GTE Lab Manual

Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS, Visakhapatnam
P
a
g
e
1

Laboratory Manual
CE318 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY I
III BE I Semester

Dr. B.N.D.Narasinga Rao
Professor & Head
Department of Civil Engineering
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences
(Affiliated to Andhra University)
Sangivalasa-531162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam Dt.

P
a
g
e
2

Manual for
Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory I

Contents
S.
No.
Experiment Page
No.
Cycle-I
1 Specific gravity by Pycnometer method 2
2 Specific gravity by Density bottle method 4
3 Sieve Analysis 6
4 Liquid Limit by Casagrandes Liquid limit apparatus 10
5 Liquid Limit by Uppals Cone Penetrometer method 13
6 a) Plastic Limit 16
b) Shrinkage Limit 18
Cycle-II
7 Grain size (Sedimentation) Analysis by Hydrometer 27
8 In-situ density by Core Cutter method 33
9 In-situ density by Sand replacement method 35
10 Permeability by Constant Head test 39
11 Permeability by Variable head test 42
12 OMC and MDD by IS light compaction 46

P
a
g
e
3

Expt.1
Determination of specific gravity by Pyknometer method
Aim
To determine the Specific gravity of coarse grained soil by using Pycnometer
Apparatus
1. Pyknometer of 900 ml capacity
2. Balance of sensitivity 0.1 g
3. 40 mm IS Sieve
4. Oven
Soil
The soil sample used is about 200 g in case of fine grained soil and 400g in case of
medium and coarse grained soils and should be oven-dried. If >10 percent of soil is retained
on 40 mm IS Sieve, such stones should be broken down to less than this size.
Principle
The steps involved in the determination of specific gravity in this method are schematically
shown in Fig.1

(a) Pycnometer (empty) (b) Pyc.+dry soil (c) Pyc.+dry soil+water (d) Pyc.+water
Fig.1 Principle of water content determination by pycnometer method (Schematic)
Procedure
1. The weight of the clean and dry Pyknometer is taken to the nearest 0.2g (W
1
).
2. The soil sample is placed in the Pyknometer. The Pyknometer with cover with the
contents are weighed (W
2
) to the nearest 0.2g.
3. About 500ml of water is added to the soil in the Pyknometer. The rubber stopper is
inserted on to the Pyknometer. For medium and coarse grained soils, the Pyknometer
and the contents are set aside for at least 4 hours. At the end of this period or
immediately after the addition of water in case of fine grained soils, the Pyknometer is
shaken by hand until the soil particles are in suspension and then placed in the
shaking apparatus and shaken for a period of 20 to 30 minutes.
4. The stopper is then removed and any soil adhering to the stopper is washed carefully
into the jar. Water is then added to the Pyknometer to within 2 mm of the top. The soil
is allowed to settle for few minutes and the Pyknometer is then filled with water to the
brim. The cover is then placed on the top of the jar taking care not to trap any air
under the cover.

P
a
g
e
4

5. The Pyknometer and the cover are wiped with a cloth and the whole assembly is
weighed (W
3
) to the nearest 0.2g.
6. The Pyknometer is emptied, washed thoroughly and filled completely with water. The
glass plate is placed in position taking care not to trap any air under the plate. The
Pyknometer and the plate are then wiped outside with a cloth and the whole assembly
is then weighed (W
4
).
Observations
S.
No.
Observation Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3
1 Weight of the clean and dry
Pyknometer, W
1
(g)

2 Weight of Pyknometer with cover
with the dry soil, W
2
(g)

with the soil and water, W
3
(g)

with water, W
4
(g)

6 Specific Gravity of Soil Solids, G
) ( ) (
) (
2 3 1 4
1 2
W W W W
W W
G

=

7 Average Specific Gravity, G
8 % Variation in G from the Average
Value

Room Temperature=
O
C
Result
Specific Gravity of the given soil sample=
Specific Gravity of different types of soil
S.No. Type of soil Specific Gravity
1 Gravel 2.63-2.67
2 Sand 2.63-2.67
3 Silt 2.65-2.7
4 Clay 2.6-2.9
Comments on the Result
% Variation in the determination of Specific gravity (Range):
What is your comment on the result obtained with respect to type of soil?
Ans.:
Reference
IS 2720 : Part III : Sec 2 : 1980 Test for Soils - Part III : Determination of Specific Gravity -
Section 2 : Fine, Medium and Coarse Grained Soils

P
a
g
e
5

Expt.2
Specific Gravity by Density Bottle method
Aim
To determine the Specific gravity of coarse grained soil by using Density bottle
Principle
The steps involved in the determination of specific gravity in this method are schematically
shown in Fig.1

(a) density bottle (b) density bottle (c) density bottle (d) density bottle
(empty) +dry soil +soil+water +water
Fig.1 Principle of water content determination by Density bottle method (Schematic)
Procedure
1. The weight of the clean and dry density bottle with stopper is taken to the nearest
0.01g (W
1
).
2. About 5 to 10 g of soil sample passing through 2mm IS Sieve is dried at 105 to
110
0
C. Where soils are suspected to contain gypsum or organic matter, the oven
drying of the soil shall be restricted to a maximum of 60 to 80
0
C but for longer
periods. The soil sample is placed into the density bottle. The bottle with soil and
stopper is weighed to the nearest 0.01g(W
2
)
3. Sufficient kerosene is added to the density bottle such that the soil in the bottle is just
covered. The entrapped air may be removed by shaking the density bottle
accompanied by occasional stirring.
4. Kerosene is added to the bottle in increments, accompanied by occasional stirring
until the bottle is full. The stopper is placed and the outside surface is wiped with a
cloth. The density bottle with stopper is weighed to the nearest 0.01g(W
3
)
5. The density bottle is emptied, washed with water thoroughly and rinsed with kerosene
and then filled with kerosene completely. The stopper is placed and the outside
surface is wiped dry with a cloth. The bottle with stopper is then weighed to the
nearest 0.001g (W
4
)

P
a
g
e
6

Observations
S.
No.
Observation Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3
1 Weight of the clean and dry Density bottle, W
1
(g)
2 Weight of Density bottle with cover with the dry
soil, W
2
(g)

3 Weight of Density bottle with cover with the soil
and kerosene, W
3
(g)

4 Weight of Density bottle with cover with
kerosene, W
4
(g)

5 Specific gravity of Kerosene, G
kT

6 Specific Gravity of Soil Solids, G
) ( ) (
) (
2 3 1 4
1 2
W W W W
G W W
G
kT

=

7 Average Specific Gravity, G
8 % Variation in G from the Average Value
Result
Specific Gravity of the given soil sample=
Room Temperature=
Specific Gravity of different types of soil
S.No. Type of soil Specific Gravity
1 Gravel
2 Sand
3 Silt
4 Clay

Comments on the Result
% Variation in the determination of Specific gravity (Range):
What is your comment on the result obtained with respect to type of soil?
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 3 : Sec 1 : 1980 Methods of test for soils: Part 3 Determination of specific
gravity Section 1 fine grained soils

P
a
g
e
7

Expt.3
Sieve Analysis
Aim
To determine the grain size distribution of the given soil sample and classify the soil as per IS
1498 - 1970
Apparatus
1) IS Sieves: 80mm, 40 mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36mm. 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm
(600), 0.425 mm (425 ), 0.3 mm (300 ), 0.15 mm (150 ), 0.075 mm (75 )
Procedure
1. Air dried soil sample of quantity as given in Table 1 is taken for the test
Table 1 quantity of soil required for grain size analysis
Max. particle size present
in substantial quantities
(mm)
Quantity of soil to be taken
for the test (kg)
4.75
6.7
9.5
13.2
19
37.5
75
0.4
0.75
1.5
3.5
6.5
25
60

2. The weight of soil taken for the test is determined W
1

3. The soil is sieved through 4.75mm Sieve and divided into two portions, one coarser
(gravel) another finer (sand & fines) than 4.75mm (sand & Fines)
Sieve analysis of Gravel
1. The portion of soil sample retained on 4.75mm IS Sieve is taken and its weight is
determined W
2

2. The IS Sieves of sizes 40 mm, 20mm, 10mm and a pan are taken
3. The portion of soil retained on 4.75mm IS Seive is sieved through each sieve keeping
the pan at bottom.
4. Sieving shall be done with sieve of largest opening size i.e., 80 mm first and the
portion of soil passing through the sieve is then sieved through the sieve of next lower
opening size.
5. While sieving through each sieve, the sieve is agitated, so that the soil sample rolls in
irregular motion over the sieve.
6. While sieving, no soil shall be pushed through the opening. The material, before
sieving may be rubbed with rubber pestle in the mortar, taking care to see that
individual soil particles are not broken and re-sieved to make sure that only individual
soil particles are retained.
7. The weight of soil retained on each sieve is determined and recorded.

