Chapter 15 How Organisms Evolve

15.1 How Are Populations, Genes, And Evolution Related?

Evolution is change in frequencies of alleles in a populations gene pool. Allele

frequencies in a population will remain constant over generations if the following conditions are met: there is no mutation, there is no gene flow, the population is very large, all mating is random, and all genotypes reproduce equally well. These conditions are rarely met in nature. Evolutionary Changes are those that occur from generation to generation and cause descendants to differ from their ancestor. Evolution is a property not of individuals but of populations. Population is a group that includes all the members of a species living in a given area. Gene is a segment of DNA that controls inheritance trait. DNA is a compound in cell nuclei that is the basis of heredity. Allele is one of several alternative forms of a particular gene. Homozygous means having two identical genes. Heterozygous is an individual with different alleles for that gene. Genotype is a genetic group. Phenotype is a visible characteristic of organism. Chromosome is a part of a cell nucleus that contains genes. Diploid means possessing two matched sets of chromosomes in the cell nucleus, one set from each parent. Population Genetic is the study of the allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, gene flow. Gene Pool is the sum of all the genes in a population. Allele Frequency, it is the number of copies of a particular allele divided by the number of copies of all alleles at the genetic place in a population. Hardy-Weinberg Principle, this model showed that under certain conditions, allele frequencies and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant no matter how many generations pass.

15.2 What Causes Evolution? There are five major causes of evolution: Gene Flow, Mutation, Small Population Size,
Nonrandom mating, and Natural selection. Mutations are random, undirected changes in DNA composition. Although most

mutations are neutral or harmful to the organism, some prove advantageous in certain environments. Mutations are rare and do not change allele frequencies very much, but they provide the raw material for evolution. Gene flow is the movement of alleles between different populations of a species. Gene flow tends to reduce differences in the genetic composition of different populations. In any population, chance events kill or prevent reproduction by some of the individuals. Genetic drift, if the population is small, chance events may eliminate a disproportionate number of individuals who bear a particular allele, thereby greatly changing the allele frequency in the population. Two causes of genetic drift: Population Bottleneck is an evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or prevented from reproducing. Founder Effect occurs when isolated colonies are founded by a small number of organisms. Nonrandom mating, such as assortative mating, can change the distribution of genotypes in a population.

15.3 How Does Natural Selection Works?

Natural selection is driven by differences in reproductive success among different

genotypes. Natural selection proceeds from the interactions of organisms with both the biotic and abiotic parts of their environments. When two or more species exert mutual environmental pressures on each other for long periods of time, both of them evolve in response. Such coevolution can result from any type of relationship between organisms, including competition and predation. Adaptations are characteristics that help an individual survive and reproduce. Coevolution is mutual feedback between two species. Predation includes any situation in which one organism eats another. Predators are those who do the eating. Preys are those who are eaten. Balanced Polymorphism two or more phenotypes are maintained in a population. Altruism refers to any behavior that endangers an individual organism or reduces its reproductive success but benefits other members of its species. Kin selection is a natural selection that favors self-sacrificing behavior toward relatives because, even if the individual dies, those relatives that survive will carry some of its genes. Selection can influence population in 3 ways Directional selection favors individuals with an extreme value of trait and selects against both average individuals and individuals at the opposite extreme. Stabilizing selection favors individuals with the average value of trait and selects against individuals with extreme values. Disruptive selection favors individuals at both extremes of a trait and selects against individuals with intermediate values.