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IMR 24,4

Cultural differences in brand designs and tagline appeals

Jong Woo Jun and Hyung-Seok Lee
Department of Advertising, College of Journalism and Communications, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose The objective of this study is to explore general cross-cultural differences in corporate visual identity between the USA and Korea, and to apply Trompenaars specic versus diffuse dimension to brand-logos and taglines in the two countries. Design/methodology/approach A sample of the brand-logos and taglines from the top 100 companies in each country were content analysed for research objectives. Findings The results indicate that Korean brands are generally more diffusive than those in the USA. Specically, Korean brand-logos tend to use more abstract and symbolic creative designs than those of the US, and the contents of Korean brand taglines contain more additional values than those in the USA. Research limitations/implications The ndings suggest the explanation power of new cultural dimensions for academic researchers and the importance of localised corporate identity strategies for international marketers. Originality/value Because little is known about the differences between company brand designs across cultures, this study lls a gap in the literature by examining company brand designs and taglines. In addition, this study proved the usability of the newly developed Trompenaars specic versus diffuse dimension. Keywords Culture, Corporate identity, Brands, United States of America, South Korea Paper type Research paper

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International Marketing Review Vol. 24 No. 4, 2007 pp. 474-491 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0265-1335 DOI 10.1108/02651330710761035

Introduction As the code of international branding sheds light on marketing strategies, multinational companies focus on global approaches for marketing and communicating their companies and products effectively. A company becomes truly global not only through moving its headquarters to other countries, but also via branding strategies and marketing messages (Mueller, 2004). Physical borders have become meaningless for multinational companies. In these fast changing market environments, it is necessary for marketers and advertisers to understand individual, local cultural values and then deliberately reect on them in the execution of marketing communication messages to develop more effective and persuasive marketing communication tools (Aaker, 2000; De Mooij, 2000; Gurhan-Candi and Maheswaran, 2000). Cultural differences may be the primary obstacle to developing internationally accepted brands and communicating with global consumers, especially those who live in developing countries with more traditional societies. To solve the conicts stemming from a lack of knowledge about cultural differences and to better understand the values of different cultures, it is vital to nd the right way to explain the inherent similarities and differences that exist in various countries and cultures. The initial approach is to understand the different communication styles in cross-cultural communication situations by investigating the variations in cultural dimensions. The four cultural dimensions of

Hofstede (1980, 1983, 1991) and Halls (1966) hidden dimension are the representative theories for understanding and explaining cultural differences. Among those, collectivism versus individualism (Hofstede, 1980, 1991) and contextualism (Hall, 1989) are the most popularly adopted cultural dimensions in the analysis of cross-cultural marketing and advertising (Triandis, 1995). Although Hofstede and Halls dimensions have been widely used by both cross-cultural researchers and international marketers and advertisers since they provide a valid rationale for understanding core values across cultures, some critics have challenged their limited explanation power due to the original developing process, as well as the validity and generalizability of the cultural dimensions (Cutler et al., 1997; La Ferle et al., 2002). Furthermore, these cultural dimensions are somewhat outdated. Consequently, the development of new dimensions is needed to complement the old dimensions created by Hofstede and Hall (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) suggested seven new cultural dimensions to solve the limit described above: (1) universalism versus particularism; (2) individualism versus communitarianism; (3) neutral versus emotional; (4) specic versus diffuse; (5) achievement versus ascription; (6) orientation in time; and (7) attitudes towards the environment. The current study focuses on the specic versus diffuse dimension since this new cultural dimension can be differentiated from preexisting dimensions and ts the analysis of marketing messages. Specic and diffusive cultures are classied according to the degree to which people interact with others in specic areas of life and single levels of personality or diffusively in multiple areas of their lives and at several levels of personality simultaneously (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998, p. 83). For example, a professor interacts within the specic culture of a university in the USA, but maintains his or her title and status diffusively within the larger culture in German, one of the diffusive cultures. In this study, corporate identity (CI) especially corporate visual identity, such as name, logotype/symbol, typography, colour, and tagline (Melewar and Jenkins, 2002; Melewar and Saunders, 1998, 1999; Wheeler, 2003) is chosen as a target marketing communication subject for examining cultural difference. Despite the increasing importance of corporate visual identity, which heavily inuences consumer purchase decisions (Melewar and Saunders, 1998), corporate visual identity has drawn little attention from academics in the marketing and advertising elds. Furthermore, little empirical cross-cultural literature exists in the area. Thus, the current study uses the USA and Korea to examine the differences in corporate visual identity across cultures. The two countries are relevant for this study because Korea represents the typical diffuse culture and the USA is commonly classied as a specic culture (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). In addition, previous studies note a large cultural distance between the two countries (Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Hall, 1989).

