ABSTRACT

In this paper I am first giving a brief introduction to satellite communication and next why we are using satellite for communication and the orbital model. The transfer of information from source to destination i.e. transmitter to receiver is called the communication. Basically communication is possible in two ways they are wire communication and the other one is wireless communication. The satellite communication is a best example for the wireless

communication. The next part is on how the satellites stay in orbits and orbit types. Then we will move onto satellite comprises of what components & what is satellite communication? Then we will study about the working of satellite & what type of fuel does it use? Is the fuel toxic or non toxic. Then we have a brief study of frequency allocation for satellites. In how many regions is the word divided for allocation of these frequency. In later half we are concentrating on types of satellite then it is important to know about some common types of satellites, their advantage and disadvantage. Then we move onto one of the most important part of satellite communication i.e. routing through which we know which the best path for the signal to travel is. Coming towards the end we will study about the intermediate frequency, reasons for using intermediate frequency and about some commonly used intermediate frequencies. At last we have a overview of application of satellites and use of satellite communication.

INTRODUCTION
In 1962, the American telecommunications giant AT&T launched the world's first true communications satellite, called Telstar. Since then, countless communications satellites have been placed into earth orbit, and the technology being applied to them is forever growing in sophistication. Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations. A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area. When the area is focused, then the emissions dont go outside that designated area and thus minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage.

Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time. The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

BASIC OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Satellites orbit around the earth. Depending on the application, these orbits can be circular or elliptical. Satellites in circular orbits always keep the same distance to the earths surface following a simple law: The attractive force Fg of the earth due to gravity equals mg (R/r) 2 The centrifugal force Fc trying to pull the satellite away equals mr2 The variables have the following meaning: m is the mass of the satellite; R is the radius of earth with R = 6,370 km; ri s the distance of the satellite to the centre of the earth; g is the acceleration of gravity with g = 9.81 m/s2; is the angular velocity with = 2f, f is the frequency of the rotation. To keep the satellite in a stable circular orbit, the following equation must hold: Fg = Fc, i.e., both forces must be equal. Looking at this equation the first thing to notice is that the mass m of a satellite is irrelevant (it appears on both sides of the equation). Solving the equation for the distance r of the satellite to the centre of the earth results in the following equation: r = (gR2/(2f)2)1/3. From the above equation it can be concluded that the distance of a satellite to the earth's surface depends on its rotation frequency. The satellite is generally governed by 3 laws of planetary motion known as Keplers laws. The mathematical basis of satellite orbit determination has been known since the work of Newton and Kepler in the 17th Century. Since past half century some basic laws have been applied to the man made satellites commonly known artificial satellites in the Earths orbit.

KEPLERS LAWS
1. Keplers First Law The path followed be a satellite (in our case artificial satellite) around the primary (a planet and in our case Earth) will be an ellipse. The orbit of every planer is an ellipse with sun at one of the two foci. An ellipse has two focal points. Let us consider F1 and F2. The centre of mass of the two body system, known as the barycentre as always cantered at one foci. Due to the great difference between the masses of the planet (Earth) and the satellite, centre of mass always coincides with the centre of Earth and hence is always at one foci. Parameters associated with the 1st law of Kepler Eccentricity (e): it defines how stretched out an ellipse is from a perfect circle. Semi-Major axis (a): It is the longest diameter, a line that runs through the centre and both foci, its ends being at the widest points of the shapes. This line joins the points of apogee. Semi-Minor axis (b): the line joining the points of perigee is called the Semi-Minor axis.

2. Keplers Second Law i) For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane focussed at the barycentre.

ii) With respect to the laws governing the planetary motion around the sun, tis law could be stated as A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps our equal area during equal intervals of time "

The areas A1 and A2 swept out in unit intervals of time

Considering the law stated above, if satellite travels distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 second, then areas A1 and A2 will be equal. The same area will be covered everyday regardless of where in its orbit a satellite is.

3) Keplers Third Law i) The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies.

ii)

The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

iii)

This law shows the relationship between the distances of satellite from earth and their orbital period.

