MSc ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Dissertation

Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering

UNIVERSITY OF BATH

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MSC IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS BY DISTANCE LEARNING

DISSERTATION

STUDY OF HARMONICS IN BUILDINGS

This dissertation is submitted in accordance with the requirements of the degree of Master of Science of the University of Bath

JYOTHIMON ABRAHAM

Supervisor : Dr. Francis Robinson

September 2013

Copyright Notice Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this dissertation rests with its author. This copy of the dissertation has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the dissertation and no information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Restrictions On Use This dissertation may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purposes of consultation.

Signature Disclaimer The opinions expressed in this work are entirely those of the author except where indicated in the text.

Abstract
Building electrical installation uses traditional engineering methodologies and well proven technologies to minimize safety risks and to maximize comfort of persons who are residing in buildings. In recent years, electronic equipments like Variable Frequency Drives for motors, UPS for Emergency type loads, other loads like SMPS based equipments, Lighting Dimmers occupy most part of building loads. This trend necessitates for building electrical engineers to understand problems associated with electronic equipment to ensure quality of power supply . Harmonics are predominant power quality problem in Power Electronic loads. This study focuses on analyzing harmonics in building loads and means to reduce the harmonics as per widely accepted Industry standard of IEEE519. Because of complex nature of interaction of harmonics in power system, traditional method of manual calculation may not be practical and modeling software is required to model the system in hand. In this study, a typical commercial bank of G+26 floors building in middle-east is modeled in the software and results are compared with IEEE519 standard. Passive filters are generally used to mitigate harmonics due to its low cost compared with active filters. So passive filters are used in this study to comply with IEEE standards. Mathematical basis of Harmonic analysis helps in deriving critical understanding of the subject of Harmonics & related optimization of harmonic mitigation equipments. Hence a typical power flow algorithm is constructed and implemented in General Algebraic Modeling Software (GAMS) for a simpler two bus system. Also a compensation strategy has been devised for the same system.

Table of Contents

Abstract................................................................................................................. Table of Contents................................................................................................. Acknowledgements.............................................................................................. Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................... 1.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 1.2 Objectives of Dissertation............................................................................... 1.3 Outline of Dissertation................................................................... Chapter 2 Harmonic Phenomenon and Its mitigation 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 2.2 Classification of Electrical Loads......................................................... 2.3 Time Domain and Frequency Domain............................................................ 2.4 Fourier Series Analysis........................................................... 2.5 Harmonic Effects on Power System........................................................... 2.6 Harmonic Cancellation........................................................... 2.7 Harmonic Distortion Indices........................................................ 2.8 Displacement Power Factor....................................................... 2.9 Stiff Systems and Soft Systems....................................................... 2.10 IEEE Standard 519....................................................... 2.11 Parallel Resonance........................................................... 2.12 Series Resonance........................................................... 2.13 Harmonic Mitigation Measures........................................................... 2.14 Types of Filters........................................................... 2.15 Filter Design & IEEE 1531...........................................................
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i ii V 1 2 2 2 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 18

2.16 Conclusion Chapter 3 Building Power Systems & Electronic Loads 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 3.2 Classification of Electronic Loads in Buildings ............................................ 3.3 Variable Frequency Drives(VFD)........................................................... 3.4 Uninterruptable Power Supplies(UPS)........................................................... 3.5 Office Equipment Electronic Loads........................................................... 3.6 Lighting Dimmer Loads........................................................... 3.7 Conclusion........................................................... Chapter 4 Mathematical Modeling of Harmonics 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 4.2 Aims of Harmonic Modeling........................................................... 4.3 Budeanus Distortion Power Concept:......................................................... 4.4 Fryzes Current Source Concept ........................................................... 4.5 IEEE Std 1459-2010 Method........................................................... 4.6 Power Factor Compensation Method................................................................. 4.7 Harmonic Power Flow Methodology.............................................................. 4.8 Harmonic Power Flow Simulation without Compensator Branch........................... 4.9 Harmonic Power Flow Simulation with Compensator Branch

21 22 23 23 24 27 29 31 33 34 35 35 35 37 39 40 40 40 46 50 51 52 52 52 54 54 54 58 62 66

4.10 Conclusion........................................................... Chapter 5 Computer Simulation of a Commercial Bank Building 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 5.2 Description of the Case Study......................................................... 5.3 Load Profile Analysis........................................................... 5.4. Short Circuit Ratio Calculation 5.5. Simulation of System............................ 5.5.1 Transformer-1 Simulation (without & with Filter)............................... 5.5.2 Transformer-2 Simulation (without & with Filter)................................ 5.5.3 Transformer-3 Simulation (without &with Filter)............................... 5.5.4 Transformer-4 Simulation (without &with Filter)...............................

iii

5.6 Conclusion.. Chapter 6 Conclusions and Further Work 6.1 Final Discussion.............................................................................................. 6.2 Further Work ................................................................................................ References

70 71 72 72 74

iv

Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank gracious God, for he has regarded the lowly state of his servant and made this Dissertation a fruitful journey. I would like to thank my Supervisor, Dr. Francis Robinson for his support and supervision. I would like to thank him especially for his notes and lectures on Power Electronics during the last residential, which helped me to understand the subject of harmonics better and to gain precious insights. I would like to thank my classmates at bath, especially Bennet Mathews for his support. My hearty thanks to my parents and parents-in-law for their unconditional love. Finally, I wish to thank my beloved wife, Sharmini Enoch for her patience and perseverance that she has shown especially at troubled times. I am also grateful to our darling daughter, Joanne Abraham and dearest son, Jason Abraham for they have filled the joy in my heart.

Chapter-1

Introduction

1. 1 Introduction Widespread use of power electronic equipments causes harmonic distortion in building power systems. Harmonics cause the loss of efficiency and also malfunctioning of devices. For example it is estimated that 1% harmonic current distortion causes 2% increase in losses (half copper & half transformer) [22]. Also utility has to suffer voltage distortion due to harmonics. Hence various standards has been in force to mitigate harmonics in the system. This dissertation aims to identify ways and means to tackle harmonic problem from a building electrical engineers perspective.

1.2 Objectives of Dissertation Objectives of the dissertation are divided into following parts: 1) To have an understanding of relevant methodologies to analyze harmonics in power system. 2) To design compensator for mitigation of harmonics. 3) To develop a perspective on various components used in power electronic equipment in buildings which are major source of harmonics. 4) To derive critical understanding of mathematical modeling behind the functioning of software used for harmonics.

1.3 Outline of Dissertation Following the introductory chapter, the remainder of the chapters are laid out in the chronological order that best suits the work carried out. Chapter 2 examines harmonic phenomenon and its mitigation .Also introduces to terminologies, standards and techniques to deal with it. Chapter 3 deals with modern trends in power electronic loads encountered in building power systems. Single most important buzz word is PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) which makes waveforms look like almost sine waves. But in markets, where cost rules the days, everyday electrical engineer has to compromise for high THD equipments and then do a system study to keep voltage distortion to less than 5% at utility bus. Chapter 4 presents mathematical methods underlying software analysis which is the soul of the subject. The long searched journey of engineering community to develop a power system model for the jumbled waveforms called harmonics and its compensation methods are investigated.
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Harmonic power flow model for a simple power system has been developed using GAMS software(demo version). Chapter 5 performs the harmonic power flow analysis and its mitigation with passive filters using Cyme PSAF(demo version) software. Many approximations like combining of several small loads into aggregate loads has been used for keeping the model simple and yet converging to real analysis of the system at hand. Finally Chapter 6, concludes the dissertation, summarizing the work as a whole and giving recommendation for further work.

Chapter-2

Harmonic Phenomena and Mitigation

2.1 Introduction In this chapter, relevant terminologies and concepts related to harmonic phenomenon and its mitigation are discussed in detail. 2.2 Classification of Electrical Loads: Electrical loads can be classified into Linear and Nonlinear Electrical loads. A linear load is one, which draws a purely sinusoidal current, when connected to a sinusoidal voltage source, i.e., resistor, capacitor and inductors. They all have linear V-I characteristics that results in sinusoidal current wave forms. In olden days, in building power system all the electrical equipments connected were linear loads. Examples are transformers, electric motors and resistive heaters. A non linear load is one, which draws a non sinusoidal current when connected to a sinusoidal voltage source, i.e., diode bridge, thyristor bridge etc. They all have nonlinear V-I characteristics, that results in non sinusoidal current wave form or distorted wave form. As many power electronic devices and loads coming into building power system in modern days, now a majority of building loads are non linear loads.

Fig 2.1: V-I Characteristic Graph of Electronic Ballast of Fluorescent Lamp (Source: [13])
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2.3 Time Domain and Frequency Domain: Time domain graphs and analysis tells us how current/voltage (amplitude, in generic terms) changes over time. Frequency domain graphs and analysis tells us how current/voltage changes over frequencies. In many applications, frequency domain analysis is required. In time domain, waveforms are jumbled over for a complex frequency waveform while in frequency domain we can separate them into distinct frequencies, i.e., harmonic order. Fourier transform helps in converting a time domain signal to frequency domain. Power system software has built in functions to convert time domain to frequency domain based on Fourier transform.