Cultural differences in brand designs 475

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Therefore, these cultural variables are appropriate for comparing the basic similarities or dissimilarities in visual identity between US and Korean companies. Given this background, the current study explores the potential applicability of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffuse dimension to two culturally different nations to investigate how cultural differences affect corporate visual identity. Specically, this study compares CI in the USA and Korea to: . clarify to what extent Trompenaars specic/diffuse dimension can explain variances in communication practices like brand-logos and taglines; . provide information about the styles of brand design in each country; and . examine the cultural differences among brand taglines in the USA and Korea. Furthermore, this study will aid academics and practitioners in marketing and advertising by noting the specic differences in brand design elements and tagline copy between two culturally different countries, thus suggesting managerial implications for building effective brand-logos and taglines. Literature review Corporate identity (CI) Since, Pilditch (1970) rst asserted the importance of CI, it has received increasing attention from marketing and management scholars as well as practitioners (Alessandri, 2001; Balmer and Wilson, 1998; Melewar and Jenkins, 2002; Melewar and Saunders, 2000; Olins, 1978, 1989; van Riel and Balmer, 1997). However, CI is a concept that many understand but few can actually explain. Consequently, little consensus between academics and practitioners on the denition of CI exists. For instance, practitioners collectively dene CI as a visual arrangement of elements, such as the corporate name, logo, and tagline, while scholars view it as a higher level of abstraction consisting of corporate strategy, corporate culture, and communication (Alessandri, 2001; Balmer and Wilson, 1998; Melewar and Jenkins, 2002). Though the conceptual denition of CI is disputed among academic researchers and practitioners, many scholars and practitioners seem to agree with the concept of CI as a strategic management tool used to present a company effectively to the public and to affect long-term public perceptions (Alessandri, 2001). Lambert (1989) incorporated all aspects of a companys presentation into CI, depicting the concept as an iceberg with two levels: above the surface and below the surface. Above the surface primarily consists of visual components that are visible to the consumers, such as name, logo, and tagline, while invisible elements such as written communication, corporate structure, and behaviour exist beneath the surface. In this view, Schmidt (1995) suggested a mixed CI including corporate culture, corporate behaviour, market conditions, strategy, products, services, communications, and graphic design. Furthermore, van Rekom (1997, p. 411) dened CI as the set of meanings by which an object allows itself to be known and through which it allows people to describe, remember and relate to it. More recently, Alessandri (2001) suggested two denitions of CI with different perspectives the conceptual and operational. She dened the conceptual denition of CI as a rms strategically planned and purposeful presentation of itself in order to gain a positive corporate image in the minds of the public and to gain a favourable corporate reputation over time. The operational denition of CI was dened as all of the observable and measurable elements of a rms identity manifest in its

comprehensive visual presentation of itself which includes corporate name, logo, tagline, colour palette, and architecture. Alessandri also incorporated the rms public behavior including its corporate reception of employees, customers, stakeholders, and suppliers, into her operational denition of CI (p. 177). Similarly, van Riel and Balmer (1997) suggested the broader elements of CI which include graphic design, integrated corporate communication, and a multidisciplinary approach that focuses on organisational behaviour. They pointed out the importance of marshaling the CI mix (communications, symbolisms, and organisational behaviour) for marketers who must bridge the distance between an actual and desired CI. Among the three paradigms for CI, the current study focuses on the graphic design of CI (corporate visual identity), since it provides the central idea of the organisation with impact, brevity and immediacy (Olins, 1995, p. 11). Corporate visual identity also heavily inuences consumers purchase decisions by enhancing a companys reputation and goodwill (Melewar and Saunders, 1998). Furthermore, previous literature indicates the importance of corporate visual identity for the corporate branding strategy, specically for multinational companies facing the choice between a standardised and a localised CI (Henderson et al., 2003; Melewar and Saunders, 1998, 1999; Melewar et al., 2000). In line with this position, Schmitt (1995) insisted that Western companies should cautiously alter their global corporate visual identity to local preferences when they entered a new market in East Asia, because East Asians differ from Westerners in their assessments of corporate name, visual symbols, colour, and phonological appeal. For example, he found that the colour blue the prime CI colour in the USA is related to negative associations, such as evil and sinister behaviour, in China. Moreover, East Asians value naturalism, complexity of expression and decoration, and modern aesthetics with traditional values (Schmitt, 1995). Thus, considering the cultural distance between the USA and Korea, the corporate visual identities exhibited by these two countries are appropriate for comparing basic similarities or dissimilarities in brand design executions. Cross-cultural studies As one of the fundamental social processes in every culture, marketing communication has been used to exert a strong impact on consumer attitudes and behaviours (Watson et al., 2002). In the practices of international marketing and advertising, several components of culture have been studied in order to compare and contrast the effectiveness of persuasion across cultures, since cultural orientation has a considerable effect on the processes of persuasion (Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997; Triandis, 1989). Culture acts as a stringent screener that considerably inuences message meanings, because the encoding and decoding of messages is fundamentally different in different cultures, particularly Eastern and Western cultures (Hall, 1976). As Aaker (2000, p. 340) notes:
. . . due to differences in culturally based traditions, religions, and histories, individuals in distinct cultures tend to hold a different set of values and preferences. These cultural differences are, in turn, reected in the content of marketing communication.

