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Construction Materials

Construction Materials
1) Stone 3) Lime 6) Sand 2) Bricks

4) Cement 5) Timber 8) Mortar 7) Aggregate 9) Concrete 10) Bitumen

1) STONE Stone is a naturally available building material which has been used from the early age of civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as building block. Red Fort, Taj Mahal, Vidhan Sabha at Bangalore and several palaces of medieval age all over India are the famous stone buildings.

A) Type of Stones

Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways: Geological Physical Chemical

Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups: i. Igneous rocks ii. Sedimentary rocks iii. Metamorphic rocks (i) Igneous Rocks : These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable. Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this category, Granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top. The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-crystalline and glassy texture Trap and basalt belong to this category.

Geological Classification

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks : Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrates. The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful medium. These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat. The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained and compact in their nature. Sand stones, lime stones and mud stones belong to this class of rock.

(iii) Metamorphic Rocks : Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks under go changes due to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat. For example due to metamorphic action granite becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and mud stone becomes slate.

(i) Stratified Rocks : These rocks are having layered structure. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones and slate are the examples. (ii) Unstratified Rocks : These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap and marble are the examples.

Physical Classification

(i) Silicious rocks : The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of such rocks are granite, trap and sand stones. (ii) Argillaceous rocks : The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are the examples . (iii) Calcareous rocks : The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.

Chemical Classification

B) Properties of Stones
(i) Structure : The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Stratified stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dressed and suitable for foundation works. (ii) Texture : Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable. (iii) Density : Denser stones are stronger and light weight stones are weak.. Hence stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

(iv) Appearance : A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact. Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings. (v) Strength : Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any building
Name of Stone Granite Sand stone Laterite Marble Slate Basalt Trap Crushing Strength in N/mm2 300 to 350 153 to 189 104 to 140 70 to 210 72 65 55

Lime stone

1.8 to 3.2

(vi) Hardness :

(viii) Porosity and Absorption :


It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and pavement. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used. All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with material of stone cause disintegration.

(ix) Weathering :

Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather resistance should be used for face works.

(x) Toughness : The resistance to impact is called toughness. Toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works and toughness index 13 to 19 are considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones. (xi) Resistance to Fire : Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, poor in strength and good in resisting fire. (xii) Ease in Dressing : Cost of dressing is indicate the cost of stone masonry to a great extent. Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. (xiii) Seasoning : The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning.

C) Requirements of Good Building Stones (i) Strength : The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. This is not of primary concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of large structure, it may be necessary to check the strength. (ii) Durability : Stones selected should be capable of resisting effects of natural forces like wind, rain and heat. (iii) Hardness : The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by movement of men and materials over them.

(iv) Toughness : Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or loads moving over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough. (v) Specific Gravity : Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbors. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8. (vi) Porosity and Absorption : Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into the pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. (vii) Dressing : Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the cost of dressing is reduced.

(viii) Appearance : In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary requirement, its colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor. (ix) Seasoning : Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Laterite stones should not be used for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature. This process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning. (x) Cost : Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material.

D) Uses of Stones

Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches. Stones are used for flooring. Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works. Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings. Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls. Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads and when mixed with tar they form finishing coat. Crushed stones are used in the following works also: (a) As a basic inert material in concrete (b) For making artificial stones and building blocks (c) As railway ballast.

Igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks

2) BRICKS

Brick is obtained by moulding good clay into a block, which is dried and then burnt. Manufacture of brick started with hand moulding, sun drying and burning in clamps. A considerable amount of technological development has taken place with better knowledge about to properties of raw materials, better machineries and improved techniques of moulding drying and burning. The size of the bricks are of 190 mm 90 mm 90 mm and 190 mm 90 mm 40 mm. With mortar joints, the size of these bricks are taken as 200 mm 100 mm 100 mm and 200 mm 100 mm 50 mm.

Bricks are rectangular blocks made from clay. Clay is moulded to form high temperature to make them compact. Composition of Bricks Percentage 20-30% 50-60% 5-6% 0.1% <5%

rectangular blocks of standard size, which are dried and later burnt to

Material Alumina Magnesia Silica Lime

Iron Oxide

A) Types of Bricks
(i) Building Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of walls. (ii) Paving Bricks: These are vitrified bricks and are used as pavers. (iii) Fire Bricks: These bricks are specially made to withstand furnace temperature. Silica bricks belong to this category. (iv) Special Bricks: These bricks are different from the commonly used building bricks with respect to their shape and the purpose for which they are made. Some of such bricks are listed below:
(a) Specially shaped bricks (b) Facing bricks (c) Perforated building bricks (d) Sewer bricks (e) Hollow bricks ( f ) Acid resistant bricks.