P
a
g
e
8

8. If the soil sample appears to contain more than 5% water content, the water content of
the soil is determined.
9. If the water content is less than 5%, all the computations used in Sieve analysis can be
based on wet weight only.
10. If the soil contains more than 20% gravel and the fines are very cohesive adhering to
the gravel after separation, the gravel shall be washed on 4.75mm IS Sieve using
sodium hexa meta phosphate solution if necessary.
Sieve analysis of sand
1. The sieves used for this purpose are 2.36mm. 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm (600), 0.425 mm
(425 ), 0.3 mm (300 ), 0.15 mm (150 ) and 0.075 mm (75 ) IS Sieves
2. Sieve analysis of sand may be done by wet Sieving for clayey soils and dry sieving
for soils which do not contain appreciable clay
3. Care is taken to see that the sieves are not over loaded, by ensuring that the maximum
quantity of material retained on each sieve shall be as given below
IS Sieve Max.Quantity
of soil
retained (g)
2 mm
425
75
200
50
25
4. The weight of material, retained on each sieve, is determined and recorded.
Observations
S.
No.
Sieve
size, mm
Weight of soil
retained, g
% Weight
Retained
Cumulative %
weight
retained
Cumulative %
Finer
1 80
2 40
3 20
4 10
5 4.75
6 2.36
7 1.18
8 0.6
9 0.425
10 0.3
11 0.15
12 0.075

Graph
1) A graph is plotted with sieve/ grain size on X-axis on log scale and Cumulative %
Finer on Y-axis.

P
a
g
e
9

2) The points obtained are joined by a smooth curve, which is known as Grain size
distribution curve.
3) The grain size corresponding to Cumulative % Finer of 10, 30 and 60 are noted as
D
10
, D
30
and D
60
respectively.
Calculations
% Fines=Cumulative % Finer corresponding to 0.075 mm
% Gravel= Cumulative % Retained on 4.75 mm IS Sieve
% Sand=100 (% Fines+% Gravel)
Uniformity Coefficient, C
u
=
10
60
D
D

Coefficient of Curvature, C
c
=
10 60
2
30
D D
D

Interpretation of Results
If % Fines<50, the soil is classified as Coarse grained soil, else as Fine grained soil
For Coarse grained soil, if % Gravel>% Sand, the soil is classified as Gravel, else as Sand
The coarse grained soils are classified as well graded or poorly graded soils, depending on the
values of C
u
and C
c
If % Fines<5
Soil Classification Criteria Type of soil IS Classification Symbol
Gravels

C
u
> 4 and
C
c
= 1 to 3
Well graded Gravel GW
Not meeting the C
u
or
C
c
or both the criteria
Poorly graded Gravel GP
Sands

C
u
> 6 and
C
c
= 1 to 3
Well graded Sand SW
Not meeting the C
u
or
C
c
Poorly graded Sand SP
If % Fines>12
The soil is plotted on the plasticity chart with liquid limit and plasticity index (LL, PI) as the
X and Y coordinates.
Gravels

Soil plots above the A-
line and I
p
> 7
Clayey Gravel GC
Soil plots below the A-
line and I
p
<4
Silty Gravel GM
Sands Soil plots above the A- Clayey Sand SC

P
a
g
e
1
0

line and I
p
> 7
Soil plots below the A-
line and I
p
<4
Silty Sand SM
If % Fines= 5 to 12
Gravels

If C
u
>4 and C
c
= 1 to 3
Soil plots above the
A-line and I
p
> 7
Well graded
Clayey Gravel
GW-GC
Soil plots below the
A-line and I
p
<4
Well graded
Silty Gravel
GW-GM
Not meeting the C
u
or C
c
A-line and I
p
> 7
Poorly graded
Clayey Gravel
GP-GC
A-line and I
p
<4
Poorly graded
Silty Gravel
GP-GM
Sands

If C
u
>6 and C
c
= 1 to 3
A-line and I
p
> 7
Well graded
Clayey Sand
SW-SC
A-line and I
p
<4
Well graded
Silty Sand
SW-SM
Not meeting the C
u
or C
c
A-line and I
p
> 7
Poorly graded
Clayey Sand
SP-SC
A-line and I
p
<4
Poorly graded
Silty Sand
SP-SM
Result
The given soil is classified as:________________________________ (IS Classification
symbol)
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 4 : 1985 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 4 : Grain Size Analysis

P
a
g
e
1
1

Expt.4
Liquid limit by Casagrandes Mechanical Method

Aim
To determine the liquid limit of the given soil sample using Casagrandes liquid limit
apparatus
Definition
Liquid limit is the water content at which a soil changes from liquid state to plastic state.It is
the minimum water content at which the soil is still in liquid state but possesses small shear
strength against flow.
As per IS 2729 (Part 5)-1985, liquid limit is defined as the water content at which, the soil
placed in the brass cup of Casagrandes liquid limit apparatus and cut into a groove of
standard dimensions, will flow together for a distance of 25.4 mm at the bottom of the groove
under 25 blows.
Apparatus

(a) LL Apparatus with Casagrande grooving tool (b) ASTM grooving tool
Fig.1 Casagrandes Liquid limit apparatus (Courtesy: AIMIL)
Procedure
1. The soil sample to be used for the test is air dried, pulverized and passed through 425
I.S. Sieve.
2. About 150g of this soil sample is mixed thoroughly with distilled water in an
evaporating dish to form a thin uniform paste.
Rubber base
Brass cup
Counter
Cam
Handle
Casagrandes grooving tool

P
a
g
e
1
2

3. The brass cup and the rubber base are thoroughly cleaned. The height of fall of the
brass cup is checked and adjusted to exactly 1 cm.
4. Before conducting the test, the soil paste is remixed thoroughly. A portion of the soil
paste is placed in the cup above the spot where the cup rests on the base, squeezed
down and spread in position in such a way that the surface of the soil paste is
horizontal parallel to the surface of the rubber base and that the maximum depth of
the soil paste in the cup is 1 cm.
5. A clean sharp groove of standard dimensions is made in the soil paste using a
grooving tool. This is done by keeping the grooving tool in touch with and normal to
the surface of the brass cup at the top and rotating it along the diameter of the cup
through the centre line of the cam follower.
6. Two types of grooving tools are available. The Casagrandes grooving tool (Type A
grooving tool) is commonly used which makes a groove of size 2mm wide at bottom
11mm at top and 8mm deep. In sandy soils, the Casagrandes grooving tool tends to
tear the sides of the groove and in such cases, ASTM tool (Type B or Type C
grooving tool) is used. The ASTM tool cuts a groove of size 2mm wide at bottom
13.6mm wide at top and 10mm deep.
7. The cup is then lifted and dropped by turning the crank at a rate of 2 revolutions per
second to apply blows on the soil until the two halves of soil on either side of the
groove come in contact at the bottom of the groove for a distance of 12mm. This
distance is measured with a ruler. The number of blows required to close the groove
for the length of 12mm is recorded.
8. The water content of the soil is determined by collecting a sample of soil, in a
container, from the closed portion of the groove.
9. The experiment is repeated at least 3 more times, following the above procedure at
higher water content, each time recording the number of blows to close the groove for
a distance of 12 mm and determining the corresponding water content.
10. The number of blows obtained in each of trials should be in the range of 15 to 35. If
the blows are more than 35, the trial is discarded and the procedure is repeated by
removing the soil from the cup and using more water for the next trial. If the blows
are less than 15, the trial is discarded and the procedure is repeated by adding dry soil
powder to the soil to decrease the water content.
11. For better results, it is preferable to conduct the test with increasing water content, by
adding little more water in successive trials. The brass cup, the rubber base and the
grooving tool are cleaned before each trial.
12. Some soils tend to slide on the surface of the cup instead of flowing. If this occurs, the
results should be discarded and the test is repeated until flowing does occur. If sliding
still occurs, the test is not applicable and a note shall be made that the liquid limit
could not be obtained.

P
a
g
e
1
3

Observations
S.
No.
Observation Trial1 Trial2 Trial3 Trial4
1 Number of blows
2 Cup No.
3 Weight of empty cup, W
1

4 Weight of cup+wet soil, W
2

5 Weight of cup+dry soil, W
3

6 Water content
100
) (
) (
1 3
3 2
=
W W
W W
w

7 Liquid limit
8 Flow index
1
2
10
2 1
log
N
N
w w
I
f

=

Graph
1) A graph is plotted with number of blows on X-axis on log-scale and water content on
Y-axis on arithmetic scale.
2) A best fitting straight line is drawn through the experimental points, which is known
as flow curve.
3) The liquid limit is obtained from the flow curve as the water content corresponding to
25 blows.
4) The slope of the flow curve is determined, which gives the flow index. The liquid
limit is reported to the nearest whole number.
5) The Plasticity chart is constructed showing A-line and all soil zones.

