Isotope Course Manual Laboratory1

Laboratory 1
Pulse counting (the GM-tube)

Summary
Intrumentation for radioactivity measurements normally operate as pulse counting
equipment.
An ionizing particle emitted from the radioactive preparation (sample) and absorbed
in the detector results in an electrical (im)pulse in the electronic measuring circuit.
The number of pulses per unit recording time (the pulse rate), when corrected for the
detector pulse rate in the absence of a radioactive preparation, is taken as a measure
of the activity of the preparation. The fraction of radioactive disintegrations in the
preparation that produces a recorded pulse is the counting eciency.
Each pulse has a nite lifetime, and in part of this time period (the deadtime) the
detector is unable to record new events. The shorter the deadtime, the higher the
pulse rates that can be measured without loss.
The properties of the detector, the sample-detector geometry, the characteristics of
the electronic circuit, and the physical properties of the radionuclide work together to
determine the counting eciency. Only if the counting eciency is exactly the same
for the dierent samples in a series can the pulse rate be taken as representative of
the relative activities of the samples.
These basic aspects of pulse counting are illustrated in the present laboratory, using
a GM-tube as the detector for measuring the pulse rate from radionuclides emitting
radiation.
Radioactivity measurements are normally carried out with the purpose of obtaining
a numerical measure of the activity of a radioactive sample. Activity is dened as
the number of disintegrations per unit time. The SI-unit for activity is the becquerel
(Bq). By denition, 1 Bq 1 disintegration per second.
When a radioactive atom decays, ionizing radiation is emitted. The radiation can
be of several dierent types. In the present laboratory we will use radionuclides that
in practice are pure emitters, i.e. particles (electrons) are emitted in the decay
Laboratory Course Manual 2012
38 Pulse counting (the GM-tube)
event. The detector used (a GM-tube) is designed with this particular radiation type
in mind. radiation is always emitted with a continuous energy distribution, which
means that the individual particle may have an energy between 0 and a maximum
value (E
max
) characteristic of the radionuclide and decay in question.
A radioactive decay may give rise to dierent types of ionizing radiation, and each
radiation type may be emitted with dierent energies. In order to illustrate these
radionuclide properties in a simple graphical form, a decay scheme is often used. The
decay schemes for the radionuclides used in the present laboratory (
14
C and
36
Cl)
are shown in gure 1.8 on page 54.
The physical properties of the radionuclides are often presented in tabular form. An
excerpt of the isotope table for
14
C and
36
Cl are shown in table 1.3 on page 55.
1.1 Objectives
In this laboratory exercise we introduce the application of the Geiger-Mller detector
(GM-tube, or GM-counter) for the detection of radiation. The most important
detector characteristics and sources of error are described, and some general problems
concerning detector systems for ionizing radiation are dealt with.
The GM-tube is introduced as the rst detector in this course because of its sim-
plicity and ease of use, and because it illustrates some of the fundamental aspects of
counting radioactive samples, including important sources of error. The GM-tube is
widely used in instruments for monitoring radiation levels and contamination in the
laboratory. These applications will be dealt with in Laboratory 5.
The GM-tube is used less frequently for analytical purposes, although it still provides
an easy and cheap way of quantifying many of the radionuclides used in biological
laboratories.
The GM-tube is an example of a gas ionization detector. The Addendum
1
(sec-
tion 1.8.2 on page 62) contains ia brief overview of gas ionization detectors and their
most important applications.
1.2 Practical information
With respect to the time for this laboratory exercise, please see the course time
schedule on the website. The participants work pairwise together using the same
equipment, so that the four members of a laboratory subgroup (rapportgruppe) ac-
quire data amongst themselves from two measurement stations (instrument setups).
The subgroup writes an essay or laboratory report (rapport) taking into account
the data from both stations. The report must give a brief overview of the topic of
the exercise, and an evaluation of the results obtained. Please refer to the general
1
The addendum attached to some of the chapters in the laboratory manual contains supplemen-
tary information about the topic of the particular laboratory. The essay for the laboratory may be
prepared without reference to the supplementary information.
Radioactive isotopes and ionizing radiation
Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen
1.3 Theory 39
description of the formal requirements for written laboratory essays on page27, and
to the specic requirements for the present laboratory on page 55.
All questions about this laboratory should be directed to the teacher in charge
(page 60).
1.3 Theory
1.3.1 About measurement theory
The detectors used for radioactivity measurements are normally designed so that the
absorption of an ionizing particle (e.g. a particle) or photon results in an electrical
impulse (a transient voltage deection, often referred to as a pulse) in the detector
circuit. The pulse is then amplied and recorded in the scaler. If M pulses are
recorded during a time interval t, the average pulse rate is M/t. This is also
referred to as the counting rate, r:
r =
M
t
(1.1)
Normally the time is measured in seconds (s) or minutes (min), and accordingly the
units for counting rate become ips or ipm (impulses per s, or impulses per min).
Occasionally the term count is used rather than impulse, and the corresponding
units are cps and cpm.
The quantity r = M/t is taken to represent the activity of the radioactive sample,
or the amount of radioactive material in the sample.
Counting eciency
For geometrical or other reasons the detector records only part of the disintegrations
occurring in the radioactive sample. The fraction of disintegrations leading to a
recorded pulse is called the counting eciency (E)
2
. It is reported either as a
fraction (0 < E < 1), or in percent (%). The counting eciency may be determined
experimentally by using a standard sample with a known activity (expressed in units
of Bq, Ci, dpm
3
etc.). The activity of the standard must be determined under the
same conditions as the unknown samples, and it should contain the same or a similar
radionuclide.
If N is the number of disintegrations in the period t min, we have:
r =
M
t
= E
N
t
(1.2)
2
Throughout the course we will use this denition of counting eciency. In the literature, other
denitions are sometimes encountered: (a) The fraction of particles or photons from the sample
giving rise to a pulse in the detection equipment (absolute counting eciency). (b) The fraction
of the particles/photons hitting the detector that produces a count (intrinsic counting eciency).
3
dpm = disintegrations per minute.
The symbols in equation 1.2 are chosen, so that they are in agreement with the
traditional form of the decay equation
N = N
0
e
t
(1.3)
and with the expression representing the number of nuclear disintegrations (N) in
a nite time interval (t):
N = N
0
(1 e
t
) (1.4)
It is common practice to use the symbol A for activity. Equation 1.2 can therefore
be written as
r =
M
t
= EA (1.5)
In most practical situations the activity of the sample is approximately constant
throughout the measurements (because the half-life of the radionuclide is normally
much longer than the length of the period used for counting the samples, i.e.
T
1/2
t). In spite of this, repeated measurements taken on the same sample
will provide dierent values of the counting rate r. This is due to the fact that
the radioactive decay is a stochastic phenomenon, as will be further described in
Laboratory 2.
Relative counting
Quite often the objective of a measurement procedure is to compare a series of
samples under conditions, in which the counting eciency may be assumed to be
constant for all samples in the series. It then suces to determine the counting
rates (pulse rates) for the individual samples, e.g. in ips, since these are directly
comparable and representative of the relative sample activities. This is called relative
counting.
If on the other hand the counting eciency varies from sample to sample, this must
be taken into account when evaluating the results. In the latter situation, the data
are normally reported in terms of absolute activity, e.g. in dps (disintegrations per
s = Bq). The same applies, if for other reasons it is necessary or advantageous to
obtain a measure of the absolute activity of the samples. As the course progresses,
it will be clear from the context when one or the other of these options apply
4
.
Even when the results are reported in units of absolute activity, it must be borne in
mind that the counting equipment generally used in biological isotope experiments
always has a counting eciency less than 100 % (E < 1). Consequently, we are not
4
During the present laboratory we are using radioactive samples with unknown absolute activity.
However, the half-lives of the radionuclides are suciently long, so that the activity may be con-
sidered constant throughout a long period of time. In principle, the objective of the measurements
is to compare the counting rates from a given radioactive sample at two dierent times (e.g. the
start and end of the laboratory session), or under dierent instrumental conditions, where the true
sample activity may in all cases be considered constant. Emphasis is therefore on the capability of
the detector system to reproduce the measurements, and to a lesser extent on the absolute activity
of the samples.
1.3 Theory 41
dealing with absolute activity determinations, i.e. a direct determination of each
individual disintegration in the sample. The absolute activity reported is obtained
by recording the pulse rate (counting rate) as well as the eciency under given
conditions, and then calculating the activity as A = r/E.
Any physical measurement may be seen as an estimate of a true or theoretical
value. In relation to radioactivity measurements, the true value may be consid-
ered the most probable pulse rate (counting rate) from the radioactive sample in the
measurement period. We shall deal with this topic in more detail in Laboratory 2.
Correction for background
A radioactivity detector will normally register a counting rate even in the absence of
a radioactive preparation in the measurement position. This is called the background
counting rate, and it is mainly due to ionizing radiation from the surroundings. In
most cases it is therefore necessary to correct the results for the background contri-
bution, i.e. to subtract the counting rate that does not refer to radioactive decay in
the sample. We often use the terms gross counting rate (sample + background) and
net counting rate (the sample alone).
If the gross counting rate and the background counting rate is r and r
0
, respectively,
the net counting rate is:
r
net
= r r
0
=
M
t