Fig 2.2: Time Domain Graph (Source: [14])

Fig 2.3: Frequency Domain Graph (Source: [14])

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2.4 Fourier Series Analysis: Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier while trying to solve famous Heat Equations come across the Fourier Series [1] [2]. He stated that any periodic functions or periodic signals are constituted by simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines, i.e.; = + +

Or

= + + + 2 + + + 3 + + Where = . = = =

Here n is a multiple that represent order of frequency. Oscillating wave, that is of fundamental frequency (f) can be separated from higher order frequency (nf) and these higher order oscillating waves are called Harmonics. From power system point of view, utility and customers use many nonlinear loads/sources and these constitute distortion of voltage and current wave forms, i.e., as seen from Fourier series above, they introduce harmonics into the electrical system. These harmonics practically do not contribute to any usable power. 2.5 Harmonic Effects on Power System: Not only harmonics do not contribute to useful power, but they cause distortion in voltage and current waveform as evident from voltage and current waveforms. These distortions manifests into following bad effects which is proven by equations and experimentation; (i)Harmonic Distortion reduces Power Factor: we can prove that power factor is reduced due to harmonic distortion by a factor called distortion factor. (ii)Each characteristic harmonics flows in a particular direction.
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Based on above facts we can analyze following problems caused by harmonics; 1. Voltage Notching in power electronic equipments 2. Erratic electronic equipment operation 4. Overheating of equipments 5. Vibrations of motors 6. Audible noise creation in transformer and rotating machines 7. Nuisance operation of circuit breaker 8. Malfunctioning of Voltage regulator 9. Malfunctioning of Generator regulator 10. Malfunctioning of Timing clock in micro processor based devices 11. Electrical Fires 2.6 Harmonic Cancellation: It is found that harmonic distortion at individual load bus not wholly transmitted to higher buses. But due to a combination of factors, net distortion produced by large number of distributed loads at higher bus is significantly less than sum of individual load distortion by a factor called Distortion factor. A precise formula for this factor is not possible, but varies highly on load statistics. Various factors affecting this are outlined below. If single phase loads and three phase loads are connected at same voltage level, it is found that combined harmonic distortion at bus is reduced. Due to phase angle diversity of different types of loads at same bus level also leads to significant reduction in harmonics. In this case distortion factor can be as less as 0.5.For same type of loads connected at same bus also ,cancellation occurs due to change of various parameters between loads like impedance magnitude, x/r ratio, DC link capacitor at loads. In this case mainly higher order harmonics are affected.

In delta-star transformers 30o phase shift occurs. Result is that positive sequence harmonics are shifted by +30o and negative sequence harmonics are shifted by -30o and triplen harmonics are impededed by delta winding. These phase shifts cause their mutual cancellation.

A strategic understanding at design stage on the cancellation factors helps in allocating loads at various buses to minimize harmonic distortion to optimum at main bus. 2.7 Harmonic Distortion Indices: IEEE 519 adopts two parameters, whose influence on power equations was proved by Alexander Immanuel, to measure harmonic distortion.IEC 61000-2-2 also agrees with this definition [2] [27]. First one is THDv (Total Voltage Harmonic Distortion) and second one is THDi (Total Current Harmonic Distortion). Voltage distortion index is defined as THDv = Similarly current distortion index is THDi =

x 100%

(1)

x 100%

(2)

Higher harmonic order is restricted to 50 by this definition as can be seen from equations. 2.8 Displacement Power Factor If V(t) and I(t) are periodic current wave forms, this may be expressed in Fourier series as [27]; Vt = V + VnCosnwt n It = I + InCosnwt n So average power P = Vt Itdt = V I +
9

(3) (4) (5)

Cosn n

(To evaluate the above integral, multiplying out infinite series we get integrals of cross product terms are zero. Only contribution of integral comes from product of voltage and current harmonics of same frequency). If supply voltage contains no DC component and harmonics, P =

Cos

(6)

Now RMS value of periodic wave form for voltage is = V tdt

=V +
Similarly RMS value of current =I +

(7)

(8)

Definition of power factor is =

(10)

is called as Distortion Factor and Cos is called as Displacement Power

factor.But THD is given by THDi =

.So Distortion factor =

So by measurement, when truly sinusoidal P1=V1I1(COS(1-1) ). But when load current is non sinusoidal, we have to multiply by a factor called distortion factor. So original power factor is called displacement power factor and when we multiply it with distortion factor, we get True power factor. 2.9 Stiff Systems and Soft Systems: A stiff load in mechanical context means a system which does not undergo any type of interaction or deformation when we apply forces to load.
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In Electrical context, it means stiff system is the one that is stable or it can absorb distortions when subjected to disturbances. Magical ratio, Isc/IL which is called as short circuit ratio helps in defining this. Higher the value of Isc compared to IL value, lower will be the impedance, hence only lower voltage drop at Thevinins impedance of system. This causes lower voltage distortion, so system can safely absorb more harmonic current distortion. Converse is the case when Isc/IL is less. IEEE Std.519 table 10.3 is developed based on this concept. 2.10 IEEE Standard 519: The Characteristic Short Circuit Ratio (Isc/Il) determines stiffness of system. Widely accepted harmonic standard IEEE519 uses this ratio to specify THD indices [23]. As shown in Table 1 from IEEE519, as the stiffness of system increases, it is capable of absorbing more harmonic current. For building power systems we normally encounter soft systems whose value of Isc/Il<20. So the total acceptable current (demand) distortion allowed stands around 5% from table. This is defined at point of common coupling (PCC), i.e., where utility is connected to building system. Table 2.1: Current Distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120V through 69000 V) [Source: 23]

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Similarly IEEE519 defines voltage distortion also in Table 2.Since building power systems deal with 11KV/415V in a typical Middle East context, acceptable value of Total Voltage Distortion shall be less than 5%.

Table 2.2: Voltage Distortion Limits (Source : 23)

2.11 Parallel Resonance: At parallel resonance, XL=XC at a specific frequency called resonance frequency (fp). So the branch currents, IL and IC are equal in magnitude. Since they are 1800 out of phase with each other, they cause the circuit to look like high impedance. XL=XC =>2*(pi)*f*L = 1/(2*(pi)*f*C) => fp = 1/(2*(pi)*SQRT(L*C)) From fig.; Zp = XC(XL+R)/ XC+(XL+R) ~ XL2/R ~ XC2/R But Quality Factor (Q) is defined as Q= XL/R= XC/R & R<< XL QXL=Q XC So the Voltage (Vp) can be defined as product of impedance (Zp) and main current (Ih), Vp = (QXL) Ih (14) (13) (12) (11)

12

Above equation shows that during parallel resonance, a small harmonic current can cause a large voltage drop, since it creates an open circuit condition of high impedance. This phenomenon is called voltage magnification. Similarly Iresonance = Vp/ XC =(QXCIh)/ XC = QIh. So current in the capacitor bank is also magnified Q times. This phenomenon is called current magnification.

Fig 2.4: Parallel Resonance Condition (Source: [12]) In power system of buildings, this condition is created when source transformer comes in parallel with shunt capacitor bank and harmonic injecting load comes as shown in the Fig 2.4. This condition causes capacitor failure, fuse blowing and transformer overheat. 2.12 Series Resonance:

Fig 2.5: Series Resonance Circuitry (Source: [2])

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At series resonant frequency, voltage across Capacitor and Inductor are equal in magnitude. Since these voltages are 1800 out of phase with each other, they cancel out causing zero voltage across the combination. This looks like a short during series resonance. Ih = Vh/(XL+XC+R) & XL= -XC (15)

= Vh/R(Harmonic current flows freely in circuit only limited by damping resistance). So voltage across capacitor bank is given by, Vc =( Vh/R) XC =(XC/R) Vh So voltage at power factor capacitor is magnified and is highly distorted. 2.13 Harmonic Mitigation Measures Various measures that can be taken for reducing the effects of harmonics are given below; 1. Neutral Conductor Sizing: As discussed earlier, harmonic currents behave like sequence currents. Triplen harmonics behave like zero sequence currents. Hence they are flowing in neutral. Also they themselves are additive on neutral. So the usual practice is to provide higher conductor size for neutral to accommodate this additional current. 2. Line Reactors: Main problem with power electronic converters is that they make the sinusoidal current wave form discontinuous and adding line reactors at appropriate places makes line current continuous and so harmonic distortion is reduced. Since = 2 for reactors, it offers high impedance to flow of higher order harmonics and so voltage distortion is reduced. 3. Capacitor based Filters: Filters acts as sink to higher order harmonics and thus eliminates them. Main element of filter is capacitor which provide all the harmonic current needed by the nonlinear element and so harmonics are not flowing back to the source. Main problem is that nonlinear loads freely absorb
14

(16)

all the harmonic energy needed by it as per load conditions from filter and this may overload the capacitor. So an inductor is added to limit the current intake as per V=L . In general we can say capacitor reduces voltage distortion and inductor reduces current distortion. A resistor is also added to the filter which acts as a damping resistor which helps in reducing value of harmonic resonance to acceptable limits. 4. Multi pulse techniques: It can be shown that characteristic harmonics generated by VFD equipment is reduced if the pulse number of their converter can be increased. Simplest of three phase converter configuration is 6-pulse.We can increase 6-pulse converters to 12- pulse by connecting two six pulse bridges in parallel and is phase shifted to each other by 300.Limiting factor for using higher order pulse configuration is its economic cost. In 18-pulse configurations all lower order harmonics are eliminated. But because of rising cost of using higher order harmonics, 12-pulse is normally the best compromise. 2.14 Types of Filters: Filters are commonly used harmonic mitigation equipment in building power system due to its performance and compactness. Filters can be classified into mainly passive and active types. Types of passive filters are; a) Series Passive Filter b) Shunt Passive Filter a) Series Passive Filter: Series passive filter is connected in series to the line equipment. It eliminates only the harmonics to which it is tuned. Major disadvantage is that since it is in series, Filter has to be rated to carry the rated load current.