Example: suppose satellite Satellite-I is four times as far from Earth as Satellite-II. Then I must traverse four times the distance of II in each orbit. Now considering the speed of I and II, suppose I travels at half the speed of II, then in order to maintain equilibrium with the reduced gravitational force (as I is four times away from Earth than what II is), then in all it will require 4 x 2 = 8 times as long for I to travel an orbit in agreement with the law which comes down to. This law also confirms the fact that there is a fixed relation between period and size. Important parameters in satellite communication are the inclination and elevation angles. The inclination angle in fig below is defined between the equatorial plane and the plane described by the satellite orbit. An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that the satellite is exactly above the equator. If the satellite does not have a circular orbit, the closest point to the earth is called the perigee.

Angle of Inclination The inclination angle is defined between the equatorial plane and the plane described by the satellite orbit. An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that the satellite is exactly above the equator. If the satellite does not have a circular orbit, the closest point to the earth is called the perigee.

Angle of Elevation: The elevation angle is defined between the centre of the satellite beam and the plane tangential to the earths surface. A so called footprint can be defined as the area on earth where the signals of the satellite can be received.

Satellite communications are comprised of 2 main components:

1. The Satellite:

The satellite itself is also known as the space segment, and is composed of three separate units, namely the fuel system, the satellite and telemetry controls, and the transponder. The transponder includes the receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the ground station, a broad band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a frequency converter which is used to reroute the received signals through a high powered amplifier for downlink. The primary role of a satellite is to reflect electronic signals. In the case of a telecom satellite, the primary task is to receive signals from a ground station and send them down to another ground station located a considerable distance away from the first.

2. The Ground Station: This is the earth segment. The ground station's job is two-fold. In the case of an uplink, or transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of baseband signals, is passed through a baseband processor, an up converter, a high powered amplifier, and through a parabolic dish antenna up to an orbiting satellite. In the case of a downlink, or receiving station, works in the reverse fashion as the uplink, ultimately converting signals received through the parabolic antenna to base band signal.

WHAT IS SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

In satellite communication signal is transferred between sender & receiver with help of satellite. In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards satellite. Then the satellite amplifies the signal & sent it back to the receiver antenna present on the earth surface. So, all the signal transferring take place in space. This type of communication is known as space communication. In satellite communication the receiver & transmitter should be in line of sight (LOS).Thus the transmitter & receiver should have high elevation but sometimes due to buildings the absorption of signal takes place & thus a shadow region is created.

WORKING OF SATELLITE
A satellite is basically a self-contained communications system with the ability to receive signals from Earth and to retransmit those signals back with the use of a transponder an integrated receiver and

transmitter of radio signals. In addition, satellites have to be light, as the cost of launching a satellite is quite expensive and based on weight. They must operate at a very high reliability of more than 99.9 percent in the vacuum of space with no prospect of maintenance or repair.The main components of a satellite consist of the communications system, which includes the antennas and transponders that receive and

retransmit signals, the power system, which includes the solar panels that provide power, and the propulsion system, which includes the rockets that propel the satellite. A satellite needs its own propulsion system to get itself to the right orbital location and to make occasional corrections to that position. A satellite in geostationary orbit can deviate up to a degree every year from north to south or east to west of its location because of the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun. A satellite has thrusters that are fired occasionally to make adjustments in its position. The maintenance of a satellites orbital position is called station keeping, and the corrections made by using the satellites thrusters are called attitude control. A satellites life span is determined by the amount of fuel it has to power these thrusters. Once the fuel runs out, the satellite eventually drifts into space and out of operation, becoming space debris. It needs internal power to be able to operate its electronic systems and communications payload. The main source of power is sunlight, which is harnessed by the satellites solar panels.

A satellite also has batteries on board to provide power when the Sun is blocked by Earth. The batteries are recharged by the excess current generated by the solar panels when there is sunlight. Satellites operate in extreme temperatures from 150 C (238 F) to 150 C (300 F) and may be subject to radiation in space. Satellite components that can be exposed to radiation are shielded with aluminium and other radiation-resistant material. A satellites thermal system protects its sensitive electronic and mechanical components and maintains it in its optimum functioning temperature to ensure its continuous operation. A satellites thermal system also protects sensitive satellite components from the extreme changes in temperature by activation of cooling mechanisms when it gets too hot or heating systems when it gets too cold.