Result
Liquid Limit=
Plastic limit=
Plasticity Index=
Type of soil = (based on Plasticity chart)
Comments and Interpretation
The given soil sample is classified on the Plasticity chart as_______________
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 5 : 1985 Method of Test for Soils - Part 5 : Determination of Liquid and Plastic
Limit

P
a
g
e
1
4

Expt.5
Liquid Limit by Cone Penetration Method
Aim:
To determine the Liquid limit of the given soil sample using Uppals cone penetrometer and
classify the soil on the Plasticity chart
Principle
The Principle of the method is to determine the penetration of a cone of standard sliding
weight falling freely into a soil paste filled in a brass cup. The liquid limit is determined as
the water content corresponding to 20 mm penetration.
Definition
Liquid limit is the water content at which a soil changes from liquid state to plastic state.It is
the minimum water content at which the soil is still in liquid state but possesses small shear
strength against flow.
As per IS 2729 (Part 5)-1985, liquid limit is defined as the water content at which, the soil
placed in the brass cup of Uppals liquid limit apparatus will show a cone penetration of
20mm under a total sliding weight of 80g.
Apparatus

Fig.2 Uppals Cone penetrometer for Liquid limit determination
Procedure
1. The push button is pressed and the plunger rod is adjusted to ensure that the pointer
on the graduated scale shows zero penetration reading.
2. The soil sample for the test is prepared in the same way as in Casagrandes liquid
limit test. The soil sample to be used for the test is air dried, pulverized and passed
through 425 I.S. Sieve.
Cylindrical brass cup
Cone
Penetration display

P
a
g
e
1
5

3. About 150g of this soil sample is mixed thoroughly with distilled water in an
evaporating dish to form a thin uniform paste.
4. In case of clayey soils, the paste is left undisturbed for about 24 hours to ensure
uniform distribution of moisture throughout the soil paste. However, light textured
soils having low clay content may be tested immediately after thorough mixing.
5. The soil paste prepared is placed in increments in the brass cup ensuring that no air is
entrapped in the cup. The cup is completely filled with the soil paste and the excess
soil above the top of the cup is removed. The surface of the soil paste in the cup is
leveled.
6. The brass cup filled with wet soil paste is cleaned outside and is placed on the base of
the cone penetration device.
7. The plunger rod and the cone along with graduated scale are moved vertically by
releasing the clamping screw and holding the entire assembly carefully to bring the
bottom of the cone in contact with the surface of the soil in the brass cup and the
clamp is then tightened.
8. The push button is released and the cone is allowed to penetrate into the soil in the
brass cup. The penetration (P
1
) of the cone in the soil paste is recorded 5 seconds after
releasing the push button by noting the reading against the pointer on the graduated
scale.
9. The water content of the soil in the brass cup is determined and recorded as w
1
. The
remaining soil in the brass cup is removed and the cup and the cone are cleaned. More
water is added to the soil and the soil paste is thoroughly mixed.
10. The procedure is repeated to have at least four trials and corresponding values of
penetration (P
2
,P
3
,P
4
) and the water content (w
2,
w
3
,w
4
) are determined.
11. The water added to the soil in each trial should be such that the penetration obtained is
in the range of 14 to 28 mm. In case the water content in any of the trials is less than
14 mm or more than 28 mm, the result shall be discarded and another trial is made
with different water content. It is desirable to make the first trial with smaller water
content and the succeeding trials are made with increasing water content.

P
a
g
e
1
6

Observations and Calculations
S.
No.
Observation Trial1 Trial2 Trial3 Trial4
1 Cone Penetration
2 Cup No.
1

2

3

6 Water content
100
) (
) (
1 3
3 2
=
W W
W W
w

7 Liquid limit
8 Flow index
2 1
2 1
p p
w w
I
f
=

Graph
1) A graph is plotted with cone preparation on X-axis and water content on Y-axis. A
best fitting straight line is drawn through the experimental points.
2) The water content corresponding to 20 mm penetration is read from the graph and is
taken as the liquid limit. It is reported to the nearest first decimal place.
Result
Liquid Limit=
Plastic limit=
Plasticity Index=
Type of soil = (based on Plasticity chart)
Comments and Interpretation
The given soil sample is classified on the Plasticity chart as_______________
Reference
Limit

P
a
g
e
1
7

Expt.6(a)
Plastic Limit
Aim
To determine the Plastic limit of the given soil sample
Definition
Plastic limit is the water content at which a soil changes from plastic state to semi-solid state.
It is the minimum water content at which soil remains in plastic state and can be moulded to
any shape without rupture.
IS:2720 (Part 5) - 1985 describes the procedure for determination of plastic limit.
Experimentally, the plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a soil begins to
crumble (forms cracks) when rolled into a thread of 3mm diameter.
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a flat square glass plate of minimum 45cm size and 10mm thick, a
rod of 3mm diameter, oven and containers for water content determination.
Procedure
1. About 60 g of air dried soil passing through 425 IS Sieve is taken and mixed with
sufficient water such that its water content is more than the estimated plastic limit and
such that soil becomes plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.
2. About 20 g of the thoroughly mixed soil is taken. A ball is made with about 8g of this
soil and rolled on the glass plate with fingers with just sufficient pressure to roll the
mass into a thread of uniform diameter, throughout its length.
3. The rate of rolling with fingers shall be at rate of 80 to 90 strokes per minute,
counting a stroke as one complete forward and backward motion of the fingers.
4. When the diameter of the soil thread reaches 3mm, the soil thread is worked back to
form a ball.
5. The procedure of rolling into thread of uniform diameter of 3 mm and kneading back
into a ball is repeated until cracks appear on the surface of the soil thread, which
begins to crumble. When this condition is reached, the water content of the pieces of
soil thread is determined.
6. The test is repeated taking another portion of the soil paste and a total of 3 trials are
made and the corresponding water contents are determined. The average water
content out of three trials to the nearest whole number is reported as the plastic limit.

P
a
g
e
1
8

Observations: Plastic Limit
S.No. Observation Trial1 Trial2 Trial3
1 Cup No.
1

2

3

5 Water content
100
) (
) (
1 3
3 2
=
W W
W W
w

6 Plastic limit

Reference
Limit

P
a
g
e
1
9

Expt.6(b)
Shrinkage limit
Aim
To determine the Shrinkage limit of the given soil sample
Definition
Shrinkage limit is the water content at which the soil changes from semi-solid state to solid
state.

Fig.1 Shrinkage of soil as a function of water content

For fine grained soils, it was observed that a decrease in water content causes a corresponding
decrease in the volume of soil, when the soil is in plastic or semi-solid state. At some water
content, a further reduction of water content does not cause any decrease in volume of soil, as
shown in Fig.1. The decrease in volume of soil with decrease in water content due to
drying/evaporation is called as shrinkage.
Thus, the minimum water content above which decrease in water content causes shrinkage of
soil is known as shrinkage limit. It is also the maximum water content below which the
volume of soil remains constant irrespective of the change in water content.
Principle
Fig.2 shows the schematic diagram in which a fully saturated soil in stage(1) having volume
V
1
undergoes shrinkage and on complete drying reaches stage(3), where the entire water is
evaporated. Between stage (1) and stage (3) lies stage (2), where the soil is at shrinkage limit
water content. In stage (2), the soil is fully saturated but a further decrease in water content
does not cause any decrease in volume of soil and air occupies the space of the evaporated
water.
The volume of soil at shrinkage limit is equal to the total volume of oven dried soil. It is to be
noted that the volume of soil solids is constant throughout the shrinkage process and decrease
in volume occurs only due to decrease in volume of voids.
Weight of water in stage (1) = W
1
-W
d

Loss of water from stage (1) to stage (2) =(V
1
-V
2
)
w

V
o
l
u
m
e

o
f

S
o
i
l
S.L. P.L. L.L.
Water content
Semi-
solid
state
Plastic
state
Liquid
state
Solid
state

P
a
g
e
2
0

Weight of water in stage (2)=(W
1
-W
d
)-(V
1
-V
2
)
w
Shrinkage limit = water content of soil in stage (2)
w
S
=
d
w d
W
V V W W ) ( ) (
2 1 1

Where, V
1
= initial volume of soil
V
2
= Volume of soil in dry state (stage-3)
W
d
= Weight of dry soil
w
= density of water

Stage (1) Soil at initial Stage (2) Shrinkage limit state Stage (3) Dry state
water content (w=S.L. & S=100%) (w=0 % & S=0%)
(w>S.L. & S=100%)
Fig.2 Shrinkage of a soil during drying
Apparatus
The apparatus for determination of shrinkage limit with all component parts is shown in
Fig.3. It consists of the following
1) Cylindrical Stainless steel Shrinkage dish 45 mm internal diameter and 15 mm
internal height.
2) Cylindrical Glass cup 50 mm internal diameter and 25 mm internal height
3) Porcelain evaporating dish
4) square Glass plate of size 75 mm 75 mm with 3 metal prongs
5) square Plain glass plate of size 75 mm 75 mm
6) Thermostatically controlled oven
Test Procedure
The test consists of the following steps:
(i) Determination of volume of wet soil
(ii) Determination of Weight of wet soil
W
1
V
1

V
s
W
s

W
2

W
s
V
s

V
2
W
d
=W
s

Ws
1

V
s

V
d

Air
Water
Soil solids Soil solids Soil solids
(V
1
-V
2
)
w

Water

P
a
g
e
2
1

(iii) Allowing wet soil to undergo gradual shrinkage
(iv) Determination of Weight of dry soil
(v) Determination of volume of dry soil
(i) Determination of volume of wet soil
1) The weight of the clean empty shrinkage dish is determined and recorded as W
sd
.
2) The shrinkage dish is filled over-flowing with mercury and the excess mercury is
removed by pressing the plain glass plate flush with the top of the dish.
3) The volume of the shrinkage dish is computed by dividing the weight of mercury
in the shrinkage dish with the specific gravity of mercury (13.6). This volume of
shrinkage dish is recorded as the initial volume of wet soil V
1
.