M
0
t
0
(1.6)
The GM-tubes used in the present laboratory are shielded with a lead wall in order
to reduce the counting rate resulting from environmental radiation (cosmic radiation
or radiation from radioactive materials in the laboratory). Later in the course we will
return to counting equipment, in which supplementary methods are used to reduce
the background contribution.
It is recommended to check the background counting rate at regular intervals.
A signicantly increased background may indicate that a contamination of the
equipment has occurred. However, it is important to note that the background
counting rate like the counting rate contribution from the radioactive sample
is a stochastic quantity. We will return to this problem in Laboratory 2.
1.3.2 The Geiger-Mller tube
The Geiger-Mller (GM) tube, an example of a gas ionization detector, is the classical
detector type for radiation. It is used mainly in portable detection instruments,
e.g. equipment for monitoring contamination levels or for performing radioactivity
measurements in the eld. An example of the use of a GM-tube-based contamination
monitor will be discussed in Laboratory 5 (page 207).
With respect to the construction and operation principles of the GM-tube, see the
recommended textbook reading for the current week of the course, published on the
+
Figure 1.1: Diagram of the end-window GM-tube used. The tube contains a gas (the
counting gas) kept at low pressure. Radiation passes from the radioactive
sample (below) through the thin window into the counting gas in the active
volume of the detector, in which an electrical eld is maintained between a
central wire (the anode) and the wall of the tube (the cathode, connected
to electrical ground). The radiation ionizes the molecules of the counting
gas, and the negative electrons and positive gas ions are accelerated in the
electrical eld and collected on the anode and cathode, respectively. The
anode and cathode are connected through an external electrical circuit (not
shown). The voltage dierence between anode and cathode and thus the
strength of the electrical eld is high enough to accelerate the electrons
suciently for them to ionize further gas molecules on their way (secondary
ionization). Absorption of a particle in the counting gas therefore produces
a large pulse in the associated measuring circuit.
course website.
A diagram of the GM-tubes used in the present laboratory is shown in gure 1.1.
The GM-tube cannot be used for the detection of radiation with a very low energy.
This is because low-energy radiation is totally absorbed in the window of the GM-
tube, and therefore cannot produce ionizations in the sensitive volume of the tube
(the counting gas). This topic will be discussed further in Laboratory 3.
A diagram of the instrument setup to be used in this laboratory is shown in gure 1.2.
The high voltage to the GM-tube may be varied in the interval 3001300 V, either
continuously or in increments of e.g. 50 V. When an ionizing particle is absorbed in
the counting gas, a brief deection in the voltage of the anode, an electrical impulse,
results. The impulse is amplied to a magnitude that allows it to be recorded in the
scaler as a count. The lter shown in the diagram is a simple discriminator with
the function of eliminating noise pulses generated in the amplier and associated
circuitry. The number of counts (M) is recorded electronically in the scaler, which
may be set to stop counting when a predened number of counts have been recorded
(preset count). The timer registers the length of the measurement period (t),
and it may be set to stop counting after a given period of time has elapsed (preset
time).
It is characteristic of the GM-tube that the magnitude of the electrical pulse
generated by the absorption of a particle in the counting gas is independent of
the amount of energy deposited by the particle in the gas. The GM-tube therefore
1.3 Theory 43
Amplifer
High voltage
Scaler
Filter
(discriminator)
Timer
GM-tube
Figure 1.2: Diagram of a simple pulse counting setup with a GM-tube. A voltage supply
delivers the operating voltage to the GM-tube (the voltage dierence between
the anode (central wire) and cathode). The impulses are amplied, noise
pulses removed in a discriminator lter, and the number of pulses recorded
in a scaler. The length of the counting period is recorded by a timer.
cannot be used for pulse height discrimination, i.e. for investigating the energy
distribution in the absorbed radiation
5
.
Before initiating measurements with a new GM-tube, and at regular intervals during
its continued use, it is recommended to check that the tube functions correctly, i.e.
that it is able to perform accurate and reproducible measurements. The function of Functionality
criteria
a GM-tube detector is evaluated on basis of its characteristic curve, its background
counting rate, and its deadtime. Furthermore, it is recommended to test the ability
of the GM-tube to reproduce measurements, based on a statistical analysis of repeat
counts of the same radioactive sample (see Laboratory 2).
1.3.3 Characteristic curve
The selection of an appropriate high voltage setting, the operating voltage, is a prere-
quisite for the correct and stable performance of the GM-tube. The operating voltage
is established on basis of the characteristic curve for the particular GM-tube, i.e. a
curve depicting the counting rate, r, from a given radioactive sample as a function of
the voltage supplied to the tube. An example of a characteristic curve, recorded for
the same type of GM-tube as used in the present laboratory, is shown in gure 1.3.
The operating voltage should be on the (almost) horizontal part of the characteristic Operating
voltage
curve (the plateau), and is normally chosen to be about 50 V higher than the thres-
hold voltage, i.e. the voltage at the beginning of the plateau. The voltage setting
corresponding to the situation in which the tube is just beginning to record pulses,
5
This is in contrast to scintillation counting (Laboratories 4, 6 and 9), and to a certain type of
gas ionization counter, the proportional counter. Please refer to the recommended textbooks, and
to the Addendum on page 62.
0,0E+00
5,0E+00
1,0E+01
1,5E+01
2,0E+01
2,5E+01
3,0E+01
3,5E+01
4,0E+01
4,5E+01
5,0E+01
450 500 550 600 650 700
I
m
p
u
l
s
h
a
s
t
i
g
h
e
d