15

Fig 2.6: Series Passive Filter [Source: 15] b) Shunt Passive Filter: Shunt passive filter is connected in parallel to the bus to where harmonics has to be eliminated. Mainly there are two types are available: (1)Single tuned shunt filter (2)High pass shunt filter

Fig 2.7: Single tuned shunt filter [Source: 16]

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Fig 2.8: High Pass Shunt Filter (Source: [5]) Single tuned filters can eliminate a specific frequency to which it tuned while high pass filter provides filtering to a corner frequency to which it is tuned and also to frequencies above this corner frequency. Sharpness of filtering is reduced in high pass filter and so usual practice is to use single tuned filters for lower order harmonics and high pass filter to higher order harmonics, whose magnitudes are very less compared to fundamental frequency.

Fig 2.9: Active Filter (Source: [11])

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DSP chips based shunt active filters can dynamically check the compensation required online and can mitigate harmonics as per load conditions. This is done by injecting a current equal in magnitude but opposite in phase to the harmonic current to be eliminated. Main limiting factor for it not becoming popular as that of passive filters is that its associated high cost. Active filters consists of mainly following components; (1) Controller: It monitors the line current and line voltage at nonlinear load and then generates the reference current that enable inverter to generate compensating current. (2) Interface Reactor: It is the coupling point between non sinusoidal output of inverter and sinusoidal voltage supply. It allows dc capacitor to be charged more than the line to line voltage so as to maintain the inverter voltage (Vinv) as required. (3) Voltage Source Inverter: Inverter uses capacitor as the input supply and by PWM method (Refer Chapter 3 for detailed explanation on PWM Technique) generates high frequency signals .Power flow mechanism reveals its action in filtering harmonics which is described below: In active filter mechanism, we can see that IQ + IR = I0, i.e., source voltage (Vs) only delivers active current, IR and inverter supplies reactive part of the current, IQ.Vs is leading IQ by 900 since it is the reactive current. To happen this, voltage across Lf (Vlf) must be in phase with Vs. Also, Vinv = Vlf + Vs ,ie, what voltage source inverter required to produce the voltage which is the scalar sum of Vlf and Vs. Now take the case of Vinv required to for compensating 3rd harmonic at nonlinear load. Here Vs has no component since it is producing only fundamental current. So Vinv = Vlf = 2*(pi)*(3f)* Lf*I3

2.15 Filter Design & IEEE 1531 IEEE std1531 [24] specifies following four essential steps in filter design; Step 1 Step 2 Determine harmonic filter bank KVAR size. Select initial harmonic filter tuning.

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Step 3 Step 4

Optimize the harmonic filter configuration to meet the harmonic guidelines. Determine the component ratings.

A brief methodology as applicable to my case study on the commercial bank building is given below: (1) Determine harmonic filter bank KVAR size: In a building power system, at each Point of Common Coupling (PCC) a capacitor bank is added to improve power factor to 0.95 as per utility regulations. For all types of filters, capacitors are essential components to reduce voltage distortion. When we design filters, we first calculate value of capacitor bank KVAR required to improve power factor and then same value of capacitance is added to filter element. KVAR value is found out by equation; (2) Select initial harmonic filter tuning: Harmonic modeling software is used for finding out dominant harmonics at PCC bus. After this, we add combination of various types of filters tuned to required harmonic value (h) as per percentage of THDi value to the level that we need to mitigate to. Now we can calculate elements of filter using following general equations;

,

(17)

(18)

(19) (20)

Explanation: IEEE1531 recommends to tune the filter from approximately 3% to 15% below the desired frequency. So it helps in sufficient filtering, along with giving sufficient allowance for detuning of the filter.

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(3) Optimize the harmonic filter configuration to meet the harmonic guidelines: We can now add the filters to the given system to model in the software and see that harmonic levels are sufficiently reduced to meet the IEEE519 standards and do the optimization of filters. (4) Determine the component ratings: (a) Voltage Rating:
=

(21)

It can be split into fundamental and harmonic components; = 1 + Where 1 = 1 Where 1 =

(22)

(23)

= (b) Determination of MVAR rating of filter: =

(24)

(25)

We can see that this value is greater than original rating of capacitor bank (at Step 1). (c) Nominal Current Rating: =

(26)

(d) Checking of the Dielectric Heating of Capacitor acceptable: Dielectric heating can be evaluated using following inequality constraint: |1.35 |
20

(27)

If this inequality is satisfied, proposed filter design is satisfactory. 2.16 Conclusion: Harmonics are very complex phenomenon and quantification of harmonic distortion is not an easy task. However many international standards have been developed to give necessary guidelines for mitigation of harmonics.

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Chapter 3

Building Power Systems & Electronic Loads

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3.1 Introduction In this chapter, the classifications of the main electronic loads are made and also discussed internal mechanisms of devices that contribute to harmonic content. Also, the modern trends in these devices are investigated for harmonic mitigation to comply with IEC product standards. Harmonic spectra which are used for case study is presented as well. 3.2 Classification of Electronic Loads in Buildings For modeling building power system, we need to classify the building non linear loads based on their harmonic spectrum. It will simplify the modeling efforts to arrive at valid conclusion since we are dealing with numerous equipments. Main categories of building electronic loads are: 1. Variable Frequency Drives- In building, it is common to use VFD drives for almost every motors due to reasons of energy efficiency. VFDs emit considerable harmonics. 2. UPS, Servers For a data center application like Bank, not only critical loads but also some essential loads coming under UPS category. However highly reliable switching mechanisms like IGBT are used here. 3. Computers, Printers, Fax machine-These office equipments draws nonlinear current not in significant amounts but they also adds to some amount of harmonic distortion. When thousands of such equipments are coming into the system, it is a cause of concern and to be modeled in the modeling software. 4. Lighting electronic ballasts-Magnetic ballasts used for lights are replaced nowadays with electronic ballast for energy efficiency and also for dimming the lights for creating a pleasant environment. We will now analyze inside components of electronic loads and how these components are responsible for harmonic distortion so that we can derive the harmonic spectrum of various equipments.

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3.3 Variable Frequency Drives (VFD): Motors used in buildings have variable load requirement .At low loads, if motor runs at rated voltage and rated speed, it is causing waste of energy. So VFDs are used, which as shown in block diagram below has a Converter part which converts supply A.C voltage to D.C voltage, a D.C bus(L,C elements) which stores energy and an inverter which supplies variable speed A.C voltage to motor.

Fig 3.1 VFD Internal Details (Source: [9]) From Equations n=120f/p and V/f = k1 = k2T (n-desired speed of motor, V-Supply voltage, fsupply frequency, flux level, T-desired torque, k1 &, k2 are constants) we can deduce the following: 1. Change of speed need proportional change in frequency. 2. If frequency is changed, it affects flux, so a constant torque cannot be maintained and so to maintain a constant torque, voltage also has to be changed proportionately. From motor load characteristic curve, we can know how much torque is required to drive the motor at a particular load. We will maintain this torque but at reduced speeds for low loads by increasing voltage proportionately. Also increase in flux causes more magnetizing current and hence more iron losses, so flux has to be kept within limits.

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Also for starting, it has been found from current-speed curves that, if we start motor at or below 2Hz, starting current will be only 1.5 times motor rated current. If we start at 50Hz, it takes 6 times the full load current. So VFDs change the frequency to 2Hz at starting without decrease in starting torque required, i.e., it increases voltage correspondingly. We can see how VFD achieves variable voltage and variable frequency. There are two methods: (1) Pulse amplitude modulation (2) Pulse width modulation. In Pulse amplitude modulation, to keep V/f ratio constant, magnitude of D.C bus voltage is changed by rectifier bridge for a change in voltage and for frequency control switching of thyristors is changed in inverter bridge. But it has many disadvantages. So widely used method is Pulse width modulation (PWM) especially Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM),which will be examined in detail; Here a pulse train is generated as gating signal to inverter thyristor bridge by following method: A comparator generates gating signals to the thyristor bridge as shown in Fig 3.2 by comparing sinusoidal wave which is called as a reference wave (with frequency fr) and a triangular wave (with frequency fc) which is called as a carrier wave based on desired inverter switching frequency.

Fig 3.2 PWM Comparator Circuitry

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Fig 3.3 PWM Wave Form Triangle Intersection Principle (Source: [9]) If we analyze the waveforms in Fig 3.3, we can understand that at intersections of Vr (Reference voltage) and Vc (carrier voltage), pulses are generated.VAN is the output when reference waveform is greater than triangle wave form (for positive legs of thyristor bridge conduction). VBN is the output when reference waveform, which is shifted 180, is greater than triangle wave form. So VAB can be defined as VAN- VBN. So the number of pulses per half cycle depends on carrier frequency (fr),which can be as high as 5khz.Also pulse width varies as per amplitude of sine wave. Ratio( Vr/ Vc) is called Modulation Index (m).By controlling m, we can control amplitude of output voltage. Maximum value of m is 1 occurs when Vr = Vc. As the inverter output is very close to sine wave, harmonics are minimum possible in the above configuration. In our case study, VFDs are used for controlling various equipments like Chillers ,which consists of major portion of the load (375kw for each chiller) and other part is for less load equipments like Extract fans, Lifts etc categorized under MCC (motor control center). Increase of cost is a

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major factor in obtaining less THD equipments. So a compromise between quality and cost is considered for selecting Chiller and MCCs of THDs mentioned in the Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Harmonic Spectra of VFD Based Equipments
CHILLER->12.5% Harmonic Order % Harmonic Harmonic Order % Harmonic 3 0 MCC-->7.5% 3 0 5 5.6 7 2.9 9 0 11 3.1 13 2.4 15 0 17 0.9 19 0.7 5 9.3 7 4.9 9 0 11 5.2 13 4 15 0 17 1.4 19 1.2

3.4 UPS: A block diagram of On-line UPS is shown in fig 3.4. In simplest terms, AC supply is converted into DC which is stored in batteries through a battery charger. As needed by load, DC is inverted back to AC and fed to load. A DSP processor stores necessary algorithm to command PWM processing [10].