Fig.3 Apparatus for Shrinkage limit determination (Courtesy: AIMIL)
(ii) Determination of Weight of wet soil
1) About 100g of air-dried soil passing 425 IS Sieve is taken and sufficient water is
added to make a uniform thin paste. The amount of water to be added is equal to or
slightly greater than the liquid limit of the soil for friable soils and it may exceed
the liquid limit by about 10% for plastic soils.
2) The shrinkage dish is emptied of mercury, cleaned and coated with a thin layer of
silicon grease or Vaseline to prevent adhesion of soil to the inside surface of the
dish.
3) The shrinkage dish is filled with the wet soil in increments, taking care to prevent
air getting entrapped in the soil. The excess soil is removed by pressing the plain
glass plate flush with the top of the shrinkage dish.
4) The shrinkage dish is cleaned on the outside to remove the adhering soil. The
weight of the shrinkage dish with wet soil is taken and recorded as W
2
.
5) Weight of wet soil filling the shrinkage dish, W
1
= W
2
-W
sd

(iii) Allowing wet soil to undergo gradual shrinkage
1) The wet soil in the shrinkage dish is allowed to dry in air for sufficient time until
the colour of the soil changes from dark to light.
Measuring jar
Plain plastic plate
Glass cup
Mercury bottle
Porcelain
evaporating dish
Straight edge
Shrinkage
dish
Knife
Plastic plate with
metal prongs

P
a
g
e
2
2

2) Then, the shrinkage dish is placed in an oven to dry at 105 to 110
0
C for 24 hours.
After completely drying, the dish with the dry soil is cooled in a desiccator.
(iv) Determination of Weight of dry soil
1) The weight of dry soil pat plus shrinkage dish is taken and reported as W
3
.
2) Weight of dry soil pat W
d
= W
3
-W
sd

(v) Determination of volume of dry soil
1) The glass cup is kept in an evaporating dish and is filled with over flowing
mercury.
2) The excess mercury is removed by pressing with glass plate with metal prongs
flush with the top of the glass cup and the mercury in the evaporating dish is
removed. The glass cup with mercury is again placed in the evaporating dish.
3) The dry soil pat is placed on the surface of mercury in the glass cup and slowly and
carefully pressed down with glass plate with metal prongs.
4) When the glass plate with metal prong is pressed flush with the top of the glass
cup, the excess mercury spills into the evaporating dish.
5) The glass cup is removed from the evaporating dish and the displaced mercury in
the evaporating dish is carefully weighed. The volume of dry soil pat, V
2
, is
computed by dividing the weight of displaced mercury with the specific gravity of
mercury

The Observations and Calculations are shown in Table-1
Model Calculation
Shrinkage limit,
d
w d
s
W
V V W W
w
) ( ) (
2 1 4

= (1)
shrinkage factors or parameters
1) Shrinkage Index (I
S
)
It is defined as the numerical difference between the plastic limit and shrinkage limit
S.I.=P.L.-S.L. (2)
Or, I
S
=w
P
-w
S
(3)
2) Volumetric Shrinkage
Volumetric shrinkage is defined as the ratio of decrease in volume of a soil to the dry volume
expressed as a percentage when the water content is reduced from initial water content to
shrinkage limit water content.
VS= 100
) (
1
d
d
V
V V

(4)
3) Shrinkage Ratio (SR)

P
a
g
e
2
3

It is defined as the ratio of given volume change expressed as a percentage of dry volume to
the corresponding change in water content.

2 1
2 1
100
w w
V
V V
SR
d
=

(5)
Thus shrinkage ratio of a soil is equal to the mass specific gravity of the soil in the dry state.
4) Linear shrinkage
Linear shrinkage is defined as the ratio of decrease in length to the original length when the
water content is reduced from initial water content to shrinkage limit. It is usually expressed
as a percentage.
100
1
1
=
L
L L
LS
d

(6)
Linear shrinkage is related to the volumetric shrinkage by the relation
LS=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
3 / 1
100
100
1 100
VS

(7)
Result
The Shrinkage limit of the soil=

P
a
g
e
2
4

Table-1 Observations and Calculations
S.
No.
Observation Equation Value
1 Weight of the clean
empty shrinkage dish
W
1

2 Weight of shrinkage
dish plus mercury
W
2

3 Volume of the
shrinkage dish V
1
.
m
G
W W
V
) (
2 1
1

=

4 Weight of the
shrinkage dish with
wet soil
W
3

5 Weight of wet soil pat W
4
= W
3
-W
1

6 Weight of dry soil pat
plus shrinkage dish
W
5

7 Weight of dry soil pat W
d
= W
5
-W
1

8
Weight of evaporating
dish
W
7

9 Weight of evaporating
dish plus displaced
mercury
W
8

10 Weight of displaced
mercury
W
9
= W
8
- W
7

11 Volume of dry soil pat
m
G
W
V
9
2
=

12 Shrinkage limit
d
w d
s
W
V V W W
w
) ( ) (
2 1 4

=

Reference
IS 2720 : Part 6 : 1972 Methods of test for soils: Part 6 Determination of shrinkage factors

P
a
g
e
2
5

Expt.7
Hydrometer Analysis
Aim
To determine the grain size distribution of the fine fraction using Pipette analysis
Principle
Hydrometer is an instrument used for determining Specific gravity of liquids. In Hydrometer
analysis, the hydrometer is used to determine the density of soil suspension in the measuring
cylinder, from which the average particle size is computed at the sampling depth.

The hydrometer gives the density of soil suspension at the mid height of the bulb. As the soil
particles, in the suspension, go on settling with time, the sampling depth is not constant, but
goes on increasing with time, unlike the case of Pipette analysis.
A special type of hydrometer with long narrow stem at top and a bulb at bottom is used for
hydrometer analysis. The stem has graduations from 0.995 at top to 1.030 at bottom.
Hydrometer is calibrated using a liquid of surface tension 55 dynes/cm.
Test Procedure
Calibration of hydrometer
Calibration of hydrometer consists of preparing a calibration chart for the
hydrometer, which is a graph between the Hydrometer reading, R
h
and the effective depth,
H
e
. Once a calibration chart is prepared, it can be used for hydrometer analysis using the
same set of hydrometer and the 1000 ml measuring cylinders.
As the effective depth is a function of volume of hydrometer bulb, cross sectional area
of 1000 ml measuring cylinder and the hydrometer reading, the same are determined for
calibration of hydrometer.
1. Volume of hydrometer bulb
The volume of the hydrometer bulb is determined using one of the following methods
Method-1
1) About 800ml of water is taken in a 1000 ml graduated measuring cylinder. The
reading of the water level in the cylinder is noted.
2) The hydrometer is now inserted into the water in the measuring cylinder. The reading
of water level in the cylinder is again noted.
3) The difference in the above two water levels gives the volume of the hydrometer bulb
plus the volume of the immersed portion of the stem. As the stem is very narrow, this
volume can be taken as the volume of hydrometer bulb without serious error.
Method-2
The weight of the hydrometer is determined to the nearest 0.1 g. The weight in g gives the
volume of hydrometer in cm
3
, as the density of the hydrometer is 1 g/cc. This can be taken as
the volume of hydrometer bulb, without serious error, though it includes the volume of stem.
2. Cross Sectional Area of measuring Cylinder

P
a
g
e
2
6

The vertical distance between any two graduations of the measuring cylinder, for example,
100 ml mark & 1000 ml mark, is measured accurately.
The cross sectional area of measuring cylinder is given by the equation
h
V
A =
A = Cross sectional area of 1000 ml measuring cylinder
V=Volume between graduations (say 1000-100= 900 ml = 900 cc in this example)
h = Distance between the two (say 100 ml and 1000 ml in this example) graduations
3. Effective depth
The graduations on the stem of the hydrometer indicate the Specific gravity (or
density) at the mid height of the bulb. The distance between any hydrometer Reading
graduation mark to the mid height of the bulb is known as Effective depth.
Fig shows the 1000ml measuring cylinder containing soil suspension for which the
hydrometer analysis is carried out. The hydrometer reading is taken at the surface of the soil
suspension (aa), which gives the density of soil suspension at mid height of the bulb (level
bb). However, due to insertion of hydrometer in the soil suspension, the level aa rises to a
1
a
1
,
the difference in levels being equal to volume of hydrometer divided by the area of
measuring cylinder (V
b
/A). Similarly, the level bb rises to b
1
b
1
, the difference in levels being
equal to half the volume of hydrometer divided by the cross sectional area of measuring
cylinder ( V
b
/2A). The point to be noted here is that the soil particles at level b
1
b
1
after
immersion were at the same concentration as at level bb before immersion of hydrometer.
Hence, Effective depth
H
e
= H+
A
V
A
V h
h h
+
2 2

Or H
e
= H+ ( )
2
1
A
V
h
h

Where, H
e
= Effective depth (Sampling depth)
H = Distance between the level of Hydrometer Reading graduation to the top
of
the bulb
h= height of bulb
V
h
= Volume of hydrometer
A = Cross sectional area of measuring cylinder
In Eq., the terms h, V
h
and A are constant. The depth H can be measured from
different hydrometer reading graduations to the zero mark, and the effective depth can thus
be computed for any hydrometer reading. The values are tabulated as shown in Table-1.