(
i
p
s
)
High voltage (V)
450 500 550 600 650 700
50
40
30
20
10
0
P
u
l
s
e

r
a
t
e
,

r

(
i
p
s
)
Starting voltage
Threshold
Operating voltage
(600 V)
Figure 1.3: Characteristic curve for a GM-tube: The counting rate from a standard sam-
ple is plotted as a function of the voltage supplied to the tube. Each point
represents the counting rate r 1 standard error (Poisson-error, see Labo-
ratory 2, page 77). The operating voltage is chosen in the mid-part of the
almost horisontal plateau. The slope of the plateau in the present case was
calculated to 4.3 % per 100 V (volt).
is often called the starting voltage.
As a standard sample for recording the characteristic curve, we use a
14
Clabeled
disk of polystyrene, containing about 40 kBq
14
C pr. g polystyrene. The disk is
mounted in an aluminum planchet. When selecting an appropriate radionuclide for
the standard, account must be taken of both the half-life and the energy of the
emitted radiation. The half-life should long enough, so that no signicant change
of the activity of the sample occurs during the period of use. The half-life of
14
C
is 5700 40 years (a)
6
. It is recommended to use a radionuclide with a energy
of approximately the same magnitude as that of the radionuclide in the unknown
samples, the activity of which are to be determined. Calibrated standard samples of
various long-lived radionuclides are commercially available.
The properties of the GM-tube may change with time, and it is therefore recom- Reprodu-
cibility
mended to control its function before and after measuring a series of unknowns; this
is done by counting the standard sample. If the counting rate of the standard can be
reproduced before and after counting the unknowns, this may be taken to indicate a
correct and stable operation of the GM-tube. It is also advisable to check the starting
voltage regularly, e.g. once a month. If the counting rate for the standard, and/or
the starting voltage changes, the characteristic curve must be established again to
ensure that the operating voltage is still reasonably situated on the horizontal part
of the curve. If the standard counting rate cannot be reproduced, the GM-tube is
faulty and must be replaced.
For the GM-tube to function correctly, it is normally assumed that the slope of
6
a = annus = year.
1.3 Theory 45
plateau of the characteristic curve should be less than 8 % per 100 V, and the length
of the plateau must be 100 V or more.
The plateau slope (expressed as % per 100 V) may be estimated from the expression
=
r
B
r
A
r
A
+r
B
2
100 (% per 100 V) (1.7)
provided the pulse rates r
A
and r
B
are recorded for two voltages, A and B, that are
100 V apart on the at section of the characteristic curve. If the voltage dierence
between the two points deviate from 100 V, a correction must be applied. The
denominator in the above expression represents the counting rate at the mid-point
of the voltage interval.
1.3.4 Deadtime
The deadtime of a pulse detector () is the time period immediately after starting a
pulse, during which it is impossible to record new pulses (the refractory period). In
the GM-tube represents the time required for completing the collection of charges
on the anode and cathode after a primary ionizing particle (particle etc.) has
ionized the counting gas.
The GM-tube has a relative poor time resolution, corresponding to a long deadtime
( = ca. 10
4
s or 100 s). In contrast, modern ampliers have a good time
resolution ( = ca. 10
6
s or 1 s), and it is therefore tempting to try recording
higher counting rates than the detector can accomodate. The deadtime of the GM-
tube is approximately constant, and independent of the absorption of a new ionizing
particle while the pulse from the former one is still being processed (non-extendable
deadtime, or type 1).
If r is the number of counts recorded per unit time, R the expected or true number
of pulses per unit time, and is the deadtime per pulse, the detector will be blocked
during a time interval r pr. unit time. The number of pulses lost (not recorded)
per unit time is:
Rr = R r (1.8)
It follows that the true number of pulses per unit time (the true counting rate) is:
R =
r
1 r
(1.9)
The deadtime, , is
=
R r
Rr
(1.10)
If R and r are measured in ips (or cps, i.e. impulses or counts pr. s), the unit for
is: s (or rather: s per pulse, or per count). If the counting rate is given in ipm,
will take the unit: min (pr. count).
Table 1.1: Percentage loss of counting rate ( %) for dierent combinations of deadtime
( s) and counting rate (R ips).
R (ips) = 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 (s)
20 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.79 0.89 0.99
40 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.79 0.99 1.19 1.38 1.57 1.77 1.96
60 0.30 0.60 0.89 1.19 1.48 1.77 2.06 2.34 2.63 2.91
80 0.40 0.79 1.19 1.57 1.96 2.34 2.72 3.10 3.47 3.85
100 0.50 0.99 1.48 1.96 2.44 2.91 3.38 3.85 4.31 4.76
120 0.60 1.19 1.77 2.34 2.91 3.47 4.03 4.58 5.12 5.66
140 0.70 1.38 2.06 2.72 3.38 4.03 4.67 5.30 5.93 6.54
160 0.79 1.57 2.34 3.10 3.85 4.58 5.30 6.02 6.72 7.41
180 0.89 1.77 2.63 3.47 4.31 5.12 5.93 6.72 7.49 8.26
200 0.99 1.96 2.91 3.85 4.76 5.66 6.54 7.41 8.26 9.09
220 1.09 2.15 3.19 4.21 5.21 6.19 7.15 8.09 9.01 9.91
240 1.19 2.34 3.47 4.58 5.66 6.72 7.75 8.76 9.75 10.71
260 1.28 2.53 3.75 4.94 6.10 7.24 8.34 9.42 10.47 11.50
280 1.38 2.72 4.03 5.30 6.54 7.75 8.93 10.07 11.19 12.28
300 1.48 2.91 4.31 5.66 6.98 8.26 9.50 10.71 11.89 13.04
R is the expected or true counting rate, i.e. the pulse rate without deadtime loss. The percentage
deadtime loss is calculated as
Rr
R
100 %.
It should be noted that equation 1.8 (and the equations derived from it) only apply
exactly, provided no more than a single pulse may be lost per pulse recorded, i.e. if
the counting rate is not too high.
Signicance of the deadtime loss
From a statistical point of view, the precision of a measurement is a function of the
number of pulses recorded during the measurement period. When counting samples
with a relatively large activity (high counting rate), the deadtime of the GM-tube
can be a considerable source of error, so that the accuracy of the determination
is diminished. In this situation, the validity of the results cannot be improved by
choosing to work with higher-activity samples. The precision of the results should
not be evaluated on basis of the number of recorded pulses, unless provision is taken
for correcting the deadtime loss if necessary.
The dilemma outlined above may also be expressed in the following way: A high
counting rate reduces the relative signicance of the variation that is due to the sto-
chastic nature of the radioactive decay (e.g. it increases the precision), but on the
other hand a large counting rate may lead to a signicant loss of pulses due to the
deadtime, so that the accuracy of the measurement is reduced. The percentage loss
of pulses due to the detector deadtime,
=
R r
R
100 % ,
is shown in table 1.1 as a function of R and .
The experimental determination of for a given detector is associated with a rela-
tively large uncertainty, and this will therefore also apply to the deadtime-corrected
1.3 Theory 47
counting rates. In practice it is therefore recommended to use experimental condi-
tions leading to a deadtime loss that is small compared to the analytical accuracy
required.
Example 1.1 The GM-tube with the characteristic curve displayed in gure 1.3
has a deadtime of = 130 s (per impulse). With a voltage of 630 V (on the
plateau of the curve) the recorded pulse rate was r = 42.5 ips. The true pulse
rate may be found from equation 1.9:
R =
r
1 r
=
42.5
1 42.5 (1.3 10
4
)
= 42.7 ips
and the percentage loss due to deadtime is
R r
R
100 = 0.55 %
A systematic error of this magnitude acceptable in most circumstances.
Experimental determination of deadtime
The easiest way to determine is the following: Two radioactive samples
7
with
counting rates in the range 150250 ips are used. The counting rate is determined
separately for each of the two samples, and subsequently the samples are counted
together (split source method). The latter counting rate will be less than the sum of
the individual counting rates, because the dierence Rr increases with increasing
sample activity. The individual counting rates for two samples are r
1
og r
2
, and
the counting rate for two samples together is r
12
. The background counting rate
(the counting rate without sample) is r
0
. The true counting rates (assuming no
deadtime losses) are similarly designated R
1
, R
2
og R
12
, and the true background
rate is called R
0
. It may be shown that
R
1
+ R
2
= R
12
+ R
0
(1.11)
If R
1
, R
2
, R
12
and R
0
are expressed in terms of equation 1.9, equation 1.11 takes the
form of a quadratic expression for that is normally solved by an approximation.
An example of such an approximated solution is:
=
r
1
+ r
2
r
12
r
0
2r
1
r
2
(1.12)
The number of pulses that can be recorded without the need for deadtime correction
obviously depends on the measurement accuracy desired. The error due to the
deadtime is %, where
=
R r
r
100 % (1.13)
7
In this laboratory, we use samples of
36
Cl, a emitter with T
1/2
= 3.01 10
5
a.
Figure 1.4: Dimensions of the GMdetector assembly, cf. equation 1.15 and the values
in table 1.2, page 52. To be used for determining the geometry factor g, i.e.
the solid angle under which a punctiform (point) sample sees the window
of the GM-rube.
If % is required not to exceed a certain value,
max
, the recorded counting rate
may be no higher than r
max
:
r
max
=