Fig 3.4 UPS Internal Block Diagram In UPS, inverter also does the power conditioning function as well. It means inverter supplies/consumes reactive power required to keep power factor close to unity and also to
27

control the output voltage, means inverter does power conditioning function also. This effect is created by series inductor (jwL) which is connected in series with supply voltage (Vs)source which then comes parallel with inverter voltage source. Vi (inverter voltage) is determined by PWM modulation index, m and battery voltage. Inverter supplies reactive power (Vi>Vs) for under voltage and consumes reactive power (Vi<Vs) for overvoltage situations so that voltage is regulated within limits. Shift angle () is determined by real power demanded by load as per equation P=ViVsSin()/jwL IEC 61000-3-2 pressurizes manufacturers to reduce input harmonic currents ,so computer related equipment manufacturers redesigned their SMPS (switch mode power supply units) which is the integral part of computer related equipment to get at 100% load, the input current is virtually harmonic free and power factor close to unity. These loads when work at less than 100% load lead to leading power factor scenarios. So to accommodate these leading power factor scenarios, UPS manufacturers has redesigned inverter and filter compartments of ups to provide a symmetrical ups capability circle diagram (ie,0.7 pf leading and 0.7 pf lagging ) as shown in Fig 3.5.

Fig 3.5 Modern UPS Capability Diagram (Source : [17])

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Aim of manufacturers to reduce THD to 3% to 5% and comply with standard. In our case study scenario of 5% THD is considered and its Harmonic current spectra is given in Table 3.2 Table 3.2 Harmonic Spectra of UPS
UPS-->5% Harmonic Order % Harmonic 3 0 5 4.4 7 1.7 9 0 11 1.3 13 0.8 15 0 17 0.6 19 0.6

3.5 Office Equipment Electronic Loads

Fig 3.6 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier of SMPS (Source: [18]) All electronic office equipments SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) as an essential component for their operation. Main part of SMPS is a full wave bridge rectifier as shown in Fig 3.6.Capacitors which is seen in figure is used for maintaining voltage near to peak value. These capacitors do not contribute to improvement of power factor due to action of bridge rectifier. So power factor to remain on low, i.e., 0.7. But IEC 61000-3-2 (<16A, Class D) imposes stricter limit on harmonics for manufacturers of these equipments. So an additional circuitry as shown in Fig 3.7 is used for improving power factor and hence the harmonics is called as Continuous Mode Boost Converter.

29

Fig 3.7 SMPS with PFC Circuitry (Source: [18]) As in Fig 3.7, Q1 is a MOSFET type switch, which is switched on and off continuously so that inductor (L1) stores energy while MOSFET is on and while MOSFET is off, energy is released so that we get a sine wave output. To make a perfect sine wave (so that voltage follows current in a similar way), MOSFET gate signal is controlled by a PWM(Pulse Width Modulated) controller whose mechanism can be understand from Fig 3.8.

Fig 3.8 PWM Waveform Processing (Source : [19]) To comply with IEC 61000-3-2, manufacturers are forced to reduce the harmonic THD to low values and here an average case of THD of 2.5% is considered. Detailed Harmonic current spectrum is given in Table 3.3.
30

Table 3.3 Harmonic Spectra of SMPS Based Equipments

COMPUTERS->2.5% Harmonic Order % Harmonic 3 2.1 5 0.6 7 0.5 9 0.2 11 0.5 13 0.7 15 0 17 0.4 19 0.4

3.6 Lighting Dimmer Loads:

Fig 3.9 Dimmer Drive Block Diagram (Source :[20]) A block diagram of Dimmer controlled LED(light emitting diode) lighting is shown in the fig 3.9. As can be seen in the figure, a DIAC-TRIAC combination is used in the first stage to phase cut the wave as to the desired dimming voltage. RC phase shift is used to delay triggering the gate to cathode voltage which is fed via diac to triac gating. This output is fed to a current driver which gives constant current to LED. Control of this current is achieved by two ways mentioned below; (a) Analogue Control In analogue control, it directly controls the driver current. If for e.g., for full illumination, driver current required is 350ma, then it is reduced to 175ma for half illumination. But colour temperature also get changed as the driver current is reduced so causes degradation of output. So the better strategy is another method called PWM control. (b) PWM Control In PWM Control, amplitude of pulses is not changed, but the width of the pulses are changed. It means depending on capacity of human eye to integrate the average amount of light in pulses
31

hence reduce the apparent brightness. For example, for 25% of illumination, LEDs are driven with on time of pulses equal to 25% and off time of pulses equal to 75%, i.e., LEDs do not see a constant current, but a continuous stream of current pulses. Harmonics are considerably reduced in PWM kind of dimming which also helps manufactures in complying with IEC 61000-3-2 standard (<16A) of Class C equipment (since P<25W) for recommended limits of voltage distortion of 3% to 5%.

Fig 3.10 Illustration of PWM Process in LED Drivers (Source :[20]) Considering in our case study, majority of the Dimmer loads do not follow latest PWM technology, harmonic THD considered is high, i.e., around 7.5% and detailed Harmonic current spectrum is given in table, Table 3.4 Harmonic Spectra of Dimmer Drives

DIMMER->7.5% Harmonic Order % Harmonic 3 5.6 5 3.4 7 2.6 9 0.8 11 1.7 13 1.3 15 0 17 0.9 19 0.6

32

3.7 Conclusion Our analysis reveals that PWM in combination with high speed switching devices can eliminate harmonics almost completely. But to restrict escalating rising cost, a cost-benefit analysis has to be made and choose the devices with lower harmonic spectrum as practical as possible.

33

5 Chapter 4 Mathematical Modeling of Harmonics

34

4.1 Introduction In this chapter, mathematical aspects behind complex harmonic modeling are detailed. History of development of harmonic power theories are mentioned. A sample HPF modeling is done using GAMS software. 4.2 Aims of Harmonic Modeling The major aims of harmonic modeling are the following: 1. To measure the Voltage, Watt and Current of load components including harmonic components. 2. To find out ways to improve power factor of system. 3. To filter out undesired harmonics using various types of filters. We can start our analysis by seeing how harmonic current is generated. When a sinusoidal supply is given to non sinusoidal components like VFDs (i.e., nonlinear load), current gets distorted. This distorted current causes a non sinusoidal voltage drop across Source. Thus we infer that this is caused by a non sinusoidal voltage felt by the nonlinear load or nonlinear load is a source of nonlinear voltage. For the simple circuit, non sinusoidal voltage follows same harmonic spectrum as that of harmonic orders that of current. Now the question is how we can model the complex interaction of harmonic sources and non harmonic sources together in the system. In recent years, a well developed view on this aspect is developed. We will analyze some of the milestones in following sections. 4.3 Budeanus Distortion Power Concept: In 1927, Professor Budeanu in his book titled, Reactive and Fictive Powers, has come up very first with a mathematical expression for harmonic power. He stated that apparent power consists of three terms: 1. Active power due to fundamentals and harmonics is:

P = V I Cos

(28)

2. Reactive power due to fundamentals and harmonics is:

35

Q = V I Sin

(29)

3. The reactive power interactions cause distortions in the wave form, which generated a new type of power called distortion power. He developed an expression for distortion power which is as follows: = + Q + = Q

(30) (31)

Fig 4.1 Budeanus Power Triangle (Source: [27])

As shown from fig 4.1, P, Qb, D are mutually orthogonal. Disadvantages of Budeanus method are mentioned below: 1. Linear method of adding reactances to get total Qb led to cancellation, for e.g.,- a series branch of equal Inductance and capacitance are connected and linear addition of these two (QL-QC) leads to Qb value to zero. But if we think of physical phenomenon, energy is flowing backward and forward from inductor and capacitor, i.e., oscillating not zero. 2. Even though proved based on well known mathematical formulation called Lagranges identity, physical meaning of Distortion power, D is obscure and hence compensating for this power is impossible.
36

4.4 Fryzes Current Source Concept: Fryze in 1932 tried another approach based on harmonic current source. He proposed following circuit model:

Fig 4.2 Fryzes Current Source Model (Source :[27]) As shown in fig 4.1, he divided circuit into two parallel branches, one consisting of active current branch and other consisting of reactive current branch. He defined active branch conductance (Gc) to the ratio of active currents to respective voltages: =

(32)

Similarly reactive current branch is defined as =

and is represented as current source

of what is termed as watt less current, ib. This is the first time harmonic source is represented as a current source which became a standard in later years. ia & ib are orthogonal and so can be represented as: So we can write apparent power, S as: = + Where, S=VI, P=VIa & QF = VIb (34)

= +

(33)

37

Disadvantages of Fryzes method are that quantity P & QF do not correspond to actual real and reactive powers and hence does not enable to design a compensator for compensating this. Because of this difficulty, Mr.Czarmecki (1984) modified Fryzes current component equation to include harmonic and non harmonic reactive components separately. His circuit model is depicted in following Fig 4.3.