(a) Specially Shaped Bricks :

Bricks of special shapes are manufactured to meet the requirements of different situations which is shown in figure.

(b) Facing Bricks : These bricks are used in the outer face of masonry and once these bricks are provided, plastering is not required. The standard size of these bricks are 190 90 90 mm or 190 90 40 mm. (c) Perforated Building Bricks : These bricks are manufactured with area of perforation of 30 to 45 % and the area of each perforation should not exceed 500 mm2. The perforation should be uniformly distributed over the surface. They are manufactured in the size 190 190 90 mm and 290 90 90 mm. (d) Sewer Bricks : These bricks are used for the construction of sewage lines. They are manufactured from surface clay, fire clay shale or with the combination of these. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 90 90 mm and 190 90 40 mm. The average strength of these bricks should be a minimum of 17.5 N/mm2 . The water absorption should not be more than 10 per cent.

(e) Hollow Bricks : They are light in weight and used for the construction of partition walls. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 190 90 mm, 290 90 90 mm and 290 140 90 mm. The thickness of any shell should not be less than 11 mm and that of any web not less than 8 mm. ( f ) Acid Resistant Bricks: These bricks are used for floorings likely to be subjected to acid attacks, lining of chambers in chemical plants and lining of sewers carrying industrial wastes.

B) Properties of Bricks
(i) Colour : Colour should be uniform and bright. (ii) Shape : Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners. (iii) Size : Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes. (iv) Texture : They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. (v) Soundness : When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic sound. (vi) Hardness : Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.

(vii) Strength : Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces. (viii) Water Absorption : After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be more than 20 per cent by weight and for class-I works this limit is 15 per cent. (ix) Efflorescence : Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then allowed to dry in shade and patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium. (x) Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow bricks provide good sound insulation. (xi) Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good and also bricks are used to encase steel columns to protect them from fire.

C) Requirement of Bricks

Colour of brick should be red or copper and uniform. It should be well burnt in kilns. The edges should be sharp. The surface should be even and free from cracks. The clay used for bricks should be free from organic matter and salts. When two bricks are stuck, there should be metallic ringing sound. They should not break when dropped to ground from height of 1.0 m.

D) Classification of Bricks Based on their Quality


(i) First Class Bricks : These bricks are of standard shape and size and they are burnt in kilns. (ii) Second Class Bricks : These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in kilns and the edges may not be sharp and uniform and surface may be some what rough. Such bricks are commonly used for the construction of walls which are going to be plastered. (iii) Third Class Bricks : These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in clamps and their edges are somewhat distorted and produce dull sound when struck together. They are used for temporary and unimportant structures. (iv) Fourth Class Bricks : These are the over burnt bricks and they are dark in colour. The shape is irregular and they are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors and roads.

E) Uses of Bricks

Bricks are used in the following civil works: (i) As building blocks. (ii) For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys. (iii) For protecting steel columns from fire. (iv) As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs. (v) For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks. (vi) For lining sewer lines.

3) LIME

It is an important binding material used in building construction. sand and coarse aggregate, it forms lime concrete.

Lime has been used as the material of construction from ancient time.

When it is mixed with sand it provides lime mortar and when mixed with

A) Types of Limes and their Properties


The

(i) Fat lime

(ii) Hydraulic lime (iii) Poor lime

limes are classified as

(i) Fat lime : It is composed of 95 percentage of calcium oxide. When water is added, it slakes vigorously and its volume increases to 2 to 2.5 times. It is white in colour.

Its properties are :

(a) Hardens slowly (b) High degree of plasticity (c) Sets slowly in the presence of air (d) White in colour (e) Slakes vigorously

(ii) Hydraulic lime :

It contains clay and ferrous oxide which is depending upon the percentage of clay present, the hydraulic lime is divided into the following three types: (a) Feebly hydraulic lime (5 to 10% clay content) (b) Moderately hydraulic lime (11 to 20% clay content) (c) Eminently hydraulic lime (21 to 30% clay content)

The properties of hydraulic limes are:

(a) Sets under water (b) Colour is not perfectly white (c) Forms a thin paste with water and do not dissolve in water (d) Its binding property improves if its fine powder is mixed with sand before using.