P
a
g
e
2
7

Table-1
Hydrometer reading H
H
e
= H+ ( )
2
1
A
V
h
h

0.995 H
1

1.000 H
2

1.010 H
3

1.020 H
4

1.030 H
5

A graph is plotted between Hydrometer Reading, R
h
, on X-axis and Effective depth H
e
on Y-
axis. This graph is known as calibration chart of Hydrometer. From the calibration chart, the
effective depth, H
e
, corresponding to any Hydrometer Reading, R
h
, can be determined.
Pretreatment of soil
1) If the soluble salts present in the soil are more than 1%, the soil is washed with
distilled water, taking care to see that the soil particles are not lost.
2) Two samples of about 50 g (for clayey soil) to 100 g (for sandy soil) of air dried soil
passing 4.75 mm IS Sieve is taken. The water content (w
1
) of one sample is
determined. The weight of the other sample (W
1
) is determined accurately to the
nearest 0.01 g. The sample is placed in the wide-mouth conical flask, fitted with a
filter paper.
3) About 150 ml of hydrogen peroxide is added to the soil in the conical flask, and the
mixture is stirred gently with a glass rod for a few minutes and then left to stand
overnight after placing a cover.
4) The mixture in the conical flask is gently heated, taking care to avoid frothing over,
stirring the contents periodically. After vigorous frothing has subsided, the contents
are heated further, to reduce its volume to about 50 ml. For organic soil, more
quantity of hydrogen peroxide will be required to completely oxidize the organic
matter. In case, the soil is inorganic, this step may be omitted.
5) In case, the soil sample contains calcium compounds, about 50 ml of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is added to the sample after cooling. The solution is stirred with a glass
rod, for a few minutes, and allowed to stand for minimum one hour. More quantity of
HCl may be added, until the solution gives acid reaction to the Litmus test. In case,
the sample does not contain calcium compounds, this step may be omitted. The
mixture is then filtered and washed with warm water until the filtrate shows no acid
reaction to Litmus.
6) An evaporating dish is taken and its weight is determined. The soil on the filter paper
and funnel is transferred to the evaporating dish, using a small quantity of jet of
distilled water, taking care to see that soil particles are not lost. The contents are
placed in an oven and dried at 105
0
to 110
0
C and then cooled in a desiccator. The
weight of dry soil and the evaporating dish is determined, to the nearest 0.01g.
7) Weight of soil remaining after pretreatment W
b
= W
3
W
2

P
a
g
e
2
8

8) Weight of soil taken for hydrometer analysis before pretreatment Wa=
1
1
100 w
W
+

Dispersion of soil
1) About 100 ml of dispersing agent is added to the soil in the evaporating dish, and the
mixture is warmed gently, for about 10 minutes. The contents of the evaporating dish
are transferred to the cup of mechanical mixer, using a small quantity of jet of
distilled water, taking care to avoid loss of soil particles.
2) The soil suspension is stirred well in the mechanical mixer, for about 15 minutes. The
contents are then transferred to the 75 IS Sieve, placed on a receiver. Care is taken
to transfer the entire soil from the cup of mechanical mixer on to the sieve, using a jet
of distilled water, and also avoiding loss of soil particles. The total quantity of water
to be added, during the operation, is about 500 ml, during which the soil is washed on
the sieve.
3) The soil suspension, passing through the sieve and collected in the receiver, is
transferred carefully to the 1000 ml measuring cylinder and made up to exactly 1000
ml mark, using distilled water. The soil suspension in the 1000 ml cylinder is used for
sedimentation analysis, as explained in the next section. The soil retained on 75 IS
Sieve is oven dried, and subjected to sieve analysis.
Sedimentation
Table -2 Observations
S.
No.
Time
(min)
Hydrometer
Reading
R
h

Hydrometer Reading
in Comparison
Cylinder C
Corrected
Hydrometer Reading
R
h
= R
h
+C
Effective
Depth
H
e

1 0
2
3 1
4 2
5 4
6 8
7 15
8 30
9 1 hr
10 2 hr
11 4 hr
12 8 hr
13 24 hr

1) A rubber bung is placed over the measuring cylinder, which is then shaken
vigorously. Finally the measuring cylinder is inverted end to end and then placed in
erect position and the stop watch is started immediately.
2) The hydrometer is immersed into the cylinder, to a depth slightly below its floating
position, and then allowed to float freely. Hydrometer readings are taken after , 1, 2

P
a
g
e
2
9

and 4 minutes. The hydrometer is then slowly removed from the cylinder, rinsed in
distilled water and then placed in the comparison cylinder.
3) The comparison cylinder is a 1000 ml measuring cylinder, in which 100 ml of
dispersion agent is added. The cylinder is then completely filled with distilled water
up to the 1000 ml mark and the contents are mixed. The hydrometer readings are
taken in the comparison cylinder, at regular intervals, to determine the combined
correction for the hydrometer readings.
4) Hydrometer readings in the measuring cylinder containing soil suspension are then
taken at 8, 15 and 30 minutes and then at 1, 2 and 4 hours, from the time of
commencement of the test. After 4 hours, the hydrometer readings are taken once or
twice in 24 hours. The final reading is taken at 24 hours time.
5) The hydrometer readings are taken by inserting and withdrawing the hydrometer
gradually, into the soil suspension, taking 10 sec. for each operation without
disturbing the soil suspension.
6) The observations are tabulated as shown in Table-2.

Calculations
1) The combined correction to Hydrometer Reading is obtained, from the Hydrometer
Reading in the Comparison Cylinder (C). This correction is applied to the observed
Hydrometer Reading, R
h
, at different time intervals, to determine the corrected
Hydrometer Reading, R
h
.
2) The Effective depth, H
e
, corresponding to each corrected Hydrometer Reading, is
taken from the Calibration chart (Fig.)
3) The particle size (Equivalent diameter), corresponding to different time intervals, is
determined from the Effective depth (H
e
) using the Eq.

t
H
G G
D
e
w
) ( 980
30
=

4) The cumulative % Finer, corresponding to each time interval or Particle size, is
determined from the Eq.
h
b
R
G W
G
N .
) 1 (
100
=
Corrections to the Hydrometer Reading
Temperature Correction (C
t
)
The hydrometer is calibrated to read density of soil suspension at 27
0
C. If the temperature of
soil suspension is more than 27
0
C, the suspension will become lighter than that at 27
0
C.
Hence temperature correction is
i) Positive when T > 27
0
C
ii) Negative when T < 27
0
C

P
a
g
e
3
0

Meniscus Correction (C
m
)
When the hydrometer is inserted into the soil suspension, during sedimentation analysis, a
meniscus is formed at the contact surface due to surface tension. As the soil suspension is
opaque, the hydrometer reading is taken at the top of the meniscus, above the surface of soil
suspension. As the hydrometer reading increases in downward direction, Meniscus correction
is always positive.
The Meniscus correction can be found by inserting the hydrometer in measuring cylinder,
containing distilled water, and taking the hydrometer reading at the bottom and top of the
meniscus. The difference between the two hydrometer readings gives the meniscus
correction, C
m
.
Dispersing agent correction C
d

The addition of dispersing agent increases the density of soil suspension. Dispersing agent
correction is always negative.
Composite correction
The corrected hydrometer reading
R
h
= R
h
+ C
m
C
d
C
t

Or R
h
= R
h
C
Where C = Composite correction to hydrometer reading = C
m
C
d
C
t

The Composite correction to hydrometer reading can be directly found by taking hydrometer
reading in a 1000 ml comparison cylinder containing distilled water. The dispersing agent is
added to the distilled water in the same quantity as in the soil suspension. The hydrometer
reading is taken in the Comparison cylinder at the top of the meniscus. The negative of this
hydrometer reading gives the composite correction (C) to the hydrometer reading. The
hydrometer reading is taken in the Comparison Cylinder along with the hydrometer reading
in soil suspension during Sedimentation analysis to determine the corresponding combined
correction to every hydrometer reading in soil suspension.
Result
% Clay=
% Silt=
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 4 : 1985 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 4 : Grain Size Analysis