Fig 4.3 Czarmeckis Harmonic Model (Source: [27])

He postulated that

= + +

(35)

Each term of this expression can be explained as follows: 1) ia active component just like Fryzes ,i.e., = where =
=

2) ir 3) is

reactive current due to reactive elements ir =

is the extra distortion component just like Budeanu predicted, but more fits to the

reality, i.e., is =

So power equation can be modified to:

38

 = + + Where Ds = Uis ; Q = Uir 4.5 IEEE Std 1459-2010 Method

(36)

This method also known as Emanuels method as this method is proposed by Emanuel(1995) [27] [25].He considered the Fourier series assumption that voltage source and current source can be split into harmonic components as follows; = + & = + where =

(37)

Now we can find out apparent power, S using usual formulae as follows:
S = V I = V + V I + I

S = V I + V I + V I + V I
Fundamental Apparent Power, S = V I = P + Q & S = P + Q Non Fundamental Apparent Power, S = D + D + S S = S + D + D + S

Where D is called as Current Distortion Power, D is called as Voltage Distortion Power, S is

called as Harmonic Apparent Power. Since Total Harmonic Distortions, THD = relationships;

& THD =

, we can prove following

D = S THD ; D = S THD ; =

39

4.6 Power Factor Compensation Method By definition Power Factor, PF =

Hence we are able to arrive value of compensating power, Qc required as a result of above methods and running a Harmonic Power Flow (HPF).So from this we may assume that a single capacitor in parallel would be fully compensated for harmonics. But this idea suffers a drawback because of possibility of multiple resonance points. So we are using tuned L-C branches so that tuning is more accurate and at same time THD values are reduced. 4.7 Harmonic Power Flow Methodology D. Xia & G.T Heydt on their classic paper [28] [29], formulated harmonic power flow for the first time. Main idea behind it is formation of complete set of equations to describe complete fundamental and harmonic power flow mechanisms of the system. First set of equations consists of, as in conventional power flow, formation of fundamental power flow equations ,i.e., for n-bus power system 2(n-1) equations are required. Second set of equations comes from Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) applied to buses to solve for q harmonic frequencies of interest,i.e.,2(n)(q) equations. Third set of equations consists of again applying KCL but for this time running only for harmonic producing buses ,say, m numbers and for fundamental current flow,i.e.,2m equations. So total number of equations to solve are 2(n-1)+2(n)(q)+2m equations. For example ,for the system shown in fig 4.4,n=3,q=1 & m=1(since only 5th harmonic source at bus-2 is considered).so 2(n-1)+2(n)(q)+2m = 2(3-1)+2(3)(1)+2(1) =12 equations for solving variables V , , , V , V , , V , , V ,

We will now demonstrate HPF [5] [8] [21] first without compensator branch for fig 4.4 and calculate harmonic distortion. Then we will add compensator as in Fig 4.4 and re-simulate system for complete harmonic mitigation. 4.8 Harmonic Power Flow Simulation without Compensator Branch Consider a simple 3-bus system as shown in Fig 4.4, whose input parameters are given below: (all units are standard SI units and in Per Unit-PU)
40

Fig 4.4 3-Bus System for Formulation of HPF

Voltage at slack bus(1) = |V1|< 1 =1<0 Voltage at Bus(2) = |V2|< 2 Voltage at Bus(3) = |V3|< 3 Bus1 Shunt Impedance, z1 1 = j6 =>Shunt Admittance, y11= - j0.16 Bus1-Bus2 Line Impedance,z1 2 = j0.25 => Line Admittance,y12 = - j4 Bus2-Bus3 Line Impedance,z23 = j0.25 => Line Admittance,y11 = - j4 Total Power delivered by Non Linear Load at Bus2, Pd2 + j Qd2 = 0.6 + j 0.4 Lets assume Nonlinear Device current at Bus-2 is given by following two equations (V-I relationship)=> Real Part,G, = 0.3V Cos3 + 0.3V Cos3 =K1 Imaginary Part,G, = 0.3V Sin3 + 0.3V Sin3 =K2

41

Fundamental Line Admittance Matrix (without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter) From KCL, considering I sign convention arbitrarily positive and entering towards Bus; I1 = V1 y11 + (V1-V2) y12 I2 = (V2-V1)y12 I = y + y I y = y V y V

j4.16 +j4 V +j4 j4 V Y Y

So Y-Matrix is Y Y = +j4

j4.16 +j4 j4

Fundamental Power Flow Equations (without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter)

P = V G + |Y V V | Cos ( + ) Q = V B |Y V V | Sin( + )

For conservation of Power;

Q = V 4V Cos( ) B |Y V V |Sin( ) = +4V

P = 0 + |Y V V |Cos( ) = 4V Sin( )

P P P = 0 => 4V Sin( ) + 0.6 = 0

Harmonic Current Flow Equations (without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter) So Y-Matrix for 5th Harmonic is
(5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

4V Cos( ) + 0.4 = 0 Q Q Q = 0 => +4V

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-2, I, + G, = Y, V

()
(5) (5) (5) (5)

Y () Y ()

= 0.8V1 Cos 90 + 1 + 0.8V2 Cos 90 + 2 + Gr,2

(5)

= Y21 V1 Cos 21 + 1 + Y22 V2 Cos 22 + 2 + Gr,2

(5) (5) (5)

()

j0.832 +j0.8 Y () = () +j0.8 j0.8 Y

() ()
(5)

Cos, + + G, (real part)

() () ()

42

= 0.8V Sin + 0.8V Sin + G, = 0

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V
(5)

()

()

= 0.8V Cos 0.8V Cos + G, = 0

Fundamental Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V
(1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1)

= 0.8V1 Sin 90 + 1 + 0.8V2 Sin 90 + 2 + Gi,2

() ()
(5)

()

()

()

(5)

()

()

()

= 4V1 Cos 90 + 1 + 4V2 Cos 90 + 2 + Gr,2

= Y21 V1 Cos 21 + 1 + Y22 V2 Cos 22 + 2 + Gr,2

() () ()
(1) (1) (1) (1)

()

()

()

()

(5)

() ()

Sin, + + G, (imaginary)
(5)

()

()

()

() ()
(1)

Cos, + + G, (real)
(1)

()

()

()

= 4V Sin + 4V Sin + G, = 0
(1) (1)

Fundamental Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V

()

()

= 4V1 Sin 90 + 1 + 4V2 Sin 90 + 2 + Gi,2

= 4V Cos + 4V Cos + G, = 0
5th Harmonic Current at Bus-1 I, = Y, V
(5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

()

()

()

(1)

()

()

(1)

(1)

= Y12 V2 Cos 90 + 2 + Y11 V1 Cos 90 + 1 = 0.8V2 Sin 2 + 0.832V1 Sin 1 =0

(5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

()

()

() ()

()

(1)

() ()

(1)

Sin, + + G, (imaginary)
() () ()

Cos, + (real)
(5)

()

()

= Y12 V2 Sin 90 + 2 + Y11 V1 Sin 90 + 1 = 0.8V2 Cos 2 0.832V1 Cos 1 = 0

(5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-1 I, = Y, V

()

(5)

() ()

Sin, + (imaginary)
() ()

Modified Power Flow Equations to include harmonic components(without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter) P
()

= I V Cos( )
() () () ()

43

 = K + K V Cos( Atan

F, = Y V V Cos( ) = 0.8V V Cos(90 ) = 0.8V V Sin( )

() () () () () () () () () () () () () () () () () ()

()

()

K2 ) K1

Q = I V Sin( )
() () () ()

= K + K V Sin( Atan () () () () () () ()

F, = (V ) B Y V V Sin( ) = 0.8(V ) 0.8 V V Sin(90 ) = 0.8(V ) 0.8 V V Cos( )

() () () () () () ()

K2 ) K1

For conservation of Power;

()

Q + Q + F, + F, = 0
() () () ()

+ P

()

+ F, + F, = 0
()

GAMS CODE for full system(without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter)

VARIABLES X1,X2,X3,X4,X5,X6,Z,K1,K2; EQUATIONS EQ1,EQ2,EQ3,EQ4,EQ5,EQ6,EQ7,EQ8,EQ9,EQ10,OBJ; EQ1..4*X2*SIN(X1)+0.6+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*COS(X5-ARCTAN(K2/K1))*X6+0.8*X6*X4*SIN(X5)=E=0; EQ2..4*X2*X2-4*X2*COS(X1)+0.4+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*SIN(X5-ARCTAN(K2/K1))*X6+0.8*X6*X60.8*X6*X4*COS(X5)=E=0; EQ3..-0.8*X4*SIN(X3)+0.8*X6*SIN(X5)+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*COS(X5-ARCTAN(K2/K1))=E=0; EQ4..0.8*X4*COS(X3)-0.8*(X6)*COS(X5)+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*SIN(X5-ARCTAN(K2/K1))=E=0; EQ5..-0.8*X6*SIN(X5)+0.832*X4*SIN(X3)=E=0; EQ6..0.8*X6*COS(X5)-0.832*X4*COS(X3)=E=0; EQ7.. -K1+0.3*X2*X2*X2*COS(3*X1)+0.3*SQR(X6)*COS(3*X5)=E=0; EQ8.. -K2+0.3*X2*X2*X2*SIN(3*X1)+0.3*SQR(X6)*SIN(3*X5)=E=0; EQ9..4*X2*SIN(X1)+(0.6*COS(X1-33.66)/(X2*COS(33.66)))=E=0; EQ10..4-4*X2*COS(X1)+(0.6*SIN(X1-26.56)/(X2*COS(33.66)))=E=0;

44

X1.l=0;X2.l=0.9;X3.l=0.1;X4.lo=0.001;X5.l=0.1;X6.l=0.01;K2.L=.01;K1.Lo=.02; OBJ..Z=E=0; MODEL LPKKT1 /OBJ,EQ1,EQ2,EQ3,EQ4,EQ5,EQ6,EQ7,EQ8,EQ9,EQ10/; SOLVE LPKKT1 USING dnlp minimizing Z;

GAMS OUTPUT for full system(without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter)

LOWER LEVEL UPPER MARGINAL

---- VAR X1 ---- VAR X2 ---- VAR X3 ---- VAR X4 ---- VAR X5 ---- VAR X6 ---- VAR Z ---- VAR K1 ---- VAR K2

-INF -INF

-0.180 0.868

+INF +INF +INF +INF +INF +INF . .

