoff coefficient (C) Rural runoff coefficient (C). Estimated quantity of harvested water in urban areas Estimated quantity of harvested water in rural areas Total Quantity of water harvested (Urban +Rural) Estimated consumption in urban areas per capita Estimated consumption in rural areas per capita Estimated consumption in urban areas from GW Estimated consumption in rural areas from GW Estimated consumption in total areas from GW Groundwater saving in urban areas Groundwater saving in rural areas Water value Benefits of using Harvested water (urban) Benefits of using Harvested water (urban) Unit No. No. No. m2 mm Unit less Unit less m3 m3 m3 l/capita/day l/capita /day m3/year m3/year m3/year % % YR/m3 YR US$ Quantity 310,177 5,882 316,059 200 243 0.75 0.6 11,305,952 171,519 11,477,471 70 30 51,621,041 521,450 52,142,491 22 33 130 5,240,961,635 26,204,808
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
Ferro-cement above ground tanks close to the house [ 7] . b. In some cases it is advisable to construct a single storage tank serving several houses. 567Design the inflow pipes system Design and install first flush pipe system to flush out the first few minutes of rains which is usually contains debris, dust leaves.. etc. Design the storage tank according to the maximum storage requirement adding 25% with the necessary openings for maintenance. Typical tanks (above and below ground are available with complete details for common sizes including costs). Figure 3 shows a residential building in a village utilizing the rooftop rainwater harvesting which is stored in a tank made of masonry and concrete.
Figure3: An existing rooftop harvesting tank used for more than 40 years (home village of the second author)
8 9
Use Overflow of water from tank or from first flush for gardening, livestock or recharge. Test water quality at regular basis especially at beginning season of rain either taking samples to the lab or on site. On site water quality tests can be done simply by:
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
H2S strip test bottle check: Wash your hands thoroughly with soap. With clean hands the sealed bottle should be opened. From the tap in the rainwater storage tank fill the bottle to the mark line. Close the cap tightly. Bring the bottle back to a safe place in a room. Observe for 24 to 48 hours. If the water turns black in the bottle then it is micro-biologically contaminated and requires treatment before being used for drinking. If the water color stays brown, then the water is fit for drinking. 10 Chlorinating the water at least once during the rainy system and when necessary 11 Awareness campaigns about importance of harvesting water from roofs and about water quality with brochures could be prepared for this purpose. 12 More hints are summarized below: a. construct rainwater tanks far away from existing cesspits b. regular cleaning of the storage tank from sediments and before the beginning of the rainy season c. Keep the roofs catchment area clean d. Boil water or use filter systems when using harvested water for drinking or Solar disinfection (SODIS): In this method, rainwater is kept in a glass bottle under the sun for 6 hours. One side of the bottle is painted black. The black surface is kept on the ground. With a combination of UV disinfection and infra-red heat, water is sterilized and then becomes fit for consumption. In cloudy weather the bottles need to be kept in the sun longer [8]. Several bottles can be used with this method.
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ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING in MODERN CITIES: a CASE STUDY for SANAA CITY, YEMEN
and local city government should develop appropriate legislation to allow residents to employ rainwater harvesting in their households. They should provide certain technical support and financial aid if needed to residents. Awareness and educational campaigns should be conducted to encourage people to use the rainwater harvesting systems. It is recommended that local government starts the initiative using rooftop harvesting in their buildings.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Centre for Science and Environment, %Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization, An Introductory Guide for Decision-Makers&. Tughlakabad Institutional area, New Delhi - 110062, India2005.. [2] Noman, A., Taher, T., % Water Harvesting and Spate Irrigation in Wadis: Yemen Case&. Wadi Hydrology Conference, Amman, Jordan, 2004. ]3[ "CDEF/0, 950+?H/ IK@M0 208NPRS0" ()*+-/0 1346/0 8:< =; 8?A@. T;04/0 UVHN/0 4?QW@ .21999 (122-111 Y ();4Z/0 8H[?/0 (]EV?H/ [4] (MoPIC) Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, %Statistical Year-Book&. Sana!a, republic of Yemen , 2004. [5] Ward, C., Beddies, S., Taher, T., Sahooly, A., Gerhager, B., Al Harethi, NEquity and Efficiency in Yemen!s Water Reform- A sector Study and Poverty and Social Impact Analysis, Ministry of Water and Environment, Sana!a, Yemen . 2009. [6] WHO, %Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality&. third edition, Volume 1 Recommendations, Geneva, 2008. [7]Harteng, H., Karuki, I., Sharafaddin A. Saleh, %Design and Construction of Ferrocement Tanks Using Rooftop Water Harvesting&. Social Fund for Development, Sana!a Yemen, 2008. [8] Ministry of Water Resources, %A Guide on Artificial Recharge to Groundwater&. Central Ground water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi, India, 2000. [9] (NWRA) National Water Resources Authority, %Rainfall data of Sana!a, Taiz and Ibb&. Yemen, 2010 [10]http://disc2.nascom.nasa.gov/Giovanni/tovas/TRMM_V6.3B42.2.shtml [11] http://www.emsi.com/wmshelp/Hydrologic_Models/Models/Rational/Equation/Runoff _Coefficient_Table.htm .
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