P
a
g
e
3
1

Expt.8
Determination of In-situ Density by Core Cutter method
Aim
To determine the in-situ density of fine-grained natural or compacted soils free from
aggregates using a core-cutter.
Principle
A Core cutter is driven into the undisturbed soil in the site and the in-situ density is
determined by taking the weight and volume of soil along with the core cutter. The method is
suitable only for fine-grained natural or compacted soils free from aggregates
Apparatus
1) Cylindrical Core-Cutter - of seamless steel tube, 130 mm long and 10 cm internal
diameter, with a wall thickness of 3 mm, bevelled at one end. The cutter shall be kept
properly greased or oiled.
2) Steel Dolley - 2.5 cm high and 10 cm internal diameter with a wall thickness of 75
mm with a lip to enable it to be fitted on top of the core-cutter
3) Steel Rammer -With solid mild steel foot 140 mm diameter and 75 mm height with a
concentrically screwed 25 mm diameter solid mild steel staff. The overall length of
the rammer including the foot as well as the staff should be approximately 900 mm.
The rammer (foot and staff together ) should weigh approximately 9 kg.
4) Balance - Accurate to 1 g.
5) Palette Knife -A convenient size is one having a blade approximately 20 cm long and
3 cm wide.
6) Steel Rule
7) Grafting Tool or Spade or Pick Axe
8) Straight Edge - A steel strip about 30 cm long, 2.5 cm wide and 3 to 5 mm thick, with
one bevelled edge will be suitable.
9) Apparatus for Determination of Water Content

Procedure
1) The internal volume, (V
C
) of the core-cutter in cubic centimetres shall be calculated
from its dimensions which shall be measured to the nearest 0.25 mm.
2) The cutter shall be weighed to the nearest gram (W
C
).
3) A small area, approximately 30 cm square of the soil layer to be tested shall be exposed
and levelled.
4) The steel dolly shall be placed on top of the cutter and the cutter shall be rammed down
vertically into the soil layer until only about 15 mm of the dolly protrudes above the
surface, care being taken not to rock the cutter.
5) The cutter shall then be dug out of the surrounding soil, care being taken to allow some
soil to project from the lower end of the cutter. The ends of the soil core shall then be
trimmed flat to the ends of the cutter by means of the straight edge.
6) The cutter containing the soil core shall be weighed to the nearest gram ( W
S
).
7) The soil core shall be removed from the cutter and a representative sample shall be
placed in an air-tight container and its water content ( w ) determined.

P
a
g
e
3
2

8) It is necessary to make a number of repeat determinations (at least three) and to average
results, since the dry density of the soil varies appreciably from point to point. The
number of determinations should be such that an additional one would not alter the
average significantly.

Remarks
1) Length of Cutter - If the average density over a smaller depth is required then the
appropriate length of cutter should be used.
2) The cutting edge should be kept sharp. The cutter should not be used in stony soils.

Natural Moisture content
S.
No.
Observation Equation Trial1 Trial2 Trial3
1 Cup No.
2 Weight of empty cup W
1

3 Weight of cup+Wet soil W
2

4 Weight of cup+dry soil W
3

5 Water content

100
) (
) (
1 3
3 2
=
W W
W W
w

6 Average Moisture
content
3
) (
3 2 1
w w w
w
+ +
=

In-situ density
S.
No.
Observation Equation Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3
1 Inside diameter of core
cutter
d
2 Inside height of core cutter
without dolly
h
3 Volume of Core cutter
4
2
h d
V
t
=

4 Weight of empty core cutter W
C

5 Weight of core cutter plus
wet soil
W
S

6 In-situ Bulk density of Soil ( )
s c
c
W W
V

=

7 Natural moisture content of
soil
w
8 In-situ dry density of soil
) 1 ( w
d
+
=

P
a
g
e
3
3

Result
In-situ Bulk density of Soil=
Natural moisture content of soil=
In-situ dry density of soil=
Reference
IS 2720- Part XXIX -1975 (Reaffirmed 1995): Methods of Test For Soils PART XXIX
determination of dry density of Soils in-place by the core-cutter method

P
a
g
e
3
4

Expt.9
Determination of In-situ Density by Sand Replacement method
Aim
To determine, in-place dry density of natural or compacted fine-and medium-grained soils
Sand replacement method. The method is applicable to layers not exceeding 150 mm in
thickness
NoteWith granular materials having little or no cohesion, particularly when they are wet,
there is a danger of errors in the measurement of dry density by this method. These errors are
caused by the slumping of the sides of the excavated density hole-and always result in an
over estimation of the density.
Apparatus
1) Sand-Pouring Cylinder
2) Tools for Excavating Holes-a scraper tool to make a level surface: bent spoon, dibber.
3) Cylindrical Calibrating Container - with an internal diameter of 100 mm and an
internal depth of 150 mm fitted with a flange approximately 50 mm wide and about 5
mm thick surrounding the open end. The volume of the container should be given to
an accuracy of 0.25 percent.
4) Balance - accurate to 1 g.
5) Plane Surface : Glass or Perspex Plate or Other Plane Surface - about 450 mm square
and 9 mm thick or larger.
6) Metal Containers - to collect excavated soil. A convenient size is one about 150 mm
diameter and 200 mm deep with a removable cover.
7) Cylindrical Steel Core-Cutter - of steel, 127.4 + 0.1 mm long and 100 mm + 0.1 mm
internal diameter with a wall thickness of 3 mm bevelled at one end. The cutter shall
be kept adequately greased.
8) Metal Tray with Hole - 300 mm square and 40 mm deep with a 100 mm hole in the
centre.

Material (Sand)
Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing the 1.0 mm IS Sieve and retained on 600-
micron IS Sieves hall be used. It shall be free from organic matter, and shall have been oven
dried and stored for a suitable period to allow its water content to reach equilibrium with
atmospheric humidity

Procedure
Calibration of Apparatus
Calibration of the Apparatus consists of determination of the Bulk density of sand.
1) The pouring cylinder shall be filled so that the level of the sand in the cylinder is
within about 10 mm of the top. Its total initial weight (W
1
) shall be found and shall be
maintained constant throughout the tests for which the calibration is used.
2) A volume of sand equivalent to that of the excavated hole in the soil (or equal to that
of the calibrating container) shall be allowed to run out of the cylinder under gravity.
The shutter on the pouring cylinder shall then be closed and the cylinder placed on a
plane surface, such as a glass plate.

P
a
g
e
3
5

3) The shutter on the pouring cylinder shall be opened and sand allowed to run out.
When no further movement of sand takes place in the cylinder, the shutter shall be
closed and the cylinder removed carefully.
4) The sand that has filled the cone of the pouring cylinder (that is, the sand that is left
on the plane surface) shall be collected and weighed to the nearest gram.
5) These measurements shall be repeated at least three times and the mean weight taken.
6) The internal volume (V) in ml of the calibrating container shall be determined from
the weight of water contained in the container when filled to the brim. The volume
may also be calculated from the measured internal dimensions of the container.
7) The pouring cylinder shall be placed concentrically on the top of the calibrating
container after being filled to the constant weight (W
1
) as in step 1. The shutter on the
pouring cylinder shall be closed during this operation. The shutter shall be opened and
sand allowed to run out. When no further movement of sand takes place in the
cylinder, the shutter shall be closed. The pouring cylinder shall be removed and
weighed to the nearest gram. These measurements shall be repeated at least three
times and the mean weight taken.

Measurement of Soil Density
The following method shall be followed for the measurement of soil density.
1) A flat area, approximately 450 mm square, of the soil to be tested shall be exposed
and trimmed down to a level surface preferably with the aid of the scraper tool.
2) The metal tray with a central hole shall be laid on the prepared surface of the soil with
the hole over the portion of the soil to be tested. The hole in the soil shall then be
excavated using the hole in the tray as a pattern, to the depth of the layer to be tested
up to a maximum of 150 mm.
3) The excavated soil shall be carefully collected, leaving no loose material in the hole
and weighed to the nearest gram (W
m
). The metal tray shall be removed before the
pouring cylinder is placed in position over the excavated hole.
4) The water content (w) of the excavated soil shall be determined by the method
specified in IS 2720 (Part 2) : 1973.
5) The pouring cylinder filled to the constant weight (W
1
) as in step 3 shall be so placed
that the base of the cylinder covers the hole concentrically. The shutter on the pouring
cylinder shall be closed during this operation. The shutter shall then be opened and
sand allowed to run out into the hole.
6) When no further movement of sand takes place the shutter shall be closed. The
cylinder shall be removed and weighed to the nearest gram (W,) (see Note).
Precautions
1) Since variations in atmospheric humidity affect the water content of the sand, and
hence its bulk density, the calibration should be made (or at least checked) during
each days work. To overcome the effects of slight variations in grading and particle
shape between batches of sand, each batch should be sampled and calibrated.
2) If for any reason it is necessary to excavate the holes to depths other than 150 mm, the
calibrating container should be replaced by one, the depth of which is the same as the
hole excavated or its effective depth should be reduced to that of the hole excavated.