. . . . .

-INF -19.398 0.001 -INF -INF -INF 0.020 -INF 0.140 -0.549 0.146 .

+INF +INF +INF

0.168 -0.107

. .

Distortion Calculation for full system(without Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,without applying Filter)

Fundamental line current,I = (V V )y =(0.868<10.32 1<0)*4<90 = 0.84<-43.48 Current Distortion,THD =
() () I12 I12
(5) (1)

Harmonic line current, I = (V V )y = (0.1468<31.47 -0.140<-1111.98)*0.8<-90 = 0.15<-85

() () () () (From Budeanus method) Apparent Power,S = VI = (V ) + (V ) (I ) + (I )

100 = 0.15*100/0.84 = 17.85%

()

()

()

()

()

()

Active Fundamental Power, P2 = 0.6

=(0.868) + (0.146) (0.84) + (0.15) = 0.73

() (1) () () ()

Active Harmonic Power, P Total Active Power ,P= P

()

+ P

= V I Cos = 0.146 0.15 Cos(53.43) = .013

()

= 0.613

45

Reactive Fundamental Power, Q2 = 0.4

() () (1) ()

Total Reactive Power ,Q= Q + Q = 0.3825

Reactive Harmonic Power, Q = V I Sin = 0.146 0.15 Sin(53.43) = .0175

() () ()

4.9 Harmonic Power Flow Simulation with Compensator Branch Y Y Matrix is =Y Y Y Y Y j4.16 j4 Y 0 j4 Y = j4 j8 0 j4 j4 Y

So Distortion Power, D = S (P + Q ) = 0.73 (0.613 + 0.3825 ) = 0.207

Fundamental Line Admittance Matrix (with Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,with applying Filter)

P = V G + |Y V V | Cos ( + ) Q = V B |Y V V | Sin( + )

Fundamental Power Flow Equations (with Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,with applying Filter)

P = 0 + |Y V V |Cos(90 + ) & P P P = 0 From above two equations=> 4V V Sin( ) = 0

From above two equations=> 4V Sin( ) 4V V Sin( ) + 0.6 = 0

P = 0 + |Y V V |Cos( ) + |Y V V |Cos( + ) & P P P = 0

From above two equations=>+8V 4V Cos( ) + 4V V Cos( ) + 0.4 = 0

Q = V B |Y V V |Sin( ) |Y V V |Sin( + ) & Q Q Q = 0

Y () So Y-Matrix for 5th Harmonic is Y () Y ()

Harmonic Current Flow Equations (with Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,with applying Filter) Y () Y () Y () Y Y () Y ()

()

j0.832 j0.8 0 j0.8 j1.6 j0.8 = 0 j0.8 j0.8

46

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V

(5) (5)

= Y21 V1 Cos 21 + 1 + Y22 V2 Cos 22 + 2 + Y23 V3 Cos 23 + 3 + Gr,2

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V Fundamental Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V

(1) (1)

= 0.8V Sin + 1.6V Sin 0.8V Sin + G, = 0

() ()

(5)

(5)

()

= 0.8V Cos 1.6V Cos + 0.8V Cos + G, = 0

() ()
(1) (1)

()

()

(5) (5)

()

= Y21 V1 Cos 21 + 1 + Y22 V2 Cos 22 + 2 + Y23 V3 Cos 23 + 3 + Gr,2

()

()

()

()

(5)

() ()

Fundamental Current at Bus-2 I, + G, = Y, V

(1) (1)

= 4V Sin + 8V Sin 4V Sin + G, = 0

() () ()
(1) (1)

(1) (1)

()

()

() () ()

()

(5)

Cos, + + G, (real)
() ()
(5) (5)

()

Sin, + + G, (imaginary)
() () () () () () () ()

()

(5)

()

(5)

(5)

= Y21 V1 Sin 21 + 1 + Y22 V2 Sin 22 + 2 + Y23 V3 Sin 23 + 3 + Gi,2

()

()

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-1 I, = Y, V

(5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

= 4V Cos + 8V Cos + 4V Cos + G, = 0

() () ()

(1) (1)

()

()

(1)

() ()
(1)

Cos, + + G, (real)
(1) (1)

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-1 I, = Y, V

(5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

= 0.8V2 Sin 2 + 0.832V1 Sin 1 = 0

()
(5) (5) (5)

= Y12 V2 Cos 90 + 2 + Y11 V1 Cos 90 + 1

(5) (5)

()

()

() ()

()

(1)

() ()
(1)

()

Sin, + + G, (imaginary)
(1) (1)

()

()

(1)

(1)

(1)

()

Cos, + (real)
(5)

()

()

()

()

(1)

()

(1)

(1)

= Y12 V2 Sin 90 + 2 + Y11 V1 Sin 90 + 1 = 0.8V2 Cos 2 0.832V1 Cos 1 = 0

(5) (5) (5) (5)

() ()

(5)

Sin, + (imaginary)
(5)

()

()

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-3 I, = Y, V

()
(5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

(5)

(5)

= Y31 V1 Cos 31 + 1 + Y32 V2 Cos 32 + 2 + Y33 V3 Cos 33 + 3 = 0.8V2 Sin 2 + 0.8V3 Sin 3 = 0 47
(5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5)

() ()

Cos, + (real)
() ()

Modified Power Flow Equations to include harmonic components(with Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,with applying Filter) P
()

= 0.8V Cos 0.8V Cos = 0

() () () ()

5th Harmonic Current at Bus-3 I, = Y, V

()

() ()

Sin, + (imaginary)
() ()

= K + K V Cos( Atan

= I V Cos( )
() () () () () () () () () ()

F, = Y V V Cos( ) = 0.8V V Cos(90 ) = 0.8V V Sin( )

() () () () () () () () () () () () () ()

K2 ) K1

Q = I V Sin( )
() () () ()

= K + K V Sin( Atan () () () () () () ()

F, = (V ) B Y V V Sin( ) = 0.8(V ) 0.8 V V Sin(90 ) = 0.8(V ) 0.8 V V Cos( )

() () () () () () ()

K2 ) K1

For conservation of Power;

() ()

Q + Q + F, + F, = 0
() () ()

+ P

()

+ F, + F, = 0
()

GAMS CODE for full system(with Compensator Branch,Bus-3,i.e.,with applying Filter)

VARIABLES X1,X2,X3,X4,X5,X6,X7,X8,X9,X10,K2,K1,Z; EQUATIONS EQ1,EQ2,EQ3,EQ4,EQ5,EQ6,EQ7,EQ8,EQ9,EQ10,EQ11,EQ12,EQ13,EQ14,OBJ; EQ1.. 4*X2*Sin(X1)-4*X2*X4*Sin(X3-X1)+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*COS(X7-ARCTAN(K2/K1))*X8-0.8*X8*X6*SIN(X5-X7)0.8*X8*X10*SIN(X9-X7)=e= -0.6; EQ2.. -(4*X2*X4*SIN(X1-X3))=e= 0;

48

EQ3.. 8*SQR(X2)-4*X2*COS(X1)-4*X2*X4*COS(X3-X1)+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*SIN(X7ARCTAN(K2/K1))*X8+0.8*X8*X6*COS(X5-X7)+0.8*X8*X10*COS(X9-X7)=e= -0.4; EQ4.. 4*X4*X4-4*X2*X4*COS(X1-X3)=e=0.15; EQ5..-0.8*X6*SIN(X5)+1.6*X8*SIN(X7)-0.8*X10*SIN(X9)+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*COS(X7-ARCTAN(K2/K1))=e= 0; EQ6..0.8*X6*COS(X5)-1.6*X8*COS(X7)+0.8*X10*COS(X9)+SQRT(SQR(K1)+SQR(K2))*SIN(X7-ARCTAN(K2/K1))=e= 0; EQ7..0.832*X6*SIN(X5)-0.8*X8*SIN(X7)=E=0; EQ8..-0.832*X6*COS(X5)+0.8*X8*COS(X7)=E=0; EQ9..-0.8*X8*SIN(X7)+0.8*X10*SIN(X9)=E=0; EQ10..0.8*X8*COS(X7)-0.8*X10*COS(X9)=E=0; EQ11..-K1+0.3*X2*X2*X2*COS(3*X1)+0.3*SQR(X8)*COS(3*X7)=E=0; EQ12.. -K2+0.3*X2*X2*X2*SIN(3*X1)+0.3*SQR(X8)*SIN(3*X7)=E=0; EQ13..8*X2*SIN(X1)-4*X4*SIN(X3)+(0.6*COS(X1-33.66)/(X2*COS(33.66)))=E=0; EQ14..4+8*X2*COS(X1)-4*X4*COS(X3)+(0.6*SIN(X1-26.56)/(X2*COS(33.66)))=E=0; X1.l=0;X2.l=0.9;X3.l=0;X4.l=0.9;X4.up=1.0;X5.l=0;X6.lo=0.0001;X7.l=0;X8.lo=0.0001;X9.l=0;X10.lo=0.0001;K1.L=.2;K2.L=0.001; OBJ.. Z =E= 0; MODEL LPKKT /OBJ,EQ1,EQ2,EQ3,EQ4,EQ5,EQ6,EQ7,EQ8,EQ9,EQ10,EQ11,EQ12,EQ13,EQ14/; SOLVE LPKKT USING dnlp minimizing Z;

GAMS OUTPUT for full system(with Compensator Branch,Bus-3,ie,with applying Filter)

LOWER LEVEL UPPER MARGINAL

---- VAR X1 ---- VAR X2 ---- VAR X3 ---- VAR X4 ---- VAR X5 ---- VAR X6 ---- VAR X7 ---- VAR X8 ---- VAR X9 ---- VAR X10 ---- VAR K2 ---- VAR K1

-INF -INF -INF -INF -INF

-0.164 0.917 -0.164 0.956 -2.064

+INF +INF +INF 1.000 +INF .