Communication satellites range from microsatellites weighing less than 1 kg (2.2 pounds) to large satellites weighing over 6,500 kg (14,000 pounds). Satellites operate in three different orbits: low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), and geostationary or geosynchronous orbit (GEO). LEO satellites are positioned at an altitude between 160 km and 1,600 km (100 and 1,000 miles) above Earth. MEO satellites operate from 10,000 to 20,000 km (6,300 to 12,500 miles) from Earth. (Satellites do not operate between LEO and MEO because of the inhospitable environment for electronic components in that area, which is caused by the Van Allen radiation belt.) GEO satellites are positioned 35,786 km (22,236 miles) above Earth, where they complete one orbit in 24 hours and thus remain fixed over one spot. As mentioned above, it only takes three GEO satellites to provide global coverage, while it takes 20 or more satellites to cover the entire Earth from LEO and 10 or more in MEO. In addition, communicating with satellites in LEO and MEO requires tracking antennas on the ground to ensure seamless connection between satellites. A signal that is bounced off a GEO satellite takes approximately 0.22 second to travel at the speed of light from Earth to the satellite and back. This delay poses some problems for applications such as voice services and mobile telephony. Therefore, most mobile and voice services usually use LEO or MEO satellites to avoid the signal delays resulting from the inherent latency in GEO satellites. GEO satellites are usually used for broadcasting and data applications because of the larger area on the ground that they can cover.

Launching a satellite into space requires a very powerful multistage rocket to propel it into the right orbit.. Satellite communication use the very high-frequency range of 150 gigahertz (GHz; 1 gigahertz = 1,000,000,000 hertz) to transmit and receive signals. The frequency ranges or bands are identified by letters: (in order from low to high frequency) L-, S-, C-, X-, Ku-, Ka-, and Vbands. Signals in the lower range (L-, S-, and C-bands) of the satellite frequency spectrum are transmitted with low power, and thus larger antennas are needed to receive these signals. Signals in the higher end (X-, Ku-, Ka-, and V-bands) of this spectrum have more power; therefore, dishes as small as 45 cm (18 inches) in diameter can receive them. This makes the Ku-band and Ka-band spectrum ideal for direct-tohome (DTH) broadcasting, broadband data communications, and mobile telephony and data applications.

FREQUENCY ALLOCATION FOR SATELLITE

Allocation of frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning. This is done as per the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). To implement this frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:

1. Region1: Europe, Africa and Mongolia 2. Region 2: North and South America and Greenland 3. Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia and southwest Pacific. Within these regions, the frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services. Some of them are listed below: Fixed satellite service: Provides Links for existing Telephone Networks Used for transmitting television signals to cable companies Broadcasting satellite service: Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g. Live Cricket matches etc.

Mobile satellite services: This includes services for: Land Mobile Maritime Mobile Aeronautical mobile Navigational satellite services: Include Global Positioning systems. Meteorological satellite services: They are often used to perform Search and Rescue services.

Below are the frequencies allocated to these satellites: Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations: VHF: 01-0.3 UHF: 0.3-1.0 L-band: 1.0-2.0 S-band: 2.0-4.0 C-band: 4.0-8.0 X-band: 8.0-12.0 Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 (Ku is Under K Band) Ka-band: 18.0-27.0 (Ka is Above K Band) V-band: 40.0-75.0 W-band: 75-110 Mm-band: 110-300 m-band: 300-3000

Based on the satellite service, following are the frequencies allocated to the satellites: Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations: VHF: 01-0.3 ---Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services L-band: 1.0-2.0 --- Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services C-band: 4.0-8.0 --- Fixed Satellite Service Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 --- Direct Broadcast Satellite Services

