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Contents
1 Exterior Algebra 1
2 Differential Forms 3
5 A Variational Principle 7
6 Conclusion 8
1 Exterior Algebra
Convention 1.1. All vector spaces are finite dimensional over R.
where the Vi are vector spaces, is called k-linear if it is linear in each argument, i.e., if
1
Remark 1.3. The set of all k-linear maps from V k to R forms a vector space and is denoted
T k (V ) = {ϕ : V k → R : ϕ is k-linear}.
So T 1 (V ) = V ∗ and we set T 0 (V ) = R.
ϕ(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ) = −ϕ(v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk ).
Definition 1.5. The vector space Λk V of all k-linear alternating forms with real
values is
Λk V = {ϕ ∈ T k (V ) : ϕ is alternating}.
Definition 1.6. The wedge product, or exterior product, of a k-form and a `-form is a
(k + `)-form:
∧ : Λk V × Λ` V → Λk+` V
∧ : (ϕ, ψ) 7→ ϕ ∧ ψ
1 X
(ϕ ∧ ψ)(v1 , . . . , vk+` ) = sgn (σ)ϕ(vσ(1) , . . . , vσ(k) )ψ(vσ(k+1) , . . . , vσ(k+`) )
k!`! σ∈S
n
Remarks 1.7.
and therefore
k n
dim Λ V = .
k
Thus, any p-form can be written in this basis as
X
ϕ= ϕi1 ···ik β i1 ∧ · · · ∧ β ik , ϕi1 ···ik ∈ R,
i1 <i2 <···<ik
or
1 X
ϕ= ϕi1 ···ik β i1 ∧ · · · ∧ β ik , ϕi1 ···ik ∈ R.
k! i ,...,i
1 k
ϕ = kβ 1 ∧ · · · ∧ β n .
2
2 Differential Forms
Convention 2.1. All manifolds and maps are smooth, unless qualified otherwise.
Definition 2.2. A section of a vector bundle π : E → B is a continuous function s : B → E
such that π ◦ s = idB . If M is a manifold, a section of T M is called a vector field on M .
Definition 2.3. If f : M → R, then the differential of f is the section of T ∗ M defined by
df (p)(X) = Xp (f ), for Xp ∈ Tp M.
In particular,
∂x1
1
dx (p)(X) = = 1.
∂x1 p
In general,
!
∂xi
∂
dxi (p) = = δij ,
∂xj p ∂xj p
so that dx1p , . . . , dxnp is a basis for Tp∗ U . In particular, we have
n
X ∂f i
df = dx .
i=1
∂xi
ω : M → Λk (T M ), ϕ : p 7→ ϕp ∈ Λk (Tp M ).
3
Definition 2.7. Let ω give an orientation of M , g be a metric on M , and dxi be an oriented
orthonormal basis of T ∗ M = Λ1 (T M ). The Hodge star is the linear isomorphism
∗ : Λk (T M ) → Λn−k (T M )
1
∗(dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxik ) = εi ···i η i1 i1 · · · η ik ik dxik+1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxin .
(n − k)! 1 n
Definition 2.8. The exterior derivative d is the linear map
d : Λk (T M ) → Λk+1 (T M )
1 X
dω = dωi1 ···ik ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxik
k! i ,...,i
1 k
1 X ∂
= i
ωi1 ···ik dxi ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxik .
k! i,i ,...,i ∂x
1 k
Remarks 2.9. 1. Although the Hodge star and the exterior derivative were both defined
in terms of a coordinate system, they are in fact both independent of the choice of
coordinates.
2. Let f : R3 → R. Then
∂f ∂f ∂f
df =
dx + dy + dz.
∂x ∂y ∂z
The 1-form df can be identified with the vector
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = , , .
∂x ∂y ∂z
4
3 The de Rham Cohomology
Definition 3.1. The de Rham complex on a manifold M is the graded algebra
n
M
∗
Ω (M ) = Λk (T M )
k=0
Definition 3.2. Forms ω which satisfy dω = 0 are called closed. For each k, we have the
vector space
If there exists a (k − 1)-form ϕ such that ω = dϕ, then ω is called exact. The vector space
Theorem 3.3. d2 = 0.
1 X ∂2
ddω = ωi ···i dxj ∧ dxi ∧ dxi1 ∧ · · · ∧ dxip = 0
k!(k + 1)! i,j,i ,...,i ∂xj ∂xi 1 k
1 k
since the partial derivatives commute whereas dxi ∧ dxj = −dxj ∧ dxi .
ker{d : Λk (T M ) → Λk+1 (T M )}
H k (M ) = Z k (M )/B k (M ) =
im {d : Λk−1 (T M ) → Λk (T M )}
is called the k-dimensional de Rham cohomology vector space of M .
5
4 Maxwell’s Equations for Electromagnetism
Maxwell’s equations are
∇·E = ρ ∇·B = 0
∂E ∂B
∇×B− =J ∇×E− =0
∂t ∂t
where E is the electric field and B is the magnetic field, ρ is the charge density, and J is the
electric current density. (We use Heaviside units and set c = 1.)