. . .

. 0.021

1.0000E-4 1.0000E-4 -INF -2.064

+INF .

+INF

1.0000E-4 1.0400E-4 -INF -2.064

+INF .

+INF

1.0000E-4 1.0400E-4 -INF -INF -0.109 0.204

+INF . .

+INF +INF

49

---- VAR Z

-INF

+INF

We can see that after applying improvement compensator, Voltage at nonlinear bus significantly improved due to power factor improvement. During simulation, Capacitor MVAR value increased gradually and at one point, harmonic voltages are seen diminishing to negligible value and so distortion to negligible value. Hence compensator improves power factor as well mitigate harmonics. 4.10 Conclusion We have seen the historical development of harmonic power flow theory. Simulation done for sample system with compensator and also without compensator prove that compensator addition mitigates harmonics.

50

10

6 7 8 9 Chapter 5

Simulation of a Commercial Bank Building

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5.1 Introduction In this chapter, we will analyze load profile of a typical high rise bank building of 25 floors and to be modeled in the harmonic modeling software. Where ever at the point of common coupling (PCC), harmonic distortion stipulated by IEEE 519 exceeds, we will go for Filter design as per IEEE 1531. 5.2 Description of the Case Study Case study for this project consists of a Commercial Bank installation at Middle East. This is a twenty five floors building (Ground floor + 24 floors). There are four step down transformers (11KV/415V) each of capacity 1500 KVA feeding directly from utility. All transformers are located at ground floor transformer room. Bus duct risers are connecting various floor level panels to ground floor transformers. Chillers which consists of major portion of building, is located at roof floor. Since this is a bank, to ensure high reliability of supply, essential loads have a generator backup. Server loads and other critical loads are connected through UPSs located at various floors. Some of the lighting is controlled through dimmers partly attributed to green energy drive and partly due to attracting of customers by creating various light scenes. 5.3 Load Profile Analysis: Total connected load (TCL) of the building is 5200KW.Detailed break-up of the type of loads are given in following table: Table 5.1 Connected Load Schedule Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Category Chiller MCC UPS Dimmer Computer, Printer, Fax Machine Linear Loads TOTAL
52

KW 1500 800 630 495 630 1145 5200

It has been found out that 77% Loads are Non Linear Loads and only 23% are Linear Loads. A detailed pie chart will give a more visual picture of the scenario as in Fig 5.1.

LOAD PROFILE OF BUILDING

1 Chiller 2 MCC 3 UPS 4 Dimmer 5 Computer 6 Linear

22%

29%

12% 10% 12% 15%

Fig 5.1 Building Load Profile

Fig 5.2 Single Line Diagram of the Building

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There are four transformers as can be seen from SLD(Fig 5.2) feeding from utility. Detailed load break-up of each transformer are given in simulation section below. 5.4 Short Circuit Ratio Calculation Transformers used are of rating 1500 KVA with a percentage impedance of 5.75%.Utilty impedance can be taken as small compared to Transformer Impedance. Full Load Current of Transformer,I = Short Circuit Current, Short Circuit Ratio,
. .

= 2089.2 Amps

I = =

= 36335 Amps

= 17.39 < 20

So as per IEEE 519, Table 10.3 Total Harmonic distortion allowed is 5%. 5.5 Simulation of System Let us start simulation of system in modeling software-Inputs and outputs are given below beginning from Transformer-1; 5.5.1 Transformer-1 Simulation (Without & With Filter) Table 5.2 Transformer-1 Loading Details Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Type of Load KW rating 375 100 220 330 250 KVAR rating KVA rating Power Factor 0.80 0.85 0.85 0.79 0.9 0.94

CHILLER-1 MCC-1 DIMMER-1 COMPUTER LOADS-1 LINEAR LOADS CAPACITOR BANK

282 61 136 255 120 500 450

470 120 260 420 280 1350

TRANSFORMER LOADING 1275 AFTER P.F CORRECTION (based on N-R Power Flow)
54

Power factor at Bus feeding has improved from 0.79 to 0.94 after using 500 KVAR capacitor bank. Now running Harmonic Power Flow for Transformer-1, we get THD values at Transformer-1 bus-They are THDI = 13.6% &THDV = 5.53%. Detailed break-up of Resultant harmonic spectrum at Transformer bus is given as below:

Fig 5.3 Harmonic Model at Transformer-1

Table 5.3 Harmonic THD Values for Transformer-1 Before Applying Filter
180Hz THDI(%) THDV(%) 0 1.68 300Hz 10.15 4.47 420Hz 6.32 3.57 540Hz 0 .07 660Hz 1.5 1.13 780Hz 0.9 0.69 1020Hz 0.24 0.19 1140Hz 0.18 0.14 Total 13.6 5.53

55

Fig 5.4 Transformer-1 harmonics Current versus Frequency

Fig 5.5 Transformer-1 harmonics Voltage versus Frequency

Impedance scan analysis shows Parallel resonance at 420Hz as in fig 5.6 below:

Fig 5.6 Transformer-1 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency

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Since current and voltage distortions exceeds 5% suggested by IEEE519,we go for filtering bearing in mind to use minimum amount of filtering to reduce costs;

Fig 5.7 Harmonic Model at Transformer-1 With Filter

Fig 5.8 Transformer-1 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency After Filter

As shown in Fig 5.7, we apply 5th and 7th harmonic filter by dividing filter MVARs in the approximate ratio of 60:40. As can be seen from Fig 5.7, distortion values reduced to THDI = 1.67% & THDV = 2.22% which is below the acceptable value of 5%. Harmonic resonance also has come down to acceptable values as shown in Fig 5.8.

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5.5.2 Transformer-2 Simulation (Without & With Filter) Table 5.4 Transformer-2 Loading Details Sl. No Type of Load KW rating KVAR rating KVA rating Power Factor 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.90 0.90 0.93

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CHILLER-2 MCC-2 DIMMER-2 COMPUTER LOADS-2 LINEAR LOADS

750 200 100 100 150

464 124 62 48 73 350 510

880 240 120 110 170 1410

CAPACITOR BANK TRANSFORMER 1300 LOADING AFTER P.F CORRECTION (based on N-R Power Flow)

Power factor at Bus feeding has improved from 0.86 to 0.93 after using 350 KVAR capacitor bank. When running Harmonic Power Flow for Transformer-2, we get THD values at Transformer-2 bus-They are THDI = 21.6% &THDV = 8.42%. Detailed break-up of Resultant harmonic spectrum at Transformer bus is given below: Table 5.5 Harmonic THD Values for Transformer-2 Before Applying Filter
180Hz THDI(%) THDV(%) 0 0.84 300Hz 13.6 5.25 420Hz 17.8 7.59 540Hz 0 0.01 660Hz 0.15 0.02 780Hz 0.4 0.36 1020Hz 0.24 0.31 1140Hz 0.22 0.32 Total 21.6 8.42

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Fig 5.9 Harmonic Model at Transformer-2

Fig 5.10 Transformer-2 harmonics Current versus Frequency

59

Fig 5.11 Transformer-2 harmonics Voltage versus Frequency

Impedance scan analysis shows Parallel resonance at 420Hz as in diagram below;

Fig 5.12 Transformer-2 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency

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Fig 5.13 Harmonic Model at Transformer-2 With Filter

Fig 5.14 Transformer-2 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency With Filter

As shown in fig 5.13 ,we apply 5th and 7th harmonic filter by dividing filter MVARs in the approximate ratio of 50:50 .As can be seen from fig 5.13, distortion values reduced to THDI = 4.34% &THDV = 3.10% which is below the acceptable value of 5%. Harmonic resonance also has come down to acceptable values as shown in fig 5.14.
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5.5.3 Transformer-3 Simulation (Without & with Filter) Table 5.6 Transformer-3 Loading Details
Sl. No Type of Load KW rating KVAR rating KVA rating Power Factor 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.90 -

1 2 3 4 5

MCC-3 UPS DIMMER-3 LINEAR LOADS CAPACITOR BANK

400 630 50 220 -

120 305 31 106 275

420 700 60 240 -

TRANSFORMER 1300 LOADING AFTER P.F CORRECTION (based on N-R Power Flow)

380

1360

0.96

Power factor at Bus feeding has improved from 0.91 to 0.96 after using 350 KVAR capacitor bank. Now running Harmonic Power Flow for Transformer-3,we get THD values at Transformer-2 bus-They are THDI = 8.80% &THDV = 3.97%. Detailed break-up of Resultant harmonic spectrum at Transformer bus is given as below: Table 5.7 Harmonic THD Values for Transformer-3 Before Applying Filter 180Hz THDI(%) 0 300Hz 7.45 3.27 420Hz 3.63 2.24 540Hz 0 0.01 660Hz 0.14 0.01 780Hz 0.17 0.17 1020Hz 0.15 0.21 1140Hz 0.15 0.23 Total 8.80 3.97

THDV(%) 0.40

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Fig 5.15 Harmonic Model at Transformer-3

Fig 5.16 Transformer-3 harmonics Current versus Frequency

63

Fig 5.17 Transformer-3 harmonics Voltage versus Frequency

Fig 5.18 Transformer-3 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency

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Fig 5.19 Harmonic Model at Transformer-3 With Filter

Fig 5.20 Transformer-3 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency

As shown in Fig 5.19, we apply 5th harmonic filter by replacing power factor capacitor. As can be seen from Fig 5.19, distortion values reduced to THDI = 1.89% & THDV = 2% which is below the acceptable value of 5%. Harmonic resonance also has come down to acceptable values as shown in Fig 5.20.