The ku band & c-band are used in television signals, are defined as: C-band C-Band (3.7 - 4.2 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band can be spaced as close as two degrees apart in space, and normally carry 24 transponders operating at 10 to 17 watts each. Typical receive antennas are 6 to 7.5 feet in diameter. More than 250 channels of video and 75 audio services are available today from more than 20 C-Band satellites over North America, including several "hybrid" satellites which carry both C-Band and Ku-Band transponders. PrimeStar currently operates off Satcom K-2, an FSS or so-called "medium-power" . Ku-Band Ku Band (11.7 - 12.2 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band can be spaced as closely as two degrees apart in space, and carry from 12 to 24 transponders that operate at a wide range of powers from 20 to 120 watts each. Typical receive antennas are three to six feet in diameter. More than 20 FSS Ku-Band satellites are in operation over North America today, including several "hybrid" satellites which carry both CBand and Ku-Band transponders. Prime Star currently operates off Satcom K-2, an FSS or so-called "medium-power" Ku-Band satellite. Alpha Star also uses an FSS-Ku Band satellite, Telestar 402-R.

Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite communication are Active and passive satellites.
Passive satellites: It is just a plastic balloon having a metal coated over it. This sphere reflects the coming microwave signals coming from one part of the earth to other part. This is also known as passive sphere. Our earth also has a passive satellite i.e. moon.

Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is naturally available are called passive sensors. The sensor records energy that is reflected such as visible wavelengths from the sun or emitted (thermal infrared) from the source. Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy is available. Active sensors rely on their own sources of radiation for illuminating objects. The sensor emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The reflected energy from that target is detected and measured by the sensor

Active satellites: It basically does the work of amplifying the microwave signals coming. In active satellites an antenna system, transmitter, power supply and a receiver is used. These satellites are also called as transponders. The transmitters fitted on the earth generate the microwaves. These rays are received by the transponders attached to the satellite. Then after amplifying, these signals are transmitted back to earth. This sending can be done at the same time or after some delay. These amplified signals are stored in the memory of the satellites, when earth properly faces the satellite. Then the satellite starts sending the signals to earth. Some active satellites also have programming and recording features. Then these recording can be easily played and watched. The first active satellite was launched by Russia in 1957. The signals coming from the satellite when reach the earth, are of very low intensity. Their amplification is done by the receivers themselves. After amplification these become available for further use. Microwave communication is possible only if the position

of satellite becomes stationary with respect to the position of earth. So, these types of satellites are known as geostationary satellites.

TYPES OF SATELLITES (BASED ON ORBITS)

Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO)
GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth (that is; their footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The orbit of these satellites is circular.

There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of these satellites is 15 years. 1) The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the surface of the earth. 2) These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion of earth, that is eastward. 3) The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 0 degree.

Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple factors which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.

1) Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit. Over the period of time, they go through a drag. (Earths gravitational force has no effect on these satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.) 2) These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making them deviate from their orbit. 3) The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of satellite from the earth station.

These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these satellites are operating as backbones for the telephone networks.

Disadvantages of GEO:

1. Northern or southern regions of the Earth (poles) have more problems receiving these satellites due to the low elevation above latitude of 60, i.e., larger antennas are needed in this case. 2. Shading of the signals is seen in cities due to high buildings and the low elevation further away from the equator limit transmission quality. 3. These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones. 4. The biggest problem for voice and also data communication is the high latency as without having any handovers, the signal has to at least travel 72,000 kms. 5. Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites: These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth. As LEOs circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95 to 120 minutes. LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high quality communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten minutes. Transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be enough for voice communication. LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with Omni-directional antennas using low transmit power in the range of 1W. The delay for packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low (approx 10 ms). The delay is comparable to longdistance wired connections (about 510 ms). Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular networks. LEOs can provide a much higher elevation in Polar Regions and so better global coverage.

These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing area providing mobile communication services (due to lower latency). Figure for LEO satellites

Disadvantages: The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global coverage is to be reached. Several concepts involve 50200 or even more satellites in orbit. . One general problem of LEOs is the short life time of about five to eight years due to atmospheric drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1. Assuming 48 satellites and a lifetime of eight years, a new satellite would be needed every two months. LEOs have small footprint. Due to the large footprint, a GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as senders and receivers are most likely in the same footprint.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO system.