(iii) Poor lime:

Class A Lime :

It contains more than 30% clay. Its colour is muddy. It has poor binding property. The mortar made with such lime is used for inferior works. IS 712-1973 classifies lime as class A, B, C, D and E. It is hydraulic lime. It is normally supplied as hydrated lime and is commonly used for structural works. It contains both hydraulic lime and fat lime. It is supplied as hydrated lime or as quick lime. It is used for making mortar for masonry works.

Class B Lime :

Class C Lime :

Class D Lime :

It is supplied both as quick lime and fat lime. It is used for finishing coat in plastering and for white washing.

Class E Lime :

This lime contains large quantity of magnesium oxide and is similar to fat lime. This is also commonly used for white washing and for finishing coat in plastering. It is an impure lime stone, known as kankar. It is available in modular and block form. It is supplied as hydrated lime. It is commonly used for masonry mortar.

B) Uses of Lime

The following are the uses of lime in civil works: (i) For white washing. (ii) For making mortar for masonry works and plastering. (iii) To produce lime sand bricks. (iv) For soil stabilization. (vi) For making cement.

(v) As a refractory material for lining open hearth furnaces.

4) CEMENT

Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder. 1924. He patented it as Portland cement.

The cement is obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous (calcium)

and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high temperature and then

It was first produced by a mason Joseph Aspdin in England in

A) Types of Cement (i) White Cement :

(ii) Coloured Cement :

The cement when made free from colouring oxides of iron, manganese and chlorium results into white cement. . White cement is used for the floor finishes, plastering, ornamental works etc. In swimming pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing marbles and glazed tiles.

The cements of desired colours are produced by mixing pigments with ordinary cement. The chlorium oxide gives green colour and cobalt produce blue colour. Iron oxide with different proportion produce brown, red or yellow colour and manganese dioxide gives black or brown coloured cement. These cements are used for giving finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills, roofs etc.

(iii) Quick Setting Cement :

(iv) Rapid Hardening Cement :

Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the percentage of gypsum and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate during the manufacture of cement. This cement starts setting within 5 minutes after adding water and becomes hard mass within 30 minutes. This cement is used to lay concrete under static or slowly running water.

This cement can be produced by increasing lime content and burning at high temperature while manufacturing cement. Grinding to very fine is also necessary. The initial and final setting time of this cement is the same as that of Portland cement, it gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier removal of form works and speed in construction activity.

(v) Low Heat Cement :

(vi) Pozzulana Cement :

In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced due to hydration of cement will not get dispersed easily. This may give rise to cracks. Hence in such constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement. This cement contains low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher percentage (46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S). Pozzulana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be processed from shales and certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzulana material is 10 to 30 per cent. It can resist action of sulphate and releases less heat during setting. Its tensile strength is high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass concrete works. It is also used in sewage line works.

(vii) Expanding Cement :

(viii) High Alumina Cement :

This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by adding expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. This is used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.

(ix) Acid Resistant Cement :

It is manufactured by a mixture of lime and bauxite. It is more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of adding water and it is used for under water works. This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregates such as quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has good resistance to action of acid and water. It is commonly used in the construction of chemical factories.

(x) Blast Furnace Cement :


(xi) Sulphate Resistant Cement :

In the manufacture of iron, slag comes out as a waste product. By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60% to 65% of slag, this cement is produced. The properties of this cement are more or less same as ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since it utilize waste product. This cement is durable but it gains the strength slowly and hence needs longer period of curing.

By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) below five percent in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used in the construction of structures which are likely to be damaged by alkaline conditions. Examples of such structures are canals and culverts.

(xii) Fly Ash Blended Cement :

Fly ash is a by product in thermal stations. The particles of fly ash are very minute and they fly in the air, creating air pollution problems. Thermal power stations have to spend lot of money to arrest fly ash and dispose safely. It is found that one of the best way to dispose fly ash is to mix it with cement in controlled condition and derive some of the beneficially effects on cement. Now-a-days cement factories produce the fly ash in their own thermal stations or from other thermal stations and further process it to make it suitable to blend with cement and 20 to 30% fly ash is used for blending. Fly ash blended cements have superior quality of resistance to weathering action. Birla plus, Birla star, A.C.C. Suraksha are some of the brand mame of blended cement.

C) Properties of cement

It gives strength to masonry. It is easily workable.

It is an excellent binding material. It offers good resistance to moisture. It posses good plasticity. They have good resistance to fire.