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5.5.4 Transformer-4 Simulation (Without & With Filter) Table 5.8 Transformer-4 Loading Details Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 Type of Load KW rating KVAR rating KVA rating Power Factor 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.90 0.90 0.95

CHILLER-3 MCC-4 DIMMER-4 COMPUTER LOADS-3 LINEAR LOADS

400 100 125 200 500

232 61 77 97 242 300 460

460 120 150 220 560 1400

CAPACITOR BANK TRANSFORMER 1325 LOADING AFTER P.F CORRECTION (based on N-R Power Flow)

Power factor at Bus feeding has improved from 0.88 to 0.95 after using 300 KVAR capacitor bank. Now running Harmonic Power Flow for Transformer-3, we get THD values at Transformer-2 bus-They are THDI = 8.36% &THDV = 4.07%. Detailed break-up of Resultant harmonic spectrum at Transformer bus is given below:

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Fig 5.21 Harmonic Model at Transformer-4

Fig 5.22 Transformer-4 harmonics Current versus Frequency

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Fig 5.23 Transformer-4 harmonics Voltage versus Frequency

Fig 5.24 Transformer-4 harmonics Impedance versus Frequency

Table 5.9 Harmonic THD Values for Transformer-4 Before Applying Filter 180Hz THDI(%) 0 300Hz 6.60 3.05 420Hz 1.69 0.82 540Hz 0 0.06 660Hz 3.74 2.67 780Hz 1.53 1.27 1020Hz 0.29 0.29 1140Hz 0.20 0.20 Total 8.36 4.07

THDV(%) 1.38

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Fig 5.25 Harmonic Model at Transformer-4 With Filter

Fig 5.26 Transformer-4 harmonics Impedence versus Frequency After Filter

69

As shown in Fig 5.25, we apply 5th harmonic filter by replacing power factor capacitor. The distortion values reduced to THDI = 2.35% &THDV = 2.45% which is below the acceptable value of 5%. Harmonic resonance also has come down to acceptable values as per Fig 5.26. 5.6 Conclusion Results of simulation show that in building power systems dominant harmonics are 5th and 7th. So widely used filters are single tuned 5th and 7th order filters. It is found that higher order harmonics are not very dominant and also they get partially removed by 5th and 7th order filters and overall results comply with IEEE519.Hence considering cost reduction aspects, high pass filters for eliminating higher order harmonics not considered.

70

Chapter 6 Conclusions and Further Work

71

6.1 Final Discussion This dissertation investigated the methods of quantification of harmonics so as to develop models for harmonic study. Further analysis of these models helped in ways for mitigation of harmonics like use of passive filters. Main findings of this dissertation can be summarised as follows; 1. Harmonics can be quantified by two main indices, THDv and THDi . IEEE519 imposes limits on harmonics based on these parameters. 2. Series resonances and Parallel resonances occurs in circuits and causes voltage and current amplification, hence damage to equipments. But this can be limited to low values by careful design of filters and its Q value. 3.Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) based technologies reduces THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) levels to minimum possible levels but with an increase in cost factor. 4.In Buildings, nonlinear loads occupy significant portion of total loads and phase angle identities. Larger loads can be modelled individually. 5.Active Filters and Passive filters are widely used in the mitigation of harmonics. For buildings, passive filters are normally used owing to cost factor. Design of passive filters should comply to IEEE1531.A filter tuned for a particular harmonic can ward off also neighbouring harmonics to some extent. This property is used for minimization of number of filters. 6.Power flow mechanisms of harmonic loads is a very complex process. Simulation done for an example 3-bus system reveals this process. 6.2 Further Works
Doing a Harmonic Power Flow simulation , opens up for an inquisitive learner many areas of further research on compensator design and its optimization. Lagrange multiplier technique [7][26] of optimization is most widely used since we are dealing with nonlinear system of equations. Basic idea behind it can be outlined as follows;

involves many

smaller loads. So we have to aggregate the smaller loads in groups in a way to preserve their

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1. Formation of Objectives : Our aim is negotiating a trade-off between Cost of Filter and Harmonic Distortion reduction. So our objectives are two folds, first one for minimising cost of filter(i.e. Minimize Filter Cost Function, say C(U) since cost varies as a function of filter MVAR value, U).Second one is with introduction of a penalty function, value of which is small when THD value is away from its limit(as per IEEE519) and larger when THD value is close to its limit, i.e., Cp(THD).So we get our objective as [26]=>C(U)+ Cp(THD). 2. Formation of Constraints : As we are bounded by power flow mechanisms happening inside the system, we have two constraints best describes this. one is Harmonic Power Flow Equations, i.e., F(v,U)=0 and other is THD mechanism (as we know THD is ratio of Harmonic voltage/current to Fundamental voltage/current) described by THD =g(v). 3. Formation of Lagrange Equations : by combining equations of (1) &(2) steps, and adding Lagrange multiplier, we get; [26] Lv, U, THD, , = + + Fv, U + THD gv (Note-we have to expand as per system, each term of equation
for eg- Fv, U =

Fv , U ) Fv , U

4. Solution of this will iteratively give the best value of U of the filter.

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References

74

[1] Francisco C De La Rosa, Harmonics and Power Systems: Taylor & Francis, 2006 [2] J. Arrilaga, N. R. Watson, Power System Harmonics: John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2003 [3] R.C. Dugan, M.F. Mc Granaghan, S Santoso, H.W Beaty, Electrical Power Systems Quality: Mc Graw Hill,2004 [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Angelo Baggini, Handbook of Power Quality : John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2008 E.F Fuchs, M. A. S. Masoum, Power Quality in Power Systems and Electrical Machines: AP,2008 C. C. Pearson, V Uthayanan, The BSRIA Power Quality Guide: BSRIA,2000 L. L. Grigsby, Power Systems : Taylor & Francis,2007 John Grainger, William Stevenson, Power System Analysis : Mc Graw Hill,1994 M. Barnes, Practical Variable Speed Drives and Power Electronics: Elsvier,2003

[10] Ali Emadi, Abdolhsaoin Nasiri, Stoyon Bekiarov, Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Active Filters: CRC Press,2005 [11] [12] Acha, Agelidis, Anaya-Lara, Miller, Power Electronic Control in Electrical Systems: Newness,2002 Barry Kennedy, Power Quality Primer: Mc Graw Hill,2000

[13] http://www.ece.vt.edu/ece3354/labs/ballast.pdf [14] http://www.calvin.edu/~pribeiro/IEEE/ieee_cd/chapters/pdffiles/c1pdf.pdf [15] http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Zobel_network [16] http://www.intechopen.com/books/power-quality-issues/bank-harmonic-filters-operationin-power-supply-system-cases-studies [17] Rob Tanzer, Article on Leading Power factor: Emmerson 2011 [18] http://www.ospmag.com/files/pdf/whitepaper/Power-Factor-and-Input.pdf [19] http://www.power-analysis.org/files/The_Voltech_Handbook_Of_Power_Supplies.pdf [20] Dimming LED via PWM : Lutron Electronics Co,2010
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[21] D.C. Heidt, A detailed derivation of Newton-Raphson based harmonic power flow: MSc Thesis,Ohio University,1994 [22] Pam Lembke, Steve McCluer, Power Distribution Harmonics: The Green Grid Forum,2013 [23] IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonics Control in Electric Power Systems, IEEE Std. 519, 1992 [24] IEEE Guide for Application and Specification of Harmonic Filters, IEEE Std 1531, 2003. [25] IEEE Standard Definitions for the Measurement of Electric Power Quantities Under Sinusoidal, Nonsinusoidal, Balanced or Unbalanced Conditions, IEEE Std 14592010 [26] Franceso Lattarulo, Electromagnetic Compatibility in Power Systems:Elsevier,2007 [27] Alexander Emanuel, Power Definitions and the Physical Mechanism of Power Flow(IEEE Press) : John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2010 [28] D.Xia,G.T.Heydt, Harmonic Power Flow Studies Part I-Formulation and Solution: IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus and Systems,Vol.PAS-101,No.6 June1982 [29] D.Xia,G.T.Heydt, Harmonic Power Flow Studies Part II-Implementation and Practical Application : IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus and Systems,Vol.PAS-101,No.6 June1982

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