Disadvantage: Again, due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 7080 ms. the satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints. The above three are the major three categories of satellites, apart from these; the satellites are also classified based on the following types of orbits: 1. Sun- Synchronous Orbits satellites: These satellites rise and set with the sun. Their orbit is defined in such a way that they are always facing the sun and hence they never go through an eclipse. For these satellites, the surface illumination angle will be nearly the same every time. (Surface illumination angle: The illumination angle is the angle between the inward surface normal and the direction of light. This means that the illumination angle of a certain point of the Earth's surface is zero if the Sun is precisely overhead and that it is 90 degrees at sunset and at sunrise.) Special cases of the sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around noon or midnight, and the dawn/dusk orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around sunrise or sunset, so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night. 2. Hohmann Transfer Orbit: This is an intermediate orbit having a highly elliptical shape. It is used by GEO satellites to reach their final destination orbits. This orbit is connected to the LEO orbit at the point of perigee forming a tangent and is connected to the GEO orbit at the point of apogee again forming a tangent.

3. Prograde orbit
This orbit is with an inclination of less than 90. Its direction is the same as the direction as the rotation of the primary (planet).

4. Retrograde orbit:
This orbit is with an inclination of more than 90. Its direction is counter to the direction of rotation of the planet. Only few satellites are launched into retrograde orbit because the quantity of fuel required to launch them is much greater than for a prograde orbit. This is because when the rocket starts out on the ground, it already has an eastward component of velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the planet at its launch latitude.

5. Polar Orbits
This orbit passes above or nearly above both poles (north and south pole) of the planet on each of its revolutions. Therefore it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees. These orbits are highly inclined in shape.

ROUTING
Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network (circuit switching), electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router's memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. In case of overlapping/equal routes, the following elements are considered in order to decide which routes get installed into the routing table (sorted by priority): Prefix-Length: where longer subnet masks are preferred (independent if it is within a routing protocol or over different routing protocol). Metric: where a lower metric/cost is preferred (only valid within one and the same routing protocol) Administrative distance: where a lower distance is preferred (only valid between different routing protocols).

Deflection routing is a routing strategy for networks based on packet switching which can reduce the need of buffering packets. Every packet has preferred outputs along which it wants to leave the router, and when possible a packet is sent along one of these outputs. However, two or more packets may want to leave along the same output (which is referred to as a contention among packets), and then only one of the packets may be sent along the link, while the others are sent along available outputs, even though the other links are not preferred by the packets (because, for instance, those links do not yield shortest paths).Depending on the rate of incoming packets and the capacity of the outgoing links, deflection routing can work without any packet buffering. Of course, it is always possible to simply drop packets in a network with a best effort delivery strategy.

INTERMIDIATE FREQUENCY
In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is a frequency to which a carrier frequency is shifted as an intermediate step in transmission or reception.[1] The intermediate frequency is created by mixing the carrier signal with a local oscillator signal in a process called heterodyning, resulting in a signal at the difference or beat frequency. Intermediate frequencies are used in super heterodyne radio receivers, in which an incoming signal is shifted to an IF for amplification before final detection is done.

Conversion to an intermediate frequency is useful for several reasons. When several stages of filters are used, they can all be set to a fixed frequency, which makes them easier to build and to tune. Lower frequency transistors generally have higher gains so fewer stages are required. It's easier to make sharply selective filters at lower fixed frequencies. There may be several such stages of intermediate frequency in a super heterodyne receiver; two or three stages are

called double or triple conversion.