max
(
max
+ 100)
(1.14)
where
max
is given in %.
The acceptable value of
max
of course depends upon the problem to be studied.
Modern radioactivity counting equipment often uses an alternative method for
deadtime correction: As soon as a pulse is registered, the voltage to the detector
is cut o for a length of time corresponding to the detector deadtime, and this
time interval is subtracted from the recorded counting time (t). Since the pulses
are randomly distributed in time, this will provide a correct estimate of the true
counting rate R.
1.3.5 Geometry
The fraction of the total number of particles from a punctiform sample that is
registered by the detector is a function of the solid angle under which the sensitive
volume of the detector is seen from the sample. For an end-window GM-tube, this
fraction often called the geometry factor is given by the solid angle centered
in the sample point and described by the periphery of the GM-tube window. With
the dimensions given in gure 1.4 we obtain:
g =
2a(a b)
4a
2
(1.15)
=
1
2
[
1
b
b
2
+ c
2
]
1.3 Theory 49
0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,50
0,00 2,00 4,00 6,00 8,00 10,00 12,00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from sample to counting window, b (cm)
Counting window radius (cm), c =
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
G
e
o
m
e
t
r
y

f
a
c
t
o
r
,

g
1
2
3
4
Figure 1.5: The geometry factor for dierent values of b og c.
=
1
2
[
1
b/c
(b/c)
2
+ 1
]
It is seen from this expression that the geometry factor g only depends on b/c, i.e.
the ratio of the distance between sample and counter window to the radius of the
window.
The geometry factor g is shown in gure 1.5 for four dierent values of the counting
window radius (c) and as a function of the distance between the counting window
and the radioactive sample (b).
For an end-window detector the geometry factor cannot exceed 0.5, which may
be seen by inserting b = 0 in equation 1.15. A geometry factor of 0.5 corresponds
to a solid angle of 2. Measurements performed under such conditions are often
referred to as 2 geometry.
For suciently large values of b/c (i.e. b/c > 10), the recorded count rate will
decrease with the square of the distance between sample and counter window.
If the sample is not punctiform, things are a bit more complicated. However, as
long as the diameter of the radioactive sample is signicantly less than that of the
window, the deviation from the above description will be slight.
Example 1.2 A punctiform sample of vanishing mass, containing a emitter
with a high E
max
(i.e. relatively penetrating radiation), is placed in the middle
of a counting planchet that is centered under the GM-tube window. The radius
of the window is c = 1.43 cm, and the distance between sample and window is
b = 1.6 cm, so that b/c = 1.119. Equation 1.15 gives the following value for the
geometry factor:
g =
1
2
[
1
b/c
(b/c)
2
+ 1
]
Figure 1.6: Examples of end-window GM-tubes used on the course, cf. the diagram in
gure 1.4. The counter window is seen on the GM-tube in the foreground.
The photograph also shows counting planchets of aluminum.
= 0.373
This means that due to geometry only 37.3 % of the particles emitted from the
sample will give rise to a pulse in the detector setup.
If the energy E
max
of the radiation is low, the range of the radiation will be
correspondingly short. This may cause a signicant fraction of the particles
to be totally absorbed in the counting window. The counting eciency E will
therefore be smaller than expected on the basis of g. The same applies if the
radioactive sample has a layer thickness that is not insignicant as compared to
the range of the radiation, because some of the particles will then be absorbed
in the sample itself (self-absorption, see Laboratory 3).
1.4 Procedure
The GM-tubes used for this laboratory (gure 1.6) are of the end-window type with
halogen quenching. The window is made from mica with a thickness of approx.
2 mg cm
2
and a diameter of 2.86 cm.
8
The GM-tube is placed in a hollow lead block serving to reduce the background
counting rate due to radiation from the surroundings. The radioactive sample (in
the form of an aluminum planchet) is placed on a brass slide, which allows the sample
to be centered below the window of the GM-tube. We are using dierent types of lead
shielding and sample slides, as shown in gure 1.7. The dimensions of the dierent
detector assemblies are shown in table 1.2.
From the course pages on Absalon you may download an Excel spreadsheet
9
that Excel
spread-
sheet
8
For reasons to be discussed in Laboratory 3 we will often state the layer thickness of materials
in units of mass per area, rather than in conventional linear units. A layer of mica of 2 mg cm
2
has a linear thickness of 7 m.
1.4 Procedure 51
Figure 1.7: Types of lead shields used in this laboratory, and slide arrangements used for
centering samples below the window of the GM-tube. Large lead block to
the left, small (round) lead block in the middle, and lead block with plastic
base to the right, cf. 1.2.
Basic settings for the GM-setup
In this laboratory we will use the following settings for the analyzer- and timer/scaler
units:
Mode: integral
Disc. level: 2.0
Chann. width: 10.0
High voltage: variable (max. 700 V)
Gain: 2 (with options 1, 2 and 10)
1 (with options 1 and 10)
normal (with options normal / low)
will facilitate tabulation, calculations and graphical representation of the results from
this laboratory. A printout of the spreadsheet may also be used for recording the
data during the measurements.
1.4.1 Characteristic curve
Place the
14
Cstandard sample in the counting position in the uppermost slide posi-
tion. Set the high voltage to the GM-tube to 300 V (the lowest value possible), and
start counting. In this situation no counts are recorded.
Increase the voltage in small steps, until the scaler just begins recording counts; take
note of the starting voltage. Continue increasing the voltage in steps of 10 V until
the threshold voltage is reached, and subsequently in steps of about 50 V. At each
voltage setting, incl. the starting voltage, determine the number of counts (M)
during the corresponding time interval (t) of 1 min or 100 s, whatever is most
convenient with the preset functions of the timer, and calculate the count rate which
9
Choose Course documents, Excel worksheets....
Table 1.2: Dimensions of the GM-detector assemblies, cf. gure 1.4 and 1.7.
(1) (2) (3)
Slide Large Small (round) Lead block with
position lead block lead block plastic base
Window c = 1.4 1.4 1.4
radius (cm)
Distance (cm) Upper b = 0.6 0.7 0.6
from window to Middle 1.4
sample bottom Lower 1.1 2.1 1.1
is to be plotted along the vertical axis. However, at the plateau of the curve, each
counting rate should be determined by obtaining approx. 10
4
counts (corresponding
to a relative error of 1 % due to the stochastic nature of the radioactive decay, see
Laboratory 2). Continue the measurements until you have reached a voltage that is
max. 200 V above the threshold voltage.
The GM-tube should never be subjected to voltages more than 200 V above
the threshold. Higher voltages may cause the tube to go into constant
discharge, which will ultimately destroy it.
All counting periods (t) and counts (M) must be recorded. Write down the
observations in a clear and well-arranged form, e.g. by using the Excel spreadsheet
or a printout of it.
The counting rates (r = M/t) are expressed as impulses per second (ips). Plot
the counting rates in a diagram as a function of the high voltage. On basis of the
resulting characteristic curve, you should choose the operating voltage to be used for
all subsequent measurements in this and the following laboratories.
1.4.2 Counting the standard sample and background 1
At the working voltage selected (see above), determine the background counting rate
(r
0
) twice in 5 min or 400 s, and the counting rate from the
14
C standard sample
twice until approx. 10
4
counts have been collected.
Are the duplicate measurements in reasonable agreement?
You will later need to compare the results to those obtained towards the end of this
laboratory.
1.4.3 Deadtime
You will receive two crescent-shaped samples, each containing approximately the
same amount of a radioactive material (
36
Cl) deposited in a groove on the upper
face. The samples, one of which is marked , may be placed one at a time in an
aluminum planchet together with a black (inactive) spacer, or both samples may be
arranged simultaneously in the planchet. Remember to place the samples with the
radioactive groove facing upwards.
1.5 Radioactive samples 53
The counting rates r
1
, r
2
and r
12
are determined in two independent series of mea-
surements. Try to reproduce the position of the samples in the detector assembly as
accurately as possible. Both r
1
and r
2
are measured until 2 10
4
counts, whereas
r
12
is determined until 4 10
4
counts are collected. The following sample sequence
is recommended: r
1
, r
12
, r
2
, r
2
, r
12
, r
1
.
1.4.4 Geometry
Two samples are used, each containing the same amount of radioactive material
(
36
Cl). In one of the samples, the activity is present in a very small spot (punctiform
sample), whereas in the other sample the activity is spread over an area with a
diameter equivalent to that of the counting window.
First, place the punctiform sample in the upper slide position, take a measurement,
and then move the slide one position down. Measure the counting rate in both
positions until at least 4000 counts are collected. Repeat the process with the large
sample in both slide positions, again accumulating at least 4000 counts.
During these measurements the unused brass slide should be removed from the setup.
1.4.5 Standard sample and background 2
The exercise is completed by again counting the background (5 min or 400 s) and
the standard sample (10
4
counts).
Record the data in the spreadsheet or on the printed form, and compare with the
similar measurements taken earlier in this laboratory.
For the purpose of the present laboratory comparison of counting rates (for standard
and background, respectively) recorded at the beginning and at end of the laboratory
is performed qualitatively. In the theory to Laboratory 2 a statistical method is
introduced that may be used for more exacting analysis.
1.5 Radioactive samples
As mentioned in the Introduction (page 34) a brief account is given for each labora-
tory of the radiation protection considerations relating to the the experiments. This
section therefore contains information about the radioactive samples used, and the
ionizing radiation emitted from them. Decay schemes for the radionuclides
14
C and
36
Cl are shown in gure 1.8.
The most important physical properties for the two radionuclides presented in the
same form as in a typical isotope table are shown in table 1.3.
Some of the concepts (dose rate, commited dose) and units (Gy, Sv) to be mentioned
below, will be introduced later in the course
10
. In general, the dose rates encountered
10
For a brief denition, see the Glossary at the course website.
14
C (5700 30 a)
6
14
N (stable)
7
-
(100 %)
36
Ar (stable)
18
-
(98.1 %)
+
(0.0001 %)
EC(1.89 %)
36
S (stable)
16
36
Cl (3.01 10
5
a)
Figure 1.8: Decay schemes for the radionuclides used in this laboratory.
14
C is a pure
emitter (100 % of all decays). The same applies in practice for