D) Uses of Cement

Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures. Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing. Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges. water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbors etc. Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles etc. For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement is commonly used. It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc

5) TIMBER
Timber refers to wood used for construction works. In fact the word

timber is derived from an old English word Timbrian which means to build. A tree that yields good wood for construction is called Standing Timber. After felling a tree, its branches are cut and its roughly converted into pieces of suitable length, so that it can be transported to timber yard. This form of timber is known as rough timber. By sawing, rough timber is converted into various commercial size. Such form of timber is known as converted timber. Timber was used as building material even by primitive man. Many ancient temples, palaces and bridges built with timber can be seen even today.

Its

a natural building construction material obtained from trees.

A) Requirements of good Timber


The annual rings of the section must be close to each other. Freshly cut log surface should emit sweet smell. It should have dark uniform colour. It should be dense. It should have uniform texture.

They should not decay of timber due to fungi and insects like

white ants. It should be free from cracks.

B) Types of Timber
1. Natural timber Almost 150 types of tree are use to obtain timber for building construction , structural works, furniture. *Indian timber trees are Babul, deodar, bamboo, chir, Sal, haldar, etc. 2. industrial timber Due to limitation in size and shape of natural timber, industrial timber are required to produce by using natural wood as raw material. industrial timber give more strength and life. industrial timbers are.. Plywood's, fiberboards.

C) Uses of timber
Various timbers are used to make the following items
Railway Bridge. Roofs. Doors

sleepers.

Furniture. Partition

and windows etc.

walls.

D) Properties of timber

It has low heat conductivity. It has small bulk density. It has relatively high strength.

It is susceptible to decay and flame. They have long life.

Its volume changes with moisture content.

6) SAND
Sand Sand

is a fine aggregate of size greater than 0.15mm up to 5mm depending on the grades of sand namely :
Coarse Fine Medium

particles consist of small grains of silica(sio2).

(2 to 5mm)

(0.15 to 0.5mm)

(0.5 to 2mm)

A) Properties of sand

It is naturally available. It is durable. It mix with binding material easily. It has shiny luster. It is of whitish brown colour.

B) Requirement of good sand

It should be clean.

Maximum permissible clay content is 3 to 4% in sand. It should contain sharp angular and durable grains. It should be well graded. It should be hard. It should not contain salt which attract moisture from atmosphere.

C) Classification of sand
1. Natural It obtained from river beds and sea beds. 2. Artificial Artificial sand is formed by decomposition of sand stone due to various weathering effects.
Classification

based on size.

1. Fine sand(<4.75mm)

2. Coarse sand (>4.75mm)

10 mm 4.75 mm 2.36 mm 1.18 mm 600 micron 300 micron 150 micron 75 micron

D) Uses of sand

Sand is used cement concreted in cement mortar, lime mortar, plain cement concrete and prestressed concrete as a key ingredient in building construction Sand is useful in various construction acvities like masonry work, plaster work, flooring and concrete work.

7) AGGREGATE

Aggregates are the naturally materials like normal sands, gravels and crushed stone used for making mortar, plaster and concrete. used to prepare lightweight plasters and concrete. Aggregates are processed to get desired size. Aggregates also includes the lightweight materials such as slag

A) Properties of aggregate

The most important property of aggregate is its soundness, dimensional stability, cleanliness, strength and gradation. An aggregate should be free from clay silt, organic matters and salts. The dirt content in aggregate should not exceed 5%. Insoluble in water. Resistance to corrosion. Strong and durable. Not affected by weathering actions. Resistance to rain water.

B) Requirement of aggregate

Aggregate should be sufficiently strong, hard tough, and durable. Shape of aggregate should not be too flaky or elongated. Aggregate surface should be rough and free from cracks. Angular shape is preferred and rounded aggregates are not preferred. Water absorption should be less and have good soundness.

Specific gravity of aggregate should be in range of 2.6 to 2.9.

C) Classification of Aggregate
According

to size :1) Course Aggregate (>4.75mm)

2) Fine Aggregate (<4.75 mm)

80 mm 40 mm 20 mm 10 mm 4.75 mm 2.36 mm 1.18 mm 600 micron 300 micron

Normal coarse aggregate is composed of gravel or crushed stone and for structural concrete is usually required maximum size of about 50mm down to 5mm. For thin slab size should not be greater than 12mm. Smaller size aggregates have more total surface area than the bigger size aggregates of same volume. Therefore smaller size aggregates will require more cement paste, which will result in stronger and richer mix. Gravel is coarse aggregate resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock. Crushed stone is the product resulting from artificial crushing of rocks. Fine aggregate is that portion of aggregate finer than 4.75mm. Unless otherwise mentioned, fine aggregate is usually considered to be sand.