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In line with this position, Aaker and Maheswaran (1997) found that heuristic cues, such as consensus information, played a greater role in persuasion in a collectivistic culture

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than in an individualistic culture, as the opinions of group members are emphasised in collectivistic cultures. They also found that individuals in individualistic cultures used detailed systematic processing or a capacity constrained heuristic processing strategy to evaluate new information more often than collectivists. In support of this arguement, individuals raised in East Asian cultures tend to weigh consensus information information about others opinions towards an attitude object heavily because of a heightened need for assimilation. In contrast, consensus information is perceived as relatively non-diagnostic in the USA because the need to assimilate tends to be lower (Choi et al., 1999). Furthermore, researchers in the eld of communication have argued that the effectiveness of persuasive styles and strategies may vary from culture to culture (Bronfenbrenner, 1964; Burgoon et al., 1982; Wedge, 1968). For instance, Glenn et al. (1977) found that Americans prefer a factual-inductive persuasive style, citizens of the former USSR prefer an axiomatic-deductive style, and members of Arab communities have a preference for an affective-intuitive style. They suggested that a style congruent with culture should be considered to achieve communication goals. The extant literature focusing on cultural differences between Korea and the USA indicated that the effects of marketing communication would be different according to their cultural orientation, such as high or low context, value direct/confrontational or indirect/harmony-seeking behaviours, and individualistic or group-oriented behaviours (Miracle et al., 1992). Hall (1976) classied Korean culture as a relatively high context nation and the US as a low context culture. Those who live in high context cultures are characterised as indirect and contemplative, while those living in low context cultures are described as analytical and action-oriented. For example, US subjects showed more favourable attitudes towards advertising and brands as a result of high information levels of advertising than Korean subjects (Taylor et al., 1997). Likewise, Korean magazine advertising relied more heavily on emotional appeals as compared to US advertising, though this tendency varied across product categories (Jeon et al., 1999). Cho et al. (1999) found that US advertising used product features and the utilitarian needs for products (low context) more frequently than Korean advertising, while Korean advertising employeed metaphor (high context) more often than their US counterparts. Koreans are also more inclined to avoid confrontation in communication than Americans. For instance, the Korean style of communication is regarded as accommodation oriented rather than confrontation oriented because Koreans tend to place more value on indirect communication to avoid rejection by others (Yum, 1987, pp. 76-7). Kang (1988) and Gudykunst et al. (1987) also found that Koreans tend to prefer indirect and non-confrontational communication, while Americans prefer a direct and confrontational approach. Steward and Furse (1986) reported that American advertisers tend to represent brand, product, and company name early on and frequently in advertising. Therefore, to differentiate brands from competitors, a relatively direct and confrontational approach would be used in the USA, while relatively fewer direct references to the brand would appear in Korean advertising (Stewart and Furse, 1986). Miracle et al. (1992) found an interesting pattern in television advertising in the USA and Korea. In accordance with Steward and Furses (1986) ndings, the company name was identied relatively later in Korean advertising. Furthermore, almost all Korean advertisements showed their company names, but only 56 per cent of US companies

represented their company names in advertising. However, in contrast with the previous researchers ndings (Stewart and Furse, 1986), the authors found that the brand name, logo, product, and package were identied relatively earlier in Korean advertising than in US advertisements. They concluded that the:
Korean advertiser must feel that consumers usually base purchases of most products and services at least in part on the reputation of the company, whereas in the US the reputation of the company seems to be considered important to consumers in only about half of television commercials (Miracle et al., 1992, p. 15).