36
Cl, because
the
-decays represent more than 98 % of all decays. The remaining

36
Cl-
decays occur by
+
-emission or electron capture (EC), cf. table 1.3.
during the present laboratory are at least 24 orders of magnitude (10
2
10
4
times)
lower than those of practical signicance from a radiation protection perspective.
1.5.1 Standard samples
The radioactive standard samples are made from disks of polystyrene, in which the
14
C is covalently incorporated. The activity per sample is of the order of magnitude
of 0.5 kBq.
14
C is a weak -emitter (low energy, E
max
= 156 keV). The maximum range of the
radiation is 24 cm in air, and 0.028 cm in water or soft biological tissue, respectively
11
.
Due to the short range of the particles and the low activity per sample, external
radiation exposure from the
14
Cstandard samples is not possible. Since the ra-
dioactive material is chemically bound in the polystyrene, the rubbing o of labeled
material from the disk, and consequent contamination of the ngers or utensils used
for handling the samples, is not likely. Consequently, there is no risk of internal
contamination due to accidental intake of radioactive material into the body.
1.5.2 Deadtime and geometry samples
Both the crescent-shaped samples, and the samples used for the geometry experiment
contain about 0.5 kBq
36
Cl. The samples are prepared by pipetting a
36
Clcontaining
aqueous solution onto a planchet, and subsequent evaporation of the solvent.
Like
14
C,
36
Cl is a pure -emitter, but it has higher energy (E
max
= 709 keV), and
therefore a more penetrating radiation. The radiation from
36
Cl has range of
about 200 cm in air and 0.25 cm in water or soft biological tissue. However, due to
the low activity of the samples, there is no real risk of external radiation exposure
11
radiation always has a continuous energy distribution, i.e. the energy of the individual
particles falls in the range 0 E
max
. The maximum range (R
max
) in a given material is the longest
distance, which a particle emitted with the E
max
characteristic of the particular radionuclide can
travel. More about this in Laboratory 3.
1.6 Essay requirements 55
Table 1.3: Excerpts from the isotope table: Physical properties of the radionu-
clides
14
C and
36
Cl.
A
Z
X T
1/2
Radiation type Energy (keV) f (%)
E E E
max
14
6
C 5730 a
49.47 156.47 100.00
14
7
N
36
17
Cl 3.01 10
5
a
+
50.2 120.3 0.01399
e
Au
K 2.110 1.6
36
16
S Ann 511. 0.03
X K 2.30 0.13
36
18
Ar
251.2 708.6 98.2

