POLYPHASE CIRCUITS

Introduction Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity via the National Grid system is accomplished by three-phase alternating currents. The voltage induced by a single coil when rotated in a uniform magnetic field is shown in Figure 19.1 and is known as a single-phase voltage.Most consumers are fed by means of a single-phase a.c. supply. Two wires are used, one called the live conductor (usually coloured red) and the other is called the neutral conductor (usually coloured black). The neutral is usually connected via protective gear to earth, the earth wire being coloured green. The standard voltage for a single-phase a.c. supply is 240 V. The majority of single-phase supplies are obtained by connection to a three-phase supply.

Three-phase supply A three-phase supply is generated when three coils are placed 120 apart and the whole rotated in a uniform magnetic field as shown in The result is three independent supplies of equal voltages which are each displaced by 120 from each other (i) The convention adopted to identify each of the phase voltages is: R-red, Y-yellow, and B-blue. (ii) The phase-sequence is given by the sequence in which the conductors pass the point initially taken by the red conductor. The national standard phase sequence is R, Y, B. A three-phase a.c. supply is carried by three conductors, called lines which are coloured red, yellow and blue. The currents in these conductors are known as line currents (IL) and the p.d.s between them are known as line voltages (VL). A fourth conductor, called the neutral (coloured black, and connected through protective devices to earth) is often used with a three-phase supply. If the three-phase windings shown in Figure 19.2 are kept independent then six wires are needed to connect a supply source (such as a generator) to a load (such as motor). To reduce the number of wires it is usual to interconnect the three phases. There are two ways in which this can be done, these being: (a) a star connection, and (b) a delta, or mesh, connection. Sources of three-phase supplies, i.e. alternators, are usually connected in star, whereas three-phase transformer windings, motors and other loads may be connected either in star or delta.

STAR CONNECTION:(i) A star-connected load is where the three line conductors are each connected to a load and the outlets from the loads are joined together at N to form what is termed the neutral point or the star point. (ii) The voltages, VR, VY and VB are called phase voltages or line to neutral voltages. Phase voltages are generally denoted by Vp (iii) The voltages, VRY, VYB and VBR are called line voltages.

(vi) it can be seen that the phase currents (generally denoted by Ip) are equal to their respective line currents IR, IY and IB, i.e. for a star connection: IL = Ip (v) For a balanced system: IR D IY D IB, VR D VY D VB VRY D VYB D VBR, ZR D ZY D ZB and the current in the neutral conductor, IN D 0 When a star connected system is balanced, then the neutral conductor is unnecessary and is often omitted. (vi) The line voltage, VRY, is given by VRY = VR VY (VY is negative since it is in the opposite direction to VRY). In the phasor diagram, phasor VY is reversed (shown by the broken line) and then added phasorially to VR (i.e. VRY = VR Y .VY /). By trigonometry, or by measurement, VRY D P= 3VR, i.e. for a balanced star connection: VL =3 Vp

Delta connection:(i) A delta (or mesh) connected load is where the end of one load is connected to the start of the next load. (ii) It can be seen that the line voltages VRY,VYB and VBR are the respective phase voltages, i.e. for a delta connection: VL = Vp

POWER IN THREE-PHASE SYSTEM:-

Problem:- Three identical coils, each of resistance 10 and inductance 42 mH are connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply. Determine the total power dissipated in each case.

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Alternating-current instruments with current coils are usually operated through current transformers. This arrangement isolates instruments from line potential, and produces in the secondary a definite fraction of the primary current, thereby making it possible to measure large currents. a. The primary winding of a current transformer should be connected in the line carrying the current to be measured. The secondary winding is connected to an ammeter or the current coil of a wattmeter, power-factor meter, or some other instrument. b. One terminal of the secondary should be grounded so that a breakdown of insulation between primary and secondary will not transmit line voltage to the ammeter with consequent danger to personnel. On all instrument transformers with metal cases, the metal case should also be grounded. A grounding terminal on the case is usually provided with a permanent internal connection to the secondary. c. The secondary of a current transformer should never be open while the primary is carrying current. Failure to observe this precaution results in possible damage to the transformer, and the generation of a secondary voltage which may be of sufficient magnitude to injure personnel or damage insulation. Furthermore, a current transformer energized with an opencircuited secondary will overheat due to magnetic saturation of the core and even though the overheating has been insufficient to produce permanent damage, the transformer should be carefully demagnetized and recalibrated to ensure accurate measurements. The secondary should, therefore, always be short circuited when not connected to a current coil. Alternating-cur rent ammeters switches should always be of the make-before-break type so as to ensure that the ammeter is connected across the secondary of the selected current transformer prior to removing the short circuit from that transformer. d. Polarity marks are placed on the terminals of instrument transformers to show the relative directions of Instantaneous current flow in primary and secondary, information which is needed in making some connections. The direction of instantaneous current flow in the secondary is the same as if each primary conductor were detached from its marked terminal and connected to the secondary terminal with the same marking. e. Proper consideration must be given to the ratio of the current transformer in interpreting the ammeter readings. If the ammeter is calibrated for use with a current transformer of specified ratio (usually printed on the scale of the instrument), a transformer of that ratio should be used or a suitable multiplying factor applied to the readings.

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS IN THE USE OF CURRENT MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Current measuring instruments, shunts, and primaries of current transformers must always be connected in series with the line carrying the current to be measured. a. In order to avoid damage to the instrument used, care must be taken to see that its range is greater than the line current. b. Special care must be exercised not to connect current-measuring instruments, shunts, or primaries of current transformers directly across a line or between any two points which differ in potential by more than a very small amount. The resistance or impedance of such devices is purposely made very small in order that their connection in the line will not create an appreciable voltage drop. Connection across a line results in practically a dead short circuit and immediate destruction of an instrument, shunt, or current transformer. Consider,

for example, a direct-current ammeter designed to give full-scale deflection for a 50-millivolt drop across its shunt. If either the meter, the shunt, or the parallel combination of meter and shunt is so connected in a circuit that the potential drop across the terminals is 1 volt, the current will be 20 times and the rate of heating 400 times the values corresponding to full-scale deflection. If connected directly across a 100-volt line, these figures are raised to 2,000 and 4,000,000, respectively. The effect upon the instrument, shunt, or both is immediate and disastrous.