Cultural differences in brand designs 479

According to Hofstede (1980), the USA and Korea are located at opposite ends of the individualism scale. Among the 53 countries in the value placed individualism scale, the US ranked the highest with a score of 91 out of 100, while Korea ranked far lower with a score of 18. Thus, US advertising used more individualistic appeals and fewer collectivistic appeals than Korean advertisements (Cho et al., 1999), and consumers were persuaded more by an appeal when it matched the cultural orientations of their country of origin (Han and Shavitt, 1994). That is, US advertisements emphasised independence, self-reliance, self-improvement, and personal rewards and were less likely to stress interdependence, family integrity, in-group goals, and a concern for others (Belk and Bryce, 1986; Mueller, 1987; Miracle et al., 1992). The previous literature observes that advertisements reecting local cultural values are more persuasive than those that ignore them. Consequently, the effect of product advertising across cultures has been a central area of research in marketing communications, yet little is known about the differences in brand designs and tagline copy created in different cultures. Therefore, the current study intends to ll this gap in the literature by examining the implications of cultural differences in terms of corporate visual identity. Cultural dimensions of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998, 2000) posited that no single best way for organizing cultural differences exists. Their purpose in developing the cultural dimension was to differentiate one culture from another and provide insight into the globalization versus localization debates. Based on these purposes, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) suggested a model of seven cultural dimensions to better understand cultural difference in business settings. The rst ve dimensions involve relationships with other people. They are: (1) universalism versus particularism; (2) individualism versus communitarianism; (3) neutral versus emotional; (4) specic versus diffuse; and (5) achievement versus ascription. The other two dimensions include orientation in time and attitudes towards the environment. Universalism describes cultures in which social norms dominate and individuals are accustomed to following the social norms. Particularism means that the culture primarily focuses on friends, brothers, sisters, or other special relationships rather than

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on the universal citizen. Universalism is common to North American and North European countries such as Germany and Switzerland. They follow universal norms and exhibit universal company cultures. On the contrary, French, Russian, and most Asian cultures resist the inow of universalism, which results in a resistance to indigenous culture, thus impeding the adoption of global culture (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 2000). The individualism versus communitarianism dimension is similar to the individualism/collectivism dimension of Hofstede, but countries belonging in this dimension are somewhat different. For example, North America has a tendency towards individualism while Asian countries, as well as Germany, England, Canada, France, and Russia exhibit lower tendencies towards individualism (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 2000). The third dimension is neutral versus emotional. This dimension evaluates the culture by the degree to which the rationale or emotion dominates relationships between people. People in emotionally neutral cultures control their emotions, but those in affective cultures express their emotions by laughing, smiling, sneering, and gesturing. The results of a study conducted to distinguish the cultural differences in emotional expression found that Ethiopia (81 per cent) and Japan (74 per cent) were the most neutral. Among European countries, Austria (59 per cent) was the most neutral, and Italy (33 per cent) and France (30 per cent) were more affective (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 2000). Among the dimensions Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner developed, the specic versus diffuse cultural dimension is the primary subject of this paper, because it is a new dimension that Hall and Hofstede did not consider. This dimension shares some elements of Halls (1983) monochromic/polychromic dimension in terms of perceiving time, and the contextual cultural dimension of Hall and Hall (1987). Further, it adopted some portions from the concept of individualism/collectivism. The specic versus diffuse dimension is correlated with power distance, individualism, and long-term orientation (Hofstede, 1996). The specic culture means that individuals distinguish their personal life from public affairs, whereas people in the diffuse culture exhibit a collectivistic disposition that does not distinguish between public and private life. When given the situation a boss asks a subordinate to help him paint his house, 65 per cent of Korean respondents would not paint the house while 82 per cent of US respondents would not paint the house (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). When asked whether or not a company should provide housing 35 per cent of Korean respondents disagreed, as opposed to 85 per cent of US respondents. It is assumed that peripheral variables intervene in relationships and affect communication in diffusive cultures. Based on this assertion, the rst hypothesis can be drawn. H1. Korean brand taglines will appeal to more culturally diffusive values such as family, friends, neighbours, country, future, dreams, and emotional expressions than American brand taglines. In specic cultures, private realms are more clearly distinguished from public life and there is considerable freedom for direct speech. People in specic cultures frequently use the phrase Do not take this personally, which could be taken as in insult in more diffuse cultures (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998). The literature reviewed supports this contention, as dened by the cultural dimension of confrontation