The data in this table are presented in the same way as in the isotope table in
Isotopteknik 1, page 448 and 450. Please note the alternative decays for
36
Cl. a =
year (annus).
in this case (the dose rate in a distance of 20 cm from the samples is estimated to
about 5 10
5
Gy h
1
).
Due to the way of preparing the samples, it is possible that smudging of activity
may occur. This may lead to contamination, e.g. of the ngers or forceps used for
handling the samples, if they happen to touch the sample surface, and ultimately
internal contamination of the person may occur. However, the activities of the
samples are very low, and the risk due to internal contamination due to smudging
therefore may be considered insignicant. To illustrate this statement, assume that
the total activity of a sample (0.5 kBq
36
Cl) is ingested and swallowed, and the
radioactive material dissolved and absorbed in the intestine. This would result in a
committed eective dose of the order of magnitude of 10
4
mSv. As a comparison,
the dose due to the natural background radiation amounts to about 3 mSv per year.
1.6 Essay requirements
1.6.1 General requirements
Each laboratory subgroup works out a joint essay, based on data from both instru-
ment setups.
Please refer to the general requirements mentioned in the Introduction (page 27),
and to the requirements specic for this laboratory, as detailed in Section 1.6.3.
The essay should be submitted within one week after the laboratory session, or before
the deadline published in Absalon (see Assignments, Lab. 01: Pulse counting, the
GM-tube).
Electronic submission via Absalon is preferred. In that case, a text document in
Word-, ODF- or PDF-format with a brief account of the laboratory, a compilation of
the results, as well as answers to the questions below is submitted. If wanted, copies
of the Excel spreadsheet may be submitted with the measurement data entered into
the respective tables. However, it should be possible to read and understand the
essay without referring to the Excel les.
Each subgroup submits one copy of the text le, and possibly one copy of the Excel
sheet for each instrument setup. Please remember to mention the names of all
participants on the front page of the text le.
Please remember to name the les as described in the Introduction on page 29.
It is also possible to submit the laboratory essay as a paper hardcopy. In that
case, one copy of the text and data is submitted, and all pages must be stapled
together with the general wrapper (see page 30). The wrapper must contain
the name of the laboratory subgroup and its participants, and each individual
participant should sign the wrapper.
1.6.2 Excel worksheet
For this laboratory, an Excel spreadsheet is available through Absalon. It may be
used as a help when performing the calculations and preparing the essay.
The spreadsheet le is in the format of MS Excel 2007. Follow this procedure for
downloading the le from Absalon:
Log in to the course pages on Absalon (see the guide on page 13)
Choose Course documents, and then Excel worksheets. . .
Choose Excel worksheet for Laboratory 1. You may either open the le right
away for viewing, or copy it to disk. The latter is recommended, because you
must work on a local copy of the le in order to save the data entered.
The Excel-le contains the four worksheets mentioned below; each worksheet may
be selected by means of the tabs along the lower edge of the spreadsheet window.
1. Characteristic curve of the GM-tube: In this worksheet space is reserved for
tabulating the values of high voltage, time (t) and the number of counts
(M), when establishing the characteristic curve for the GM-tube. The count-
ing rate and the Poisson-error are automatically calculated
12
. The counting
rate as a function of the voltage (i.e. the characteristic curve of the GM-tube)
is plotted in a diagram, which may be transferred by cut-and-paste to the text
le. The characteristic curve itself (a smooth curve representing the functional
relationship between counting rate and voltage) cannot be created by the work-
sheet, but it must be drawn manually, or generated by curve-drawing software
on the basis of the tabular data. From the characteristic curve, the thresh-
old voltage and the operating voltage are dened. The slope of the plateau is
calculated on basis of the smooth curve.
12
The calculated sample error is the Poisson-error for a single determination (cf. Laboratory 2,
page 77. No account is taken of the background contribution, since the background counting rate
is assumed to be much lower than the gross counting rate of standard samples.
1.6 Essay requirements 57
2. Measurements of standard and background: This worksheet is used to enter
the data relating to the two independent determinations of the standard and
background counting rates. The absolute and relative Poisson error of the
counting rates are automatically calculated.
13
.
3. Deadtime: In this worksheet, data from the background determination and
the measurement of the deadtime samples may be entered. The deadtime and
the corresponding Poisson error are calculated, the latter based on the general
rules for errors of composite measurements (see Laboratory 2, box on page 79).
4. Geometry: Space is assigned in this worksheet for the dimensions of the de-
tector setup, and for the recorded measurements. The geometry factors for
the dierent sample positions are calculated and presented in a table for the
comparison with the recorded counting rates.
The dierent parts of the worksheets are color-coded. It is only possible to enter
data in the white, framed areas.
Equations used in the Excel sheet
The Excel spreadsheet is based on equations and rules described in the theory sections
for Laboratory 1 and/or 2:
Computed quantity Symbol Equation Page
Gross counting rate (pulse rate) r 1.1 39
Net counting rate r
net
1.6 41
Absolute standard error, counting rate s
r
2.14 77
Absolute standard error, net counting rate s
r
net
2.17 78
Relative standard error s
rel
2.19 78
Deadtime 1.12 47
Absolute standard error, deadtime s
Rules in box 79
Geometry factor g 1.15 48
1.6.3 Special requirements
All results from the two instrument setups must be tabulated in the essay in a suitable
form. The net counting rate (the sample counting rate corrected for the background),
and the corresponding Poisson error must be presented for each measurement. The
Poisson error for an individual counting rate determination is a measure of the uncer-
tainty ascribed to the stochastic nature of radioactive decay (see also Laboratory 2).
All results must be reported with the corresponding unit, and with the number of
signicant digits commensurate with the measurement uncertainty.
1. The characteristic curve is constructed on graph paper or by using the prede- Characteristic