D) Use of aggregate
Fine aggregates are used to prepare cement mortar, lime mortar Coarse aggregate are used to prepare cement concrete and rigid Fine aggregate are used in masonry ,plaster and flooring.

and cement concrete. pavements.

It is also used in construction of beams , columns and slab.

8) MORTAR
Mortar is a paste prepared by

adding required quantity of water to a mixture of binding material like cement or lime and fine aggregate like sand.

A) Requirements of Good Mortar


It It It It

should have good adhesion with bricks, stones etc. should be cheap, durable and workable. should be set quickly so that speed in construction may be achieved. joints formed by mortar should not develop cracks. should maintain their appearance for long period.

should resist rain water.

The

They

B) Uses of Mortar

To bind the bricks or stones in wall construction work. resistance. work. Joints of masonry work are covered by plaster surface easily.

They are used in plaster work as finishing material to provide weather

White wash and colour are applied on plastered

C) Properties of Mortar

1. Mobility:

They depends upon quality and properties of ingredients

2.Place ability:

Mobility means consistency of mortar mix which may range from stiff to fluid. Place ability is the ease with which mortar mix can be placed with minimum cost in a thin and uniform layer over the surface.

3.Water Retention :

It is the ability of retaining adequate humidity during transportation and laying over the porous bed such as brick, stone, wood etc.

D) Importance of Mortar
Mortar make joints between bricks and stones in masonry

construction work of various buildings. The vertical and horizontal erection of wall is possible by mortar material.

9) CONCRETE

Concrete is well defined mixture of Cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregate and water. Fine aggregates and coarse aggregates are inert materials while cement is a binding material. in tensile strength. Concrete when hardened in the shapes of the form work where in they are poured, have very good compressive strength but lack The construction work nowadays use concrete in one way.

The concrete may be


Lime Concrete

Lime Concrete Cement Concrete The ingredients of lime concrete are hydraulic lime, work as a binding material, sands are used as a fine aggregates and stones are used as a coarse aggregate. This concrete has less strength, cheap and is used in foundation works, sub base for floors and over roofs. Cement is the binding material in cement concrete, sand is the fine aggregate and gravel, broken bricks or crushed stones are the coarse aggregate.

Cement Concrete:

Aggregates not passing through sieve size (4.75mm) are coarse the concrete and its use in construction.

aggregate called Kapachi. The size of Kapachi depends on the type of

Mass concrete to be used in dam construction may have Kapachi as However the reinforced concrete slab construction. The maximum size is 20 mm.

large as 20 mm. For un-reinforced concrete it may not exceed 60 mm. The strength of the concrete depends on the strength of coarse aggregates. Therefore coarse aggregates obtained from hard rock like granite, basalt, quartzite etc. will have higher strength.

The usual proportions of ingredients in cement concrete are 1 part of cement 1.5 to 6 parts of clean sand and 3 to 12 parts of coarse aggregates by volume. The concrete is classified into different grades for the purpose of its structural use. The classification is denoted by letter M and its crushing strength after 28 days measured on 150 mm cubes. Thus M15 refers to concrete with crushing strength of 15 N/mm2 after 28 days.

Grade of concrete:

Types of Grade M5 M 7.5 M 10 M 15 M 20 M 25

Mix proportion 1 : 5 : 10 1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4 1 : 1.5 : 3 1:1:2

Type of work
Column and beams

Recommended mix
1:1:2

Water tank and retaining walls

Ordinary reinforced concrete slab Dam, foundation and Machine foundation Mass Concrete

1:1.5:3 1:2:4 1:3:6 1:4:8

(A) Properties of Concrete

High Compressive Strength Free from Corrosion Weak in Tension Economical than steel Moulded into durable structural items of various sizes and shapes When allowed to cure it becomes hard like stone.

(B) Requirements of concrete

The aggregates (fine and coarse) to be used for c.c. work should be hard, durable and clean. The cement to be used for c.c. work should comply with all the standard requirements. Water is important ingredient of concrete. Water should be clean and free from harmful impurities. Proportion of ingredients is important for appropriate compressive strength of concrete. Hence mix should be prepared with right grading as per requirement. Strength and quality of concrete primarily depends upon watercement ratio. Addition of one extra litre of water to concrete of one bag of cement will reduce its strength by about 15 kg/cm2. Hence water cement ratio should be carefully decided.