(direct speech) versus accommodation (indirect speech). Koreans prefer indirect speech and non-confrontational communication, while Americans favour a direct and confrontational approach (Yum, 1987; Kang, 1988; Gudykunst et al., 1987). The differing values between these two cultures are manifest in their advertising. For example, Stewart and Furse (1986) found that American advertising identied brand, product, and company names upfront and more frequently than Korean advertisements. Therefore, we hypothesize that American companies taglines use a relatively direct approach, while indirect references are employed in Korean taglines (H2). Moreover, we also predict that Korean companies often use abstract or symbolic elements in their brand logos, whereas these characteristics seldom appear in US brand-logos (H3). H2. American brand taglines will contain more direct speech than Korean brand taglines. H3. Korean brand-logos will be more abstract and symbolic than American brand logos. The remaining cultural dimensions include achievement versus ascription, attitudes towards time, and attitudes towards environment. Achievement versus ascription focuses on whether status is achieved or ascribed. Attitudes towards time are identied as either sequential or synchronous, and suggest a pattern similar to Halls cognitive trend of time concept. The last dimension, attitudes towards environment, is comprised of inner versus outer-directed cultures. Inner-directed cultures tend to perceive nature as controllable, while outer-directed cultures identify humans as part of nature and thus believe that humans must harmonise with nature. Table I illustrates the comparative differences in cultural dimensions between Korea and the USA. The table is based on the answers provided for the representative questions found in Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners (1998) Riding the Waves of Culture (McGraw-Hill). The index and percents are calculated as a mean score of the individual questions. To further assess additional differences between the brand design strategies used in sample brand-logos, stylistic techniques are also investigated according to the following research question: RQ1. How do Korean and American brand designs differ in terms of motif and colour?
Cultural dimension Trompenaars et al. (per cent) Universalism Individualism Emotional Specic Achieved Synchronous Environment Korea Low (42) Low (53.5) Low a Low (50) Low (46.5) High (5.28) Low (55.5) USA High (72) High (65) High (43) High (83.5) High (81) Low (4.3) High (57)

Cultural differences in brand designs 481

Notes: The values are calculated means according to the answers of the representative questions Trompenaars used; a index or percentage not available

Table I. Cultural distance between Korean and USA

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Method Based on the previous discussion of the specic/diffuse cultural dimension, we developed hypotheses and used content analysis as an exploratory step to examine this dimension in the brand-logos and brand taglines of Korean and US companies. While content analysis is frequently used, especially when the research object is message analysis, the scientic arrangements required to develop a coding scheme are difcult to attain. In this regard, we adopted Riffe et al.s (1998) guideline to make the content analyses more reliable, and we also followed the suggestion that the procedure of content analysis is a multi-step process that requires developing categories for coding thematic content, training coders, coding the categorical data, and statistically analysing the coded data (Cho et al., 1999). Sample Brand-logos and taglines from the top 100 companies in both Korea and the USA constitute the sampling universe. The top 100 companies sampled are truly multinational corporations, and the brand is one of the most important components in international marketing communication for multinational corporations. The Korean sample of companies was collected from the Company Directory of Naver (2005), a Korean internet portal site, and the US samples were collected from the Fortune 500 list of the largest US corporations (Fortune, 2004). Brand-logos and taglines were captured from the home pages of corporate websites, which typically show their CI at the top of the webpage. Coding scheme All Korean (n 100) and US (n 100) company brands were coded by two coders who were bilingual English and Korean speakers. Practice in coding was conducted to rene the categorization scheme. An inter-coder reliability test was done according to Holstis formula (Wimmer and Dominick, 2003) and measured at 80 per cent. Normally, a coefcient of 0.9 or greater indicates high reliability for percentage agreement, but a coefcient of 0.8 or greater is regarded as acceptable in most situations (Neuendorf, 2002). Further, given that this study is exploratory in nature, a coefcient of 0.7 can be used as acceptable criteria (Lombard et al., 2002). As previously mentioned, the brand logo is operationally dened as a symbol of CI. When the CI has additional pictorial design elements, the pictorial elements represent the brand logo. When the CI only features typography, the typography represents the brand-logo. The tagline is operationally dened as a short phrase that depicts a companys brand essence, personality, and positioning, and differentiates it from its core competitors (Wheeler, 2003). Taglines frequently have a shorter life span than visual identities, and like advertising campaigns they are more susceptible to the variations of market-place and lifestyle changes (Wheeler, 2003). A tagline is also viewed as a slogan, clarier, mantra, company statement, or guiding principle that represents and summarises a companys interest (Traverso, 2000). The tagline is operationally dened in this paper as a sentence attached to the CI or the rst sentence that appears on the homepage of the company web site. The rst variable, additional value, is operationally dened as a companys appeal to family, friends, neighbours, country name, future, dreams, and emotional expressions that are beyond the scope of a cultures core values, such as quality, trust, or price. Additional value also reects the diffusiveness of the brand value in