curve
ned table and graphics of the Excel worksheet. The absolute Poisson error
must be shown for each point.
13
For the standard samples, the absolute Poisson error is based on the net counting rates; however
the contribution from the background counting error is very small, since the background counting
rate is very much smaller than gross counting rate.
(a) The slope of the curve at the plateau is calculated and presented as % pr.
100 V.
This may be done by eye-tting a straight line through the plateau
region, either on graph paper, or on a printout of the characteristic
curve from the Excel worksheet. Use points on the line for determining
the plateau slope, not necessarily the points observed. The plateau
slope may be calculated from equation 1.7 on page 45.
(b) What are the appropriate conclusions regarding the functionality of the
GM-tube, and the validity of its counting results?
(c) Which operating voltage should be selected?
2. Calculate the background counting rate at the operating voltage at the begin- Standard
and
background
ning and conclusion of the laboratory session (Sections 1.4.2 and 1.4.5). What
are your conclusions as to a possible contamination of the detector during the
laboratory session?
14
3. Do you nd a reasonable agreement between the repeat counts of the
14
C-
standard sample at the beginning and end of the session (Sections 1.4.2 and
1.4.5)? Remember to take into account the uncertainty (Poisson error) of the
individual measurements (qualitative estimate only). Is it possible to make
reproducible counting rate determinations with this equipment?
4. (a) For each instrument setup, two determinations of the deadtime should Deadtime
be made, one for each series of measurements. Use the predened table
in the worksheet. Do you nd a reasonable agreement between the two
deadtime determinations for the individual setups?
(b) Are the calculated deadtimes of the expected magnitude (see section 1.3.4,
page 45)?
(c) In the event that the two determinations from the same setup seem to
dier, is it possible to explain this apparent discrepancy in the light of
the Poisson errors of the individual counting rate determinations?
(d) Does the deadtime seem to be dierent for the two instrument setups
(qualitative assessment)?
(e) What are the deadtime losses in %, when using the two GM-tubes from
this experiment to record counting rates of r = 20 000 ipm or r = 50 000
ipm? (ipm = impulses per minute)
(f) What are the maximum acceptable counting rates without deadtime cor-
rection for these GM-tubes, if the pulse rate loss should be kept below
2 %?
5. Geometry: Dene the net counting rate from the punctiform sample in the Geometry
uppermost slide position as 100 %, and express the counting rates from the
other sample and sample positions relative to that value. Also in this case,
data from both instrument setups must be included. The worksheet may be
used for data presentation and calculations.
14
It is not the intention that this conclusion should be based on a statistical test. It is sucient in
the context of the present laboratory to consider the individual results in the light of the uncertainty
associated to them. The addendum to Laboratory 2 (section 2.8.4) describes a statistical method
for comparing counting rates.
1.7 Additional reading 59
(a) Determine the geometry factor g for each instrument setup (equation 1.15)
for the punctiform sample in the two slide positions. Use the data in
table 1.2. Are your experimental data for the punctiform sample in rea-
sonable agreement with the theoretical gvalue?
(b) Explain the dierence between the net counting rates (r
net
) for the punc-
tiform sample and the large sample, both in the upper slide position?
(c) Discuss the counting rate of the large sample when not in the upper
position?
6. Often the objective of a series of measurements is to compare the activities of General
a set of unknown samples, prepared and counted at dierent times throughout
an experimental period. There may be days or weeks between the individual
measurements.
Discuss based on the experience gathered through the present laboratory
the factors that must be taken into account in order to make such measurements
comparable.
7. A punctiform
14
Csample of vanishing weight is measured in a GM-setup with
a geometry factor of g = 0.20. The window of the GM-tube is known to have a
transmission of 50 % for the radiation from
14
C, and the detector deadtime
is 0.60 ms. The activity of the sample is 160 Bq.
(a) Estimate the expected counting rate (r ipm or ips).
(b) What is the counting eciency (E)?
8. What do we mean by stating that a given detector system is designed for pulse
counting?
9. Is it possible through measurements with a GM-detector to investigate the
energy distribution in the radiation from a radioactive sample (substantiate
the answer!)
1.7 Additional reading
The theoretical background for this laboratory is covered in the recommended text-
book reading, which is listed on the course website or in Absalon (The course week
for week).
Readers of Danish may nd the theoretical background in Chapter 5 of Isotopteknik 1,
especially pages 327334, 339340, 342344, 349350, 352355, 360372, and 374
376.
Additional information about measurement theory, and about detectors and instru-
mentation for ionizing radiation may be found in the following textbooks; chapters
and pages in parenthesis refer to sections dealing specically with the GM-tube:
1. Knoll GF (2000) Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons.
[Chapter 7: Geiger-Mueller Counters, p. 201-217.]
2. Buchtela K (2003) Gas Ionization Detectors. In: Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis,
2nd edition (LAnnunziata MF, ed.), p. 123178. Academic Press, New York.
3. Price WJ (1964) Nuclear Radiation Detection. McGraw-Hill. [Chapter 5: The Geiger-
Mller Counter, 115143]
A short introduction may be found in:
4. Powsner RA, Powsner ER (2011) Essential Nuclear Medicine Physics, 2nd ed. Black-
well Publ., Oxford, U.K. [Chapter 4: Nonscintillation detectors]
Teacher:
Associate professor Jrgen Gomme
Department of Biology, August Krogh Building, room 312
Universitetsparken 13
2100 Kbenhavn
Phone 3532 1639 (direct)
Fax 3532 1567
E-mail jgomme@bio.ku.dk
1.8 Addendum 61
1.8 Addendum
The addenda appended to some of the chapters of the laboratory manual contain
supplementary information related to the topic of the laboratory in question. Both
the practical laboratory work and the preparation of the essay may be carried out
without reference to the addendum. Reading may therefore be postponed until
later in the course.
1.8.1 Detection of dierent types of ionizing radiation
When a GM-tube detects ionizing radiation, this is due to an ionization of the coun-
