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Effect of Additive on Pressure Drop and
Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash
Slurry at High Concentration
Sunil Chandel
a
, V. Seshadri
a
& S. N. Singh
a
a
Department of Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi, India
Published online: 14 May 2009.
To cite this article: Sunil Chandel , V. Seshadri & S. N. Singh (2009) Effect of Additive on Pressure
Drop and Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry at High Concentration, Particulate Science and
Technology: An International Journal, 27:3, 271-284, DOI: 10.1080/02726350902922036
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02726350902922036
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Particulate Science and Technology, 27: 271284, 2009
Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0272-6351 print/1548-0046 online
DOI: 10.1080/02726350902922036
Effect of Additive on Pressure Drop and
Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry
at High Concentration
SUNIL CHANDEL, V. SESHADRI, AND S. N. SINGH
Department of Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi, India
The present study reports the effect of additive on pressure drop and rheological
characteristics of y ash slurry at high concentration (above C
n
60% by weight).
Pressure drop has been measured using a pilot plant test loop for y ash slurry
at various concentrations with and without additive. Mixture of sodium carbonate
and Henko detergent has been used as a additive. Rheological studies are also
carried out for y ash slurry at the same concentrations. By using the rheological
data, pressure drop has been predicted in a straight pipeline of 40mm diameter
at higher concentrations. Experimental results obtained from a pilot plant test loop
were compared to the analytical results based on the Darby and Melson (1981)
algorithm. The comparison showed very good agreement between these sets of data,
and it is found that there is reduction in pressure drop when additive like soap
solution is added to the y ash slurry at higher concentrations.
Keywords Bingham viscosity, Bingham yield stress, y ash slurry, high
concentration, pressure drop
Introduction
Thermal power stations use coal as fuel for electric power generation. They produce
large quantities of y ash and bottom ash as a by-product of combustion.
Transportation of coal ash from thermal power plants to the ash pond is done by
slurry pipelines. Depending on the solid concentration, slurry transportation systems
are of many types. Low concentration (1020% by weight), medium concentration
(3040% by weight), and high concentration (above 50% by weight) disposal systems
are very common in industrial applications. The high concentration slurry disposal
system is emerging in recent years as an economic and environmentally friendly
method for disposal of coal ash from coal-red thermal power plants. Compared to
conventional methods of slurry transportation, major advantages expected from the
high concentration slurry transportation system are (Seshadri et al. 2001):
1. Slurry can be transported at low ow velocity, hence less wear of the pipeline.
2. The specic energy consumption is expected to be much lower.
3. High concentration of y ash, hence, low water consumption.
4. Reduction in the area of ash pond and contamination of ground/surface water
sources.
Address correspondence to S. N. Singh, Department of Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi,
India. E-mail: sidhnathsingh@gmail.com
271
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272 S. Chandel et al.
5. The slurry could be self-settling and self-limiting so that ash will deposit and dry
by itself to form a hard surface in the ash pond.
Bantin and Streat (1970) have investigated dense phase conveying of solid
liquid mixture in both horizontal and vertical pipelines and have found that dense
phase ow is feasible at reasonably high ow rates with overall pressure drop
still being low. Other signicant studies with y ash are Sive and Lazarus (1986),
Verkerk (1985), Singh (1989), Seshadri et al. (2005), Bunn and Chambers (1993),
and Parida et al. (1996). They found that the optimum concentration for y ash
slurry transportation in slurry form is around 50% (by weight) for centrifugal slurry
pumps, and it is feasible to use positive displacement pumps for pumping the y
ash at high concentrations. They concluded that the Bingham plastic model is
adequate for the rheological behavior of y ash slurries at high concentrations.
Elliot (1970) and Wilson (1982) found that at high concentration, slurry behaves
like paste and particles are homogeneously distributed. They observed that a high
concentration disposal system is easy to operate and has comparatively low specic
energy consumption.
Knowledge of slurry rheology is very vital, particularly, in high concentration
slurry transportation. From the literature (Verma 2004; Seshadri et al. 2005;
Bunn et al. 1991; Kumar 2002), it is observed that y ash slurries at higher
concentration (C
n
50%, by weight) behave a like non-Newtonian uid with
rheological equation showing Bingham behavior. They found that the values of
yield stress and Bingham plastic viscosity of slurry increases rapidly with increase in
concentration. Therefore it is essential to establish the rheological nature of y ash
slurries at high concentration.