taglines, and was measured as either absent (coded as 0) or present (coded as 1). The present categories include the family (coded as 1), friend (coded as 2), neighbour (coded as 3), country name (coded as 4), future (coded as 5), dreams (coded as 6), and emotions (coded as 7). The category of direct speech includes imperative, superlative, and provocative expressions. Wheelers (2003) classication of tagline expressions into four categories was adopted. These categories are imperative, superlative, provocative, and descriptive. The rst three categories are used to represent direct speech. The imperative expression commands action and normally starts with a verb. The superlative expression identies the position of the company as the best in its industrial class. The provocative expression is thought-provoking, and normally presented in the form of a question (Wheeler, 2003). In the brand-logos, the direct speech variable was measured by logo shapes. This study dened a word-mark and a letterform as direct expression of creative design, and pictorial as well as the abstract/symbolic as indirect expression. Logo shapes are measured by the word-mark (coded as 1), letterform (coded as 2), pictorial (coded as 3), and the abstract/symbolic (coded as 4). Each category is represented by ordinal values. The bigger the number is, the more abstract and indirect the brand-logos. Because the classication of creativity is subjective and delicate, this study followed Wheelers (2003, p. 84) denition of brand-logo classication.
A word-mark is a freestanding word or words. It may be a company name or an acronym. Logos including letterforms are the single letter used as a distinctive graphic focal point for a brand-logo. A pictorial style uses a literal and recognizable image. The image itself may allude to the name of the company or its mission, or it may be symbolic of a brand attribute. An abstract style uses visual form to convey a big idea or a brand attribute. These marks, by their nature, can provide strategic ambiguity, and work effectively for large companies with numerous and unrelated divisions.

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This study analysed creative motif utilizing the general motif that brand design adopted since creative motif is a subjective concept. The classied creative motif includes letter, circle, triangle, square, human, animal, nature, tradition, star, national ag, and amorphous expression. Between-group t-test and x 2 tests were used to identify the differences between Korean and US brands. In addition, multiple discriminant analysis was used to determine the linear combination of independent variables that best classify cases by country. Results A between-group t-test was used to examine the cultural differences between Korean and US brand taglines. The independent variable is country, and the dependent variables are additional value and direct speech, respectively. Table II illustrates the results of the between-group t-tests showing means, standard deviations, and t-values.
Variables Additional value Direct speech Country Korea USA Korea USA Mean 0.29 0.16 0.24 0.26 SD 0.46 0.37 0.43 0.44 N 95 70 95 69 t 2.14 0.272 Sig. 0.04 0.79 Table II. Brand taglines for Korea and US

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The additional value for Korea is higher than that of the USA, and the mean difference was statistically signicant ( p , 0.05). This result suggests that Korean taglines contain more additional values, like appeals to family, friend, neighbour, and emotion than their American counterparts. Thus, because these appeals are characteristics of a diffusive culture, the results support H1. US taglines rely on direct speech slightly more than Korean taglines, but the mean difference was not statistically signicant ( p . 0.05). Therefore, because the tagline analysis revealed no difference between the use of direct speech in Korean and American taglines, H2 was not supported. x 2 was used to test H3, which proposed that Korean brand-logos are more symbolic than US brand-logos. The rst categorical variable is brand shape, and the second categorical variable is country. Table III illustrates the results of the x 2 test showing frequencies, x 2 value, and degree of freedom. As shown in Table III, 56 per cent of Korean brand-logos are pictorial (33 per cent) and symbolic (23 per cent), while only 34 per cent of US brand-logos are pictorial (26 per cent) and symbolic (8 per cent). US brand-logos consisted of 66 per cent of word-mark and letterform categories, with Korean brand-logos at 44 per cent. The results are statistically signicant (x 2 12.72, p , 0.01) and can be projected onto the populations from which the 200 subjects were taken. This result indicates that there is a signicant relationship between Korea and the USA in terms of brand-logo shape. Specically, Korean brand-logos are more abstract and symbolic than their US counterparts. General information about brand-logos in terms of creative motif and design style reveals that the most frequent creative motif in Korean and US brand-logos is the letter including the alphabet and number. The second highest ranked motif for Korean brand-logos is the circle and the square for US brand-logos. Interestingly, the third highest ranked creative motifs for Korean brand-logos were human-related (12 per cent), but only 1 per cent of US brand-logos used this motif. As Table IV shows, the most frequently used colours in Korean and American brand-logos are blue and red. Over 70 per cent of Korean and American brand-logos use only one colour, with 90 per cent using up to two colours.