P
a
g
e
3
6

3) Care shall be taken in excavating the hole to see that the hole is not enlarged by
levering the dibber against the side of the hole, as this will result in lower densities
being recorded.
4) It is necessary to make a number of repeated determinations (at least three) and to
average the results, hence the dry density of the soil varies appreciably from point to
point. The number of determinations should be such that an additional one would
make no significant difference to the average.
5) Generally a storage period, after oven drying, of about 7 days is sufficient for the
water content of the sand to reach equilibrium with the atmospheric humidity. The
sand should not be stored in air-tight containers and should be thoroughly mixed
before use. If sand is salvaged from holes in compacted soils after carrying out the
test, it is advisable to sieve, dry and store this and again before it is used in further
sand replacement tests.

a) Bulk density of Sand
S.
No.
1 Inside diameter of Calibrating container d
2 Inside height of Calibrating container h
3 Volume of Calibrating container
4
2
1
h d
V
t
=

4 Weight of Sand pouring cylinder plus Sand W
1

5 Weight of Sand pouring cylinder plus Sand
after filling the Calibrating container
W
2

6 Mean weight of sand in cone (of pouring
cylinder)
W
3

8 Weight of sand in the Calibrating container W
s
=W
1
- W
2
- W
3

9 Bulk density of Sand
1
s
sand
W
V
=

b) Volume of Site hole
S.
No.
1 Weight of Sand pouring cylinder plus Sand
after filling the Site hole
W
6

2 Weight of Sand filling the Site hole W
7
=W
1
W
3
W
6

3 Volume of excavated soil
sand
W
V
7
=

c) Natural Moisture content

P
a
g
e
3
7

S.
No.
Observation Equation Trial1 Trial2 Trial3
1 Cup No.
2 Weight of empty cup W
9

3 Weight of cup+Wet soil W
10

4 Weight of cup+dry soil W
11

5 Water content

10 11
11 9
( )
100
( )
W W
w
W W

6 Average Moisture
content
3
) (
3 2 1
w w w
w
+ +
=

d) In-situ density
S.
No.
1 Weight of excavated soil W
8

2 In-situ Bulk density of Soil
V
W
8
=

3 Natural moisture content of soil w
4 In-situ dry density of soil
) 1 ( w
d
+
=

Result
Bulk density of Sand=
In-situ Bulk density of Soil=
Natural moisture content of soil=
In-situ dry density of soil=
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 28 : 1974 Methods of test for soils: Part 28 Determination of dry density of
soils in-place, by the sand replacement method

P
a
g
e
3
8

Expt.10
Constant head permeability test
Aim
To determine the permeability of given sample of coarse grained soil by Constant head
method
Definition
The property of the soil, which permits flow of water through its voids with ease, is known as
permeability. Quantitatively, permeability is defined as the velocity of flowing water under
unit hydraulic gradient. In other words, permeability indicates the ease with which water
flows through the soil. The units of permeability are the same as that of velocity i.e., cm/s or
m/day.
Principle
Permeability of coarse grained soils having high permeability is determined in the
laboratory by constant head test. The principle of the test is to measure the volume of water
flowing through a soil specimen in a given time and determine the permeability from the
discharge using Darcys law. The constant head permeability test is suitable only for coarse
grained soils, for which significant volume of water can be collected in a reasonable time
interval.
Apparatus

Fig.1 Schematic diagram for constant head permeability test set up
Fig.1 shows the schematic diagram for constant head permeability test. The
equipment for the test, known as Permeameter, consists of a cylindrical mould, a drainage
cap with an inlet valve and an air release valve and a drainage base plate with an outlet pipe.
The mould is of 10 cm diameter and 12.73 cm internal height. The base plate has a recess at
the centre in which the bottom porous disc is placed. A filter paper is placed over the bottom
porous disc.
Test Procedure

P
a
g
e
3
9

1. The soil is compacted into the Permeameter mould at the required density and water
content. Alternately, undisturbed soil sample from the soil sampler is cut into the
Permeameter mould, taking care to avoid leakage through the side walls. A filter
paper is placed over the top surface of the soil specimen and the top porous disc is
placed on the filter paper.
2. Before commencement of the test, the soil specimen should be completely saturated,
so that Darcys law is valid. To ensure complete saturation of the soil specimen, the
air in the soil specimen is removed by i) Allowing water to flow upward by attaching
the constant head reservoir to the drainage base for sufficient time and opening the air
release valve and ii) by Applying a vacuum pressure of about 70 cm of mercury
through the drainage cap for about 15 minutes after closing the drainage valve.
3. After the soil sample has been completely saturated, the constant head reservoir is
connected to the drainage cap of the Permeameter mould. Water is allowed to flow
through the soil sample for sufficient time till a steady state is established.
4. When the steady state is established, water is collected from the bottom tank in a
graduated measuring jar for a convenient time period, which is measured using a stop
watch.
5. The test is repeated several times and average of the several permeability
determinations is taken as the permeability of the soil.

Observations
S.
No.
Item Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3
1 Diameter of the soil sample
2 Length of the soil sample
3 Head of water causing flow
4 Volume of water collected
5 Time
6 Permeability
7 Average Permeability
8 % Error

Model Calculation

(9.7)
Where
k = coefficient of permeability of soil sample
i = hydraulic gradient
h
l
=
h = head causing flow = difference in water levels between the constant head reservoir and in
bottom tank
l = length of flow = length of soil sample
A = Total as area of soil

P
a
g
e
4
0

Result
Permeability of the given soil sample=
Type of soil sample=
Comment on the Result
Classification of soils based on permeability
Table 1 Classification of soils based on permeability*
S.
No.
Permeability
cm/s
Soil Classification
1 < 10
-6
impervious
2 10
-6
to 10
-4
semi-pervious
3 > 10
-4
pervious
*As per USBR Earth Manual
Typical range of Permeability of soils
Table 2 Typical range of Permeability of soils
S.
No.
Type of soil Permeability
cm/s
1 Clean gravels 1.0 to 10
2 Coarse and medium sand 10
-3
to 1.0
3 Fine sand and loose silt 10
-5
to10
-3

4 Dense silt and clayey silt 10
-6
to10
-5

5 Silty clay and clay 10
-9
to10
-6

What is your comment on the result with respect to the permeability and type of soil?
How do you classify the soil based on permeability?
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 36 : 1987 Methods of test for soils: Part 36 Laboratory determination of
permeability of granular soils (constant head)

P
a
g
e
4
1

Expt.11
Falling Head Permeability Test
Aim
To determine the permeability of given sample of coarse grained soil by Variable head
method
Definition
The property of the soil, which permits flow of water through its voids with ease, is known as
permeability. Quantitatively, permeability is defined as the velocity of flowing water under
unit hydraulic gradient. In other words, permeability indicates the ease with which water
flows through the soil. The units of permeability are the same as that of velocity i.e., cm/s or
m/day.
Principle
For soils of low permeability, the quantity of water collected in the graduated jar of
the constant head permeability test is very small and cannot be measured accurately. For such
soils, the variable head permeability test is used. As per Lambe (1969), the variable head
permeability test is also more convenient for cohesionless soils than the constant head test
because of simpler instrumentation.
Apparatus
The permeameter in the falling head test is the same as that used for constant head test
having 10 cm diameter, 12.73 cm height and 1000 cc capacity. A vertical graduated stand
pipe of known cross sectional area, a, is fitted to the top of the permeameter. The
permeameter mould has a drainage base with a recess for porous disc and a drainage cap with
inlet valve and air release valve, as shown in fig.1.

Fig.1 Schematic diagram for Falling head permeability test
Procedure
1. The soil sample is compacted into the permameter mould and the top porous disc is
placed on the compacted soil after placing the bottom porous disc. The porous disc
and water tubes should be deaired before placing the sample.

P
a
g
e
4
2

2. Before conducting the test, removal of entrapped air and full saturation of soil sample
must be done. This is achieved by applying vacuum through the drainage cap, after
closing the drainage valve in the drainage base and air release valve in the drainage
cap. The vacuum pressure is slowly increased to 70 cm of mercury and maintained for
about 15 minutes. The soil sample is saturated by allowing de-aired water to flow
upward from the drainage base under vacuum. When the soil sample is saturated, both
the top and bottom outlets are closed.
3. The stand pipe is filled with water to the required height. After the steady state of
flow has been established, the time required for the water level in the stand pipe to fall
from a height h
1
to a height h
2
is noted. The head is measured with reference to water
level in the bottom tank.
4. The procedure is repeated by taking head of water in the stand pipe at different time
intervals
5. The elapsed times required for the fall of head from h1 to and from to
h
2
must be compared, which should be same. If these times do not agree within 2% to
3%, the stand pipe shall be refilled with water and the test is conducted again.
Observations
1. Diameter of the soil sample (cm)=
2. Cross sectional area of the Soil specimen (cm
2
)=
3. Length of the soil sample (cm)=
4. Height from the outlet level of the permeameter to the zero reading of the graduation
scale of the stand pipe (cm)=
S.
No.
Elapsed
time
(s)
Height of Water
level in stand
pipe
(cm)
Head of
water
(cm)
1 1 +
=
i i i
h h h
% Error in
observations
Permeability
(cm/s)

Average Permeability

P
a
g
e
4
3

Model Calculations

(1)
Where
k = coefficient of permeability of soil sample
i = hydraulic gradient
h
l
=
h
1
= head corresponding to time t
1

h
2
= head corresponding to time t
2

l = length of flow = length of soil sample
A = Total as area of soil
The coefficient of permeability is reported at .