ting gas in the interior of the tube. Normally an inactive gas, such as argon (Ar), is
used, with the addition of a small amount of quenching gas
15
.
The GM-tube is usually constructed in such a way that the counting gas must be kept
at a low pressure, and consequently the tube must be closed from the surroundings.
The GM-tubes used in this laboratory are of the end-window type, e.g. they have a
thin window (2 mg cm
2
mass per area) at the end of the tube, through which the
ionizing radiation may enter the detector.
The formation of just a single or a few ion pair(s) in the counting gas of the GM-tube
is sucient to produce a pulse, which means that the minimum energy deposit in
the gas required to create a pulse is exceedingly low (ca. 30 eV). Therefore, what
determines the counting eciency for dierent radiation types and energies is largely
the ability of the radiation to penetrate the counting window and reach the counting
gas:
Ionizing radiation composed of electrically charged particles
16
, e.g. and
radiation, has a high ionization density, and thus the particles are sure to be counted
if they do enter the counting gas. However, radiation have a very short range
in matter, and only the most energetic particles (E > 2.25 MeV) are capable of
penetrating the 2 mg cm
2
thick counter window. Also for weak emitters ab-
sorption in the counter window may be a problem, and the energy should exceed
0.05 MeV to permit detection with the GM-tubes of this laboratory. Even for
14
C
(E
max
= 0.156 keV), only about half of the particles emitted will penetrate the
window. The most energy-weak emitters, such as
3
H, cannot be detected. The
same applies to other low-energetic electron radiation, typically Auger-electrons.
Ionizing electromagnetic radiation, such as and X-rays, are much more pene-
trating, and hence the thin window of the GM-tube poses no problem. However,
the and X-ray photons have a much smaller probability of depositing energy in
the counting gas, which represents a very small absorbing mass (as compared to
the detectors normally used for electromagnetic radiation). When electromagnetic
radiation nevertheless may be detected by the GM-tube, this is due largely to the
absorption of photons in the wall of the tube (the metal cathode), which leads to
a release of energetic electrons into the counting gas; it is these secondary electrons
that are detected by the tube (in the same way as are particles).
15
The function of the quenching gas (normally a halogen, e.g. Br
2
) is to neutralize the energy
emission (UV-photons) resulting from the collection by the positive ions of an electron from the
tube cathode, a process that would otherwise lead to a series of after-pulses.
16
Also referred to as directly ionizing radiation.
The eciency of detection of and Xradiation depends partly on the construction
of the tube wall (type of material and thickness), partly on the energy of the radi-
ation. In the GM-tubes of this laboratory, the detection eciency is considerably
lower than for radiation provided the energy is high enough for the particles
to penetrate the window.
We will return in Laboratory 3 and 4 to the processes responsible for the absorption
of radiation and electromagnetic radiation in matter.
1.8.2 Types of gas ionization detectors
Gas ionization detectors may be constructed in many dierent ways. An important
parameter is the voltage level (voltage dierence between anode and cathode), for
which the detector is designed:
Ion chamber: if the voltage dierence is kept signicantly above zero but still
relatively low, all electrical charges liberated by the primary ionization may well
be collected on anode and cathode and thus contribute to the current in the
external circuit. However, the voltage dierence will be too low to allow the free
electrons to produce secondary ionizations. The number of charges collected on
anode / cathode is then a measure of the primary ionization produced by the
incident ionizing particle. Under these conditions the current strength in the
external circuit is proportional to the ionization rate produced by the ionizing
radiation entering the detector. After a suitable calibration of the instrument
setup, this principle may be used to check the activity of a radionuclide in a
given preparation (dose calibrator) or for estimating a biologically relevant
radiation dose or dose rate. Since the current strength is recorded (and not the
pulse rate), this is not pulse counting.
Proportional counter: If the voltage dierence between anode and cathode is
increased (to above the level characteristic for the ion chamber), secondary ion-
izations occur, i.e. the electrons liberated by the incident ionizing particle gain
sucient kinetic energy in the electrical eld to further ionize the molecules
of the counting gas. The absorption of an ionizing particle or photon in the
counting gas therefore produces an avalanche of electrons and positive ions,
leading to an electrical (im)pulse in the external circuit. The number of pulses
per unit measuring time may be taken as a measure of the activity of the ra-
dioactive sample. Within a certain voltage interval the pulse size (measured
in volts) is proportional to the magnitude of the primary ionization, i.e. to
the energy deposited in the counting gas by the primary particle or photon. A
proportional counter can therefore in addition to simple pulse counting
be used to dierentiate between radiation of dierent energy, or between radi-
ations with dierent ionization density (e.g. radiation and radiation may
be distinguished). Proportional counters have many practical applications, and
they may be calibrated for dosimetric measurements.
GM-counter (GM-tube): If the voltage dierence between anode and cathode
is further increased, a very violent secondary ionization occurs. Even a very
small primary ionization (small energy deposition caused by the ionizing par-
ticle or photon) leads to the entire volume of the detector tube being lled
1.8 Addendum 63
with secondary ionizations. A large electrical pulse is generated in the external
circuit, however its magnitude is independent of the size of the primary ioniza-
tion. The GM-tube therefore cannot be used to dierentiate between radiation
of dierent energies. The large gas amplication makes the GM-tube easy to
use, since an advanced electronic signal amplication is not called for.

Isotope Course Manual Laboratory1

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Isotope Course Manual Laboratory1

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Laboratory 1

Pulse counting (the GM-tube)

emitter (100 % of all decays). The same applies in practice for

-decays represent more than 98 % of all decays. The remaining

49.47 156.47 100.00

251.2 708.6 98.2

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