Reasons for using IF

Intermediate frequencies are used for three general reasons. At very high (gigahertz) frequencies, signal processing circuitry performs poorly. Active devices such as transistors cannot deliver much amplification (gain). Ordinary circuits using capacitors and inductors must be replaced with cumbersome high frequency techniques such as strip

lines and waveguides. So a high frequency signal is converted to a lower IF for more. Bringing the signal in at the original microwave frequency would require an expensive waveguide. A second reason, in receivers that can be tuned to different frequencies, is to convert the various different frequencies of the stations to a common frequency for processing. It is difficult to build amplifiers, filters, and detectors that can be tuned to different frequencies, but easy to build tuneable oscillators. Super heterodyne receivers tune in different frequencies by adjusting the frequency of the local oscillator on the input stage, and all processing after that is done at the same fixed frequency, the IF. Without using an IF, all the complicated filters and detectors in a radio or television would have to be tuned in unison each time the frequency was changed, as was necessary in the early tuned radio frequency receivers. The main reason for using an intermediate frequency is to improve frequency selectivity. In communication circuits, a very common task is to separate out or extract signals or components of a signal that are close together in frequency. This is called filtering. Some examples are, picking up a radio station among several that are close in frequency, or extracting the chrominance subcarrier from a TV signal..

Uses Perhaps the most commonly used intermediate frequencies for broadcast receivers are around 455 kHz for AM receivers and 10.7 MHz for FM receivers. In special purpose receivers other frequencies can be used. A dual-conversion receiver may have two intermediate

frequencies, one higher one to improve image rejection and a second, lower one, for desired selectivity. A first intermediate frequency may even be higher than the input signal, so that all undesired responses can be easily filtered out by a fixed-tuned RF stage. In a digital receiver, the analog to digital converter (ADC) operates at low sampling rates, so input RF must be mixed down to IF to be processed. Intermediate frequency tends to be lower frequency range compared to the transmitted RF frequency. However, the choices for the IF are most dependent on the available components such as mixer, filters, amplifiers and others that can operate at lower frequency. There are other factors involved in deciding the IF frequency, because lower IF is susceptible to noise and higher IF can cause clock jitters. Modern satellite television receivers use several intermediate

frequencies. The 500 television channels of a typical system are transmitted from the satellite to subscribers in the Ku microwave band, in two sub bands of 10.7 - 11.7 and 11.7 - 12.75 GHz. The downlink signal is received by a satellite dish. In the box at the focus of the dish, called a low-noise block down converter (LNB), each block of frequencies is converted to the IF range of 950 - 2150 MHz by two fixed frequency local oscillators at 9.75 and 10.6 GHz. One of the two blocks is selected by a control signal from the set top box inside, which switches on one of the local oscillators. .

Commonly used intermediate Frequencies

Analogue television receivers using system M: 41.25 MHz (audio) and 45.75 MHz (video). Note, the channel is flipped over in the conversion process in an intercarrier system, so the audio IF frequency is lower than the video IF frequency. Also, there is no audio local oscillator; the injected video carrier serves that purpose. Analogue television receivers using system B and similar systems: 33.4 MHz for aural and 38.9 MHz for visual signal. (The discussion about the frequency conversion is the same as in system M) FM receivers, a first intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz is often used, followed by a second intermediate frequency of 470 kHz. There are triple conversion designs used in police scanner receivers, high-end communications receivers, and many point-to-point

microwave systems. AM radio receivers: 450 kHz, 455 kHz, 460 kHz, 465 kHz, 470 kHz, 475 kHz, 480 kHz

APPLICATION OF SATELLITE
1. Weather Forecasting
Certain satellites are specifically designed to monitor the climatic conditions of earth. They continuously monitor the assigned areas of earth and predict the weather conditions of that region. This is done by taking images of earth from the satellite. These images are transferred using assigned radio frequency to the earth station. (Earth Station: its a radio station located on the earth and used for relaying signals from satellites.) These satellites are exceptionally useful in predicting disasters like hurricanes.

2. Military Satellites: These satellites are often used for gathering intelligence, as communications satellite used for military purposes, or as a military weapon. A satellite by itself is neither military nor civil. It is the kind of payload it carries that enables one to arrive at a decision regarding its military or civilian character.