Word mark Table III. Cross-tabulation of country by shape of brand-logos Korea The USA Total 30 42 72

Shape of brand-logos Letter form Pictorial 14 24 38 33 26 59

Symbolic 23 8 31

Total 100 100 200

Notes: x 2 12.72; df 3; p , 0.01

Blue Table IV. Used colours Korean USA 45 55

Red 35 27

Main colour Yellow Green 6 3 8 3

Grey 3 4

Black 3 8

Number of colour 2 More 21 22 8 4

71 74

A multiple discriminant analysis was used to determine the linear combination of independent variables that best classify cases into country groups. Independent variables include brand-logo shape and tagline value. The dependent variable is the brand-logos country. Tables V and VI illustrate the results of the multiple discriminant analysis showing unstandardised coefcients, standardised coefcients, Wilks l, and classication matrix. The shape variable was found to be more important in discriminating the levels of the country in terms of standard coefcients, and in terms of Wilks l. The F-ratio of each Wilks l is statistically signicant ( p , 0.05). The canonical correlation is 0.23, and Wilks l of the discriminant function is 0.95. The x 2 of the Wilks l is 8.94, and is statistically signicant ( p , 0.05). The linear discriminant function equation is D 2 050 1.52 Shape 2 1.27 value. This means that the US brand-logos tend to be more word-oriented, while Korean brand-logos suggest more additional values in the expression of taglines. These results support H1 and H3. The average of the discriminant function score for Korea is 2 0.20, and 0.28 for the US As Table VI illustrates, 61 Korean cases were correctly classied, and 34 cases were not. A total of 30 US cases were correctly classied, and 40 cases were not. The hit rate was 61.2 per cent. This is a somewhat low proportion, but the hand calculated t-value of the hit rate was 2.02, thus the resultant hit rate was statistically signicant. Discussion and conclusion The objective of this study is to investigate to what extent corporate visual identity is similar or dissimilar in two culturally different nations, the US and Korea. The current study also explores the potential applicability of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffuse dimension to corporate visual identity. Based on the previous literature, the study hypothesized that a different cultural dimension (specic versus diffuse) lead to differences in corporate visual identity (brand-logos and taglines) in the two countries.

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Unstandardised coefcient Shape Value Constant 1.52 2 1.27 2 0.50

Standardised coefcient 0.75 2 0.54

Wilks l 0.96 0.97

F-ratio 6.70 (1, 163) 4.29 (1, 163)

Mean of Korea 0.44 0.29

Mean of USA 0.64 0.16

Notes: Canonical correlation 0.23; Wilks l 0.95; x 2 8.94 (df 2); p , 0.05

Table V. Results of multiple discriminant analysis

Predicted group membership Country Original Korea USA Korea 61 30 USA 34 40 Total 95 70