To describe electromagnetism in terms of differential forms, we set our spacetime to
be Minkowski space: R4 with Cartesian coordinates x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 as an oriented coordinate
system and metric
∂ ∂
g , = ηµν , η = diag(1, −1, −1, −1).
∂xµ ∂xν
Definition 4.1. The electromagnetic field 2-form (tensor) is
F = −E1 dx0 ∧ dx1 − E2 dx0 ∧ dx2 − E3 dx0 ∧ dx3 + B1 dx2 ∧ dx3 − B2 dx1 ∧ dx3 + B3 dx1 ∧ dx2
1
= Fµν dxµ ∧ dxν .
2!
∂B
(
∇×E− =0
Theorem 4.2. dF = 0 ⇐⇒ ∂t
∇·B=0
Corollary 4.3. F is exact.
Remark 4.4. Gauge freedom occurs since F = dAλ for any Aλ = A0 + dλ, where
λ ∈ Λ0 (R4 ). The map A 7→ A + dλ is called a gauge transformation.
∂E
(
∇×B− =0
Theorem 4.5. d∗F = 0 ⇐⇒ ∂t
∇·E=0
Definition 4.6. The current density 4-vector j µ has components (ρ, J 1 , J 2 , J 3 ). The
current density 3-form is
j = ρ dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 − J 1 dx0 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 + J 2 dx0 ∧ dx1 ∧ dx3 − J 3 dx0 ∧ dx1 ∧ dx2
1
= εµνλρ j µ dxν ∧ dxλ ∧ dxρ .
3!
(It is natural to define the current 3-form since integrating over a volume now gives the total
charge contained in that volume.)
∂E
(
∇×B− =J
Theorem 4.7. d∗F = j ⇐⇒ ∂t
∇·E=ρ
Corollary 4.8 (The Continuity Equation). dj = ∂µ j µ dx0 ∧ dx1 ∧ dx2 ∧ dx3 = 0
6
5 A Variational Principle
Theorem 5.1. An extremal of the action integral
Z
1
S[A] = − F ∧ ∗F − j ∧ A
2
obeys the differential equation
d ∗ F = j.
Moreoever, this action integral is gauge invariant provided dj = 0 (i.e. provided the current
is conserved).
Definition 5.2. Let M be an oriented manifold with metric g of signature r − s. The
coderivative δω of a differential form ω is given by the map
δ : Λk (T M ) → Λk−1 (T M ) given by δ = (−1)nk+n+1+s ∗ d ∗ .
Lemma 5.3. Let ϕ ∈ Λk (T M ), and M be an oriented n-manifold with metric of signature
r − s. Then
Z Z
ϕ ∧ ∗ψ = ψ ∧ ∗ϕ
Z Z
dϕ ∧ ∗ψ = ϕ ∧ ∗δψ
∗ ∗ ϕ = (−1)k(n−1)+s ϕ
d(ϕ ∧ ψ) = dϕ ∧ ψ + (−1)k ϕ ∧ dψ.
Proof of Theorem 5.1. The standard first variation calculation is
Z
1 1
S[A + a] − S[A] = − d(A + a) ∧ ∗d(A + a) − j ∧ (A + a) + dA ∧ ∗dA + j ∧ A
2 2
Z
1 1
= − (dA + da) ∧ (∗dA + ∗da) − j ∧ A − j ∧ a + dA ∧ ∗dA + j ∧ A
2 2
Z
1 1
= − (dA ∧ ∗dA + da ∧ ∗dA + dA ∧ ∗da + da ∧ ∗da) − j ∧ a + dA ∧ ∗dA
2 2
Z
1
= − (da ∧ ∗dA + dA ∧ ∗da + da ∧ ∗da) − j ∧ a
2
Z
1
= − da ∧ ∗dA − j ∧ a − da ∧ ∗da
|2 {z }
nonlinear in a
Z
−a ∧ ∗δdA + a ∧ j + O(a2 )
=
Z
= a ∧ (− ∗ δdA + j) + O(a2 )
Z
= a ∧ (−d ∗ F + j) + O(a2 ).
7
Since a was arbitrary and the linear term in the expansion is required to vanish, we have the
desired result
d ∗ F = j.
To show gauge invariance, we compute
Z
1 1
S[A + dλ] − S[A] = − d(A + dλ) ∧ ∗d(A + dλ) − j ∧ (A + dλ) + dA ∧ ∗dA + j ∧ A
2 2
Z
1 1
= − dA ∧ ∗dA − j ∧ A − j ∧ dλ + dA ∧ ∗dA + j ∧ A
2 2
Z
= (−j ∧ dλ)
Z
= d(j ∧ λ) − (dj) ∧ λ
Z Z
= j∧λ− (dj) ∧ λ.
∂M M
Modulo boundary contributions and provided dj = 0, we have that S[A + dλ] = S[A] for an
arbitrary gauge transformation (0-form) λ. This gives the desired gauge invariance.
6 Conclusion
The Maxwell electromagnetic field equations can be written compactly as
dF = 0
d ∗ F = j.
References
[1] Bott and Tu. Differential Forms in Algebraic Topology. Springer-Verlag, 1982.
[3] Göckeler and Schücker. Differential Geometry, Gauge Theories, and Gravity. Cambridge
University Press, 1987.