(2)
Result
Permeability of the given soil sample=
Type of soil sample=
Maximum % error=
Minimum % error in observations=
Average % Error in observations=
Comment on the Result
Classification of soils based on permeability
Table 1 Classification of soils based on permeability*
S.
No.
Permeability
cm/s
Soil Classification
1 < 10
-6
impervious
2 10
-6
to 10
-4
semi-pervious
3 > 10
-4
pervious
*As per USBR Earth Manual
Typical range of Permeability of soils
Table 2 Typical range of Permeability of soils
S.
No.
Type of soil Permeability
cm/s
1 Clean gravels 1.0 to 10
2 Coarse and medium sand 10
-3
to 1.0
3 Fine sand and loose silt 10
-5
to10
-3

P
a
g
e
4
4

4 Dense silt and clayey silt 10
-6
to10
-5

5 Silty clay and clay 10
-9
to10
-6

What is your comment on the result with respect to the permeability and type of soil?
How do you classify the soil based on permeability?
Reference
IS 2720 : Part 17 : 1986 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 17 : Laboratory Determination of
Permeability

P
a
g
e
4
5

Expt.11
I.S. Light Compaction Test
Aim
The object of the IS light compaction test is to determine the relation between water
content and dry density of compacted soil and determine the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content from this test. The compaction energy used to compact the soil
corresponds to that of standard Proctor test
Principle
The soil is compacted using standard compaction specifications at different moisture contents
and the corresponding dry density of compacted soil is determined. The water content
corresponding to maximum dry density, known as Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) is
obtained by plotting a graph with water content on X-axis and Dry density on Y-Axis.
Equipment
The equipment for the test consists of
Compaction mould
It is a cylindrical mould of 10 cm internal diameter and 12.73 cm internal height with
a total volume of 1000.cm
3
. It is made of copper alloy or brass and attached to a mild steed
base plate
Rammer
The rammer consists of a 2.6 kgf weight, falling through a height of 31cm to apply
blows on the soil for compaction. It is made of mild steel or brass and the base has a diameter
of 5 cm
The compaction parameters in IS light compaction test are
W = weight of Hammer blow = 2.6 kgf
h = Height of fall = 31 cm
n = number of blows per layer = 25
l = number of layers = 3
V
m
= 1000 cubic centimetre (cc)
The total compaction energy imparted on the soil per unit volume in this test is
6045 3 25 31 6 . 2 = = =Whnl E kgf cm
The total compaction energy imparted on the soil per unit volume in this test is
045 . 6
1000
6045
= = E kgf cm/cm
3

Soil

P
a
g
e
4
6

About 6 kgf of soil passing 20 mm IS sieve is taken for the test. When sieved through
20mm IS sieve, the percent soil retained on IS sieve should not be more than 5 percent, for
accurate results. If more than 5 percent of soil is retained on 20mm IS sieve, it will lead to
errors in the result. In such cases, the soil passing 40 mm IS sieve should be used for the test.
In this case, a bigger compaction mould of 15 cm internal diameter and 12.73 cm internal
height with a total volume of 2250 cm
3
is used

(a) Compaction mould with collar and base plate

(b) Compaction Rammer

P
a
g
e
4
7

Fig.1 Laboratory Compaction Test Equipment
Procedure
1) Aggregations of soil particles shall be broken and the soil is mixed with a suitable
amount of water. The amount of water to be added initially for the first trial is 4 to 6
percent for sandy or gravelly soil and 8 to 10 percent below plastic limit (PL-8 or PL-
10) of the soil for cohesive soils.
2) The soil and water should be mixed thoroughly and it is required to store mixed sample
in a sealed container for about 16 hours in case of high plastic clays for uniform
distribution of moisture throughout the volume of the soil
3) The compaction mould with the base plate attached is weighed to the nearest 1 g using
a balance of capacity 10 kgf (W
1
)
4) The mould with base plate is placed on a solid base, such as concrete floor. About 2.5
kgf of the wet soil is taken and divided approximately in to 3 parts. One part of the wet
soil is placed in the mould and compacted by applying 25 blows with the 2.6 kgf
rammer, falling through exactly 31cm on the soil for each blow. The blows should be
uniformly distributed over the entire area of the mould
5) The second and third parts of the soil are also placed in the compaction mould
successively, each time compacting this soil with 25 blows. Before placing the third
part of soil in to the mould, the collar is attached to the top of the mould to
accommodate the entire loos soil and for applying the blows effectively.
6) The collar is now removed from the top of the mould and excess soil above top of the
mould should be trimmed off and the surface is levelled with a straight edge. The
amount of soil placed in the mould should be just sufficient so that the compacted soil
does not project more than 5 mm above top of the mould
7) The mould with base plate along with compacted soil is then weighed to the nearest
1.g (W
2
)
8) The compacted soil is now removed from the mould and placed in the tray. A
representative sample of soil is taken for water content determination (w
1
)
9) The reminder of the compacted soil specimen is broken up to individual particle level
by hand knife and by rubbing through the 20 mm IS sieve, and then mixed with the
remainder of the original sample
10) The inside surface of compaction mould collar and rammer are cleaned of soil
11) Suitable amount of water is now added to the wet soil, 1 to 2 percent for sandy or
gravelly soils and 2 to 4 percent for cohesive soil
12) The procedure in steps 2 to 11 is repeated to get at least 5 trials, so that the weights W
1
,
W
2
, W
3
, W
4
and W
5
as well as the water contents w
1,
w
2,
w
3,
w
4
and w
5
are obtained.
The range of water content covered with the trails should be such that the OMC lies
between w
2
and w
4

Calculations & graph
1) The bulk density and dry density is computed for each trial from the
2 1
W W
V

= (1)

P
a
g
e
4
8

Where

= Bulk density in the first trial
W
2
= Weight of mould + base plate+ compacted soil
W
1
= Weight of empty mould + base plate
V= volume of mould
1
d
w
=
+
(2)
Where
d
= dry density in first trial
w= water content in the first trial

2) The values of
d
are computed similarly using Eq.(1) & (2) in other trials
3) A graph is plotted with water content on x-axis and dry density on y-axis. The
experimental points are joined by a smooth curve, which is known as compaction
curve.
4) The maximum dry density is read from the compaction curve and the water content
corresponding to maximum dry density is taken as optimum moisture content (OMC)
Observations
S.
No.
Description Trial-1 Trial-2 Trial-3 Trial-4 Trial-5
Determination of Bulk density
1 Diameter of the mould, d
2 Internal Height of the mould, h
3
Volume of the mould,
2
4
d
V h
t
=

4 Weight of compaction mould with the
base plate (W
1
)

5 Weight of compaction mould and wet
soil with the base plate (W
2
)

6
Bulk density of the soil,
2 1
W W
V

=

Determination of Water Content
7 Cup No.
3

4

5

11
Water content,
4 5
5 3
( )
100
( )
W W
w
W W

Determination of Dry density
12 Dry density of compacted soil,
1
d
w
=
+

P
a
g
e
4
9

Precautions
1) In case more than 5 percent of soil is retained on 20 mm IS sieve, the soil passing 40
mm IS sieve should be used. In this case, the bigger mould of 15 cm diameter, 12.73
cm height with 2250 cm
3
volume is used. The soil is compacted in 3 layers using 55
blows of the 2.6 kgf rammer for each layer.
2) For soils which are susceptible to crushing, each trial of determining W and w should
be done using a fresh soil sample instead of using the compacted soil. In this case,
water added for each trial should be the sum of water added in the preceding trial and
the increment of water.
The soil is considered susceptible to crushing, if the sample contains granular material of
a soft nature such as soft lime stone, sand stone etc., which is reduced in size by the
action of the 2.6 kgf rammer.
3) The inside surface of the mould and collar and also the inside surface of Rammer tube
should be kept clean before each trial or silicon grease may be smeared to the surface
of the mould to facilitate removal of compacted soil at the end of each trail.
4) The success of the experiment depends on through mixing of soil and water and
sufficient time should be allowed for permeation and distribution of moisture
throughout the voids of the wet soil before compaction of soil in each trial.
Result
The maximum dry density should be reported to the nearest 0.01 g.
References
1) IS 2720 : Part VII : 1980 Methods of Test for Soils - Part VII : Determination of
Water Content-Dry Density Relation Using Light Compaction
2) IS:10074-1982 specification for compaction mould assembly.
3) IS:9198-1978 (reaffirmed 1987) specification for the rammer to be used for
compaction test.

GTE Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

GTE Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Civil Engineering, ANITS, Visakhapatnam

You might also like