(C) Types of concrete

Plain cement concrete. Precast concrete.

Reinforced cement concrete. Pre stressed concrete.

P.C.C. :

R.C.C. :

PCC is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. PCC has very less tensile strength, hence it is less used. PCC is used in plinth or leveling below footing. It is weak in tensile so not used for making structural members.

PCC is reinforced with tensile material using round type of reinforcement steel bars to increase tensile strength. RCC work is in beams columns, slabs, stairs, lintels, arches etc.

PRECAST CONCRETE : When mass concrete work is required for huge and speedy construction work precast concrete is used. Hollow and solid concrete blocks of desired shape and size are prepared at industries and then taken to construction site. Precast concrete is prepared in manufacturing yards and then supplied at site. Precast concrete is available in various size and shapes. It can be used to make tiles, pavement blocks, beams and columns. Since it is made in yards and directly supplied at site, time needed for mixing, tempering, curing etc can be saved. Quality can be controlled more easily compared to Concrete prepared at site. It is used for making Electric poles, water tanks, boundary walls etc. It is used when construction has to be finished early. Also it can be used during monsoon. It is very useful where site is small and mixing and making of concrete is difficult.

PRE STRESSED CONCRETE :

Pre stressed concrete is reinforced concrete in which concrete is subjected to compressive stresses, before external loads are applied, by including tensile stresses in the reinforcement due to applied external load. Pre stressed concrete means where steel/Reinforcement is already under stress. It is getting by giving tensile load by using hydraulic jacks. Stressing of concrete can be done by pre tensioning or post tensioning. This Concrete has huge tensile strength and it is used for massive structures. It is used where huge tensile stress is expected to get generated.

(D) CONCRETE OPERATION

The following are the important operations in concreting.


1. 2. 3. 4.

Mixing.

Transportation. Compaction. Curing.

(1) Mixing :

Methods of Mixing Concrete : (A) Hand mixing. (B) Machine mixing :

(a) Rotary mixer.

(b) Tilting mixer.

(A) Hand mixing :

In hand mixing all the three ingredients are mixed on clean and levelled platform. Then water in required amount is added and mixing is carried out till the uniform colour is obtained.

(B) Machine mixing : (a) Rotary mixer. (b) Tilting mixer. In machine mixing mixtures are used to mix the concrete. Mixing is carried out for about 1 to 2 minutes for 1 m3 of concrete.

(2) Transportation :

After mixing the concrete should be placed in the formwork within 30 minutes as the cement starts setting after 30 minutes. There should not be loss of water during transportation. The segregation of ingredients also should not take place during transportation. While placing concrete in the form work it should be placed in layers not exceeding 10 12 cm and from a vertical distance of not more than 1m to avoid segregation.

(3) Compaction :

The

compacted after it is placed in the over

concrete

is

to

be

properly

form work or else the resulting segregation. using compaction steel may or result

concrete will have honeycombing and Compaction may be done manually by rods bamboo compaction.

in

mechanical vibrators can be used for

or

(4) Curing of Concrete :

If the fresh concrete work is exposed to wind and sun it is necessary to maintain the concrete moist for several days to avoid surface cracks and reduction in strength. The slab like flat surfaces are enclosed by moist earth or sand burp laps and water is filled in enclosed area on slab surface for 7 to 14 days. The beams, columns, lintels etc. are sprinkled by flowing water 2-3 times per day for 7-10 days.

(E) Uses

Used from foundation to slab. Street walk, Rigid pavement and airport. Lining of canal, Reservoir and Dam. Water treatment plant and Tunnel. Water proofing and Fire proofing. Sound proofing and X-ray plant. Atomic power plant.

10) BITUMEN
It consists essentially of hydrocarbons and would typically

comprise at least 80% carbon and 15% hydrogen, the remainder being oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and traces of various metals. Bitumen is the by-product when the crude petroleum is refined. A wide variety of refinery processes, such as the straight distillation process, solvent extraction process etc. may be used to produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable properties.

Requirements of Bitumen
The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible:

during the hottest weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.

Uses of Bitumen
The vast majority of refined bitumen is used in

construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use bitumen is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining process. It is estimated that the current world use of bitumen is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the bitumen produced is used as the binder in asphalt for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways.

A further 10% of global bitumen production is used in

roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable. The remaining 5% of bitumen is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint.

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