3.Navigation Satellites:
The system allows for precise localization world-wide, and with some additional techniques, the precision is in the range of some meters. Ships and aircraft rely on GPS as an addition to traditional navigation systems. Many vehicles come with installed GPS receivers. This system is also used, e.g., for fleet management of trucks or for vehicle localization in case of theft.

4. Global Telephone:
One of the first applications of satellites for communication was the establishment of international telephone backbones. Instead of using cables it was sometimes faster to launch a new satellite. But, fibre optic cables are still replacing satellite communication across long distance as in fibre optic cable. Using satellites, to typically reach a distance approximately 10,000 kms away, the signal needs to travel almost 72,000 kms that is, sending data from ground to satellite and from satellite to another location on earth.

6. Connecting Remote Areas:

Due to their geographical location many places all over the world do not have direct wired connection to the telephone network or the internet (e.g., researchers on Antarctica) or because of the current state of the infrastructure of a country. The basic purpose of satellites for mobile communication is to extend the area of coverage. Cellular phone systems, such as AMPS and GSM (and their successors) do not cover all parts of a country. Areas that are not covered usually

have low population where it is too expensive to install a base station. Sometimes it becomes necessary for satellite to create a

communication link between users belonging to two different footprints. Here the satellites send signals to each other and this is done using Inter-Satellite-Link (ISL).

USES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

1. Traditional Telecommunications:
Since the beginnings of the long distance telephone network, there has been a need to connect the telecommunications networks of one country to another. This has been accomplished in several ways. Submarine cables have been used most frequently. However, there are many occasions where a large long distance carrier will choose to establish a satellite based link to connect to transoceanic points, geographically remote areas or poor countries that have little communications infrastructure.

2. Television Signals
Satellites have been used for since the 1960's to transmit broadcast television signals between the network hubs of television companies and their network affiliates. In some cases, an entire series of programming is transmitted at once and recorded at the affiliate, with each segment then being broadcast at appropriate times to the local viewing populace. In the 1970's, it became possible for private individuals to download the same signal that the networks and cable companies were transmitting, using c-band reception dishes.

3. Marine Communications
In the maritime community, satellite communication systems such as in marsat provide good communication links to ships at sea. These links use a VSAT type device to connect to geosynchronous satellites, which in turn link the ship to a land based point of presence to the respective nations telecommunications system.

4. Satellite Messaging for Commercial Jets

Another service provided by geosynchronous satellites are the ability for a passenger on an airborne aircraft to connect directly to a land based telecom network.

5. Global Positioning Services

Another VSAT oriented service, in which a small apparatus containing the ability to determine navigational coordinates by calculating a triangulating of the signals from multiple geosynchronous satellites.

CONCLUSION
Satellite systems are not aimed to replace terrestrial system but at complementing them. GEOs are ideal for TV and Radio broadcasting and they do not need handover because of its larger footprint. Lifetime of GEOs is rather high, about 15 years. LEOs need a network of satellites and are appropriate for voice communications. In LEOs handover is frequent and routing is must. MEOs are in between LEOs and GEOs in every aspect. The satellites need fuel known as hydrazine which is a toxic substance but is need by thrusters to keep the satellite in track. With the help of global positioning system we can know about the navigational coordinates by calculation a triangulating of the signals from multiple geosynchronous satellites. Satellites are very important for modern communication. Radio Frequency communication reaching the end of its usefulness.Laser Communications will eventually be the method of choice for satellites. This technology has been a drastic change in field of science and will create a revolutionary change among the mass.

REFRENCES
Jochen H. Schiller Mobile communications-second edition Ivan Stojmenovic Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing Peter T. S. Tam, John C. S. Lui, H. W. Chan, Cliff N. Sze, and C. N. Sze, An optimized routing scheme and a channel reservation strategy for a low earth orbit satellite system How Do Satellites Work? By William Cook, 1996 The Living Earth Earth View Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) Stevens Low Earth Orbiting LEO Compass Rose International Publications Introduction to Global Satellite Systems searchNetworking.com Definitions - Satellite Cochetti, Roger, "Mobile Satellite Communications Handbook", Quantum Publishing, Incorporated 1995.