Note: 61.2 per cent of original grouped cases correctly classied

Table VI. Classication matrix

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The ndings reveal that the dened cultural dimension is associated with differences in corporate visual identity across cultures. Generally, Korean brands are more diffusive than those of the US. For example, taglines and brand-logos in the diffusive Korean culture use more additional values in taglines and are more symbolic/abstract than brand-logos and taglines in the specic US culture (H1 and H3). However, no statistically signicant difference in direct/indirect speech between US and Korean taglines was found, although the US illustrated a slightly higher tendency for direct speech than Korea (H2). This somewhat inconsistent nding might be due to the fact that taglines normally do not contain enough information to analyse true differences. Results could vary if the analysed content was extended to advertising or other marketing communication messages which contain more information to be analysed. Given that the specic versus diffuse dimension is correlated with power distance, individualism, and long-term orientation (Hofstede, 1996), the results are consistent with previous research using those variables employed in the analysis of advertisements (Cho et al., 1999; Han and Shavitt, 1994). Also, this result is in line with Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffusive dimension. According to them (1998), people in diffusive cultures do not like direct expression and even consider it an insult. Thus, the nding suggests that Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners framework sheds light on the design of corporate visual identity across cultures. This study proposes that empirical cultural differences exist in the brand strategies of Korean and the US companies. The importance of brand design elements cannot be underestimated, as the rst step in marketing communication is the development of a brand-logo. However, though content and execution differences in advertising have been broadly studied by various researchers, studies specically examining differences in brand design remain limited. Furthermore, even if corporate visual identity has been studied in the marketing and advertising eld, most research has focused on verbal components, one element of corporate visual identity. Because visual components of brand-logos and taglines also play a key role in enhancing a companys image and reputation in East Asia (Han and Schmitt, 1997), both scholars and marketers are advised to note the importance of visual components as a critical part of branding strategy (Henderson et al., 2003). The current study has several meaningful managerial implications. First, the ndings of this study provide brand management guidelines for the multinational marketers and advertisers attempting to enter US and Korean markets. Because Korean taglines and brand-logos use more symbolic/abstract brand designs than those from the US, a localised corporate visual identity for each country is recommended. It is important to note that the frequently used styles of corporate visual identity in each country have been strictly selected by each countrys experienced marketers and advertisers as an effective brand management strategy that reects local cultural values. Therefore, managers in each country are recommended to follow the same practice in selecting or directing corporate visual identity. Second, because many marketers and advertisers do not have practical design experience, it is difcult for them to describe what they want for CI when communicating with designers. However, the ndings of this study may provide marketers and advertisers with a useful communication tool since a theory-based dimension is easily understood by most designers. For example, in the Korean market managers can ask

designers to develop creative motifs that reect additional values because companies are not just product providers for Korean consumers and should play a role as a friend, family member, or close neighbour. Third, given the fact that corporate visual identity acts as the face of a company and is frequently used in product placement or global sponsorship, the study results could be applied to other marketing communication strategies, especially those aimed at the global market. International companies in the service industry could benet from appealing to culturally diffusive values in brand-logos and taglines. While this study found relevant differences between corporate visual identity in the US and Korea, it also had some limitations. First, content analysis does not show the direct inferences for the differences in corporate visual identities in the US and Korea nor does it suggest what types of designs are effective in the two countries. Therefore, experimental research or surveys are needed to directly assess whether corporate visual identities congruent to each culture are more effective than those that do not reect local cultural values from the consumers perspective. Second, this study only investigated US and Korean corporate visual identity, so the ndings may not be applicable to other nations, even those with similar specic or diffusive dimension scores. For example, many countries in Asia and other continents, such as China, Nepal, Singapore, Indonesia, Serbia, Hungary, Russia, Czech Republic, Nigeria, and Venezuela, have diffusive dimension scores. Thus, future research is needed to analyse a large sample of countries and test the applicability of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners specic versus diffusive dimension. Third, the study rst attempted to apply Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners cultural dimension to corporate visual identity. Therefore, it might be subject to trial and error. For example, it is hard to differentiate the design elements into different categories due to a lack of literature on this subject. Though brands from both countries were categorized as word-oriented or not, it is recommended that a more rened scale be developed to better differentiate the design elements inuencing creativeness. Fourth, as indicated earlier, another limitation of the study stems from the amount of information contained in taglines. The brand tagline is worth studying because taglines represent a companys core message and are important in management science literature (Dodson, 1989). However, brand-taglines contain little information because the core message must be short and easy to deliver, thus rendering content analysis difcult. Therefore, it may be necessary to extend content analysis to advertising messages or different marketing communication messages to better apply Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners cultural dimension. In future research, it is recommended that CI be studied in the context of advertising, such as the position of CI in advertisements, colour variation in the CI, and the size of CI in commercials. In the same regard, research that applies the tagline to other marketing communication messages and studies the relationship between taglines and advertising is needed. Finally, we recommend that further research investigate whether the results could be projected onto the individual product brand, or the brand identity (BI) of individual products.
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Lee, A.Y. and Aaker, J.L. (2004), Bringing the frame into focus: the inuence of regulatory t on processing uency and persuasion, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 86 No. 2, pp. 205-18. About the authors Jong Woo Jun is a PhD candidate in the Department of Advertising at the University of Florida. Previous to his study, he worked in the advertising business. He has worked for LGAD and Craysh in Korea. He received a BA and MA, both in mass communication from the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea. He has publications in the Place Branding and the East West Channel. Jong Woo Jun is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: jwjun@u.edu Hyung-Seok Lee (MA, California State University, Fullerton) is a doctoral student in the Department of Advertising, College of Journalism and Communications, University of Florida. His research focuses on brand personality, intercultural communication, and health communication. E-mail: hyunglee@u.edu

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