Work to reduce head loss, and hence energy consumption, through slurry
pipelines has been of fundamental interest to research in the past 50 years.
A number of techniques for reducing head loss in slurry transportation have
been demonstrated, in many cases at both pilot plant and prototype levels.
These techniques were capable of reducing the frictional pressure drop either by
altering the slurry rheological properties or by reducing the impact of adverse
ow properties. Heywood (1986), Verma (2004), Horsely (1982) and Kolar (1970)
described technically proven techniques on the laboratory scale for reducing the
head loss for slurry ow in horizontal pipes. They also discussed some of the
head loss reducing phenomenon with the help of comparative economic analysis.
Verma (2004) has reported that the use of deocculants and soap solution as
additives to the y ash slurries reduces the rheological parameters and can result in
substantial saving in energy consumption.
The objective of the present article is to conduct systematic slurry transport
experiments on a pilot plant test loop at higher concentration and understand the
effect of additive on the pressure drop of the slurry pipeline. The effect of additive
on the rheology of coal ash slurry has also been studied. A mixture of sodium
carbonate and Henko detergent in the ratio of 5:1 was used as the additive
and the concentration of the additive was kept at 0.2% by weight of the total
suspension. Based on the rheological data, pressure drop has been predicted at
high concentrations for both conditions (with and without additive) by Darby and
Melsons (1981) empirical approach.
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Pressure Drop and Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry 273
Experimental Facility
Pilot Plant Test Loop
For any given slurry, experimental data on the ow characteristics have to be
generated by conducting experiments. Pilot plant loop tests are an excellent option
to obtain reliable data for design purposes. The schematic layout of the pilot
plant test loop used in the study is shown in Figure 1. The main components
of pilot plant test loop are mixing tank, pipeline, progressive cavity pump, ow
measuring device, pressure taps, separation chambers, efux sampler, observation
chamber, and valves. The pilot plant consists of a closed-circuit mild steel pipe test
loop of 50m length. This test loop was developed to conduct the pressure drop
studies for particulate slurries at high concentrations. The slurry was prepared in
the hopper-shaped mixing tank. The mixing tank is made of 4mm thick stainless
steel sheet and has an overall height of 1.5m. It has a circular shape at the top and
a capacity of 1.02m
3
. The storage capacity of the hopper depends on continuity
of operation and the overall system availability so the capacity of the hopper is
sufcient for smooth operation of the pilot plant.
The setup comprises a 42mm diameter pipeline connected to a mixing tank
forming the closed recirculating pipe test loop. The slurry is drawn from the mixing
tank into a 42mm diameter pipe loop by a Roto Flow (Roto Pumps Limited) pump,
which is a progressive cavity-type pump. The pump is driven by an induction motor
of 10kW, 415V (72P-0132M4, M/s Power Build Limited). The ow rate in the loop
can be varied over a wide range by suitably operating the plug valves provided in
the pipe loop and the bypass pipeline. The operation of the bypass line also helps in
keeping the slurry well mixed in the mixing tank. The pressure drop in the straight
pipeline is measured by providing the pressure taps at suitable locations in the pipe
loop. The upstream and downstream taps are selected in a manner such that the
ow is fully developed at these locations. Separation chambers were provided at
each pressure tap location to provide interface between the owing uid and the
manometric uid.
For continuous monitoring of the ow rate, a precalibrated electromagnetic
ow meter (ABB Limited) is installed in the vertical pipe section of the loop as
shown in Figure 1. The electromagnetic ow meter has an accuracy of 0.5% and
was calibrated using the volumetric tank method. The test loop is provided with
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of pilot plant test loop.
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274 S. Chandel et al.
an efux sampler tted with a plug valve in the vertical pipe section near the
discharge end for collection of the slurry sample to monitor the solid concentration.
The average efux concentration was evaluated using the measured correlation
between the slurry specic gravity and the solid concentration. Deposition velocity
was estimated by visual observation of the ow in the transparent observation
chamber.
Rheological Test Setup and Measurements
A Weissenberg rheogoniometer (model R 18, M/s. Sangmo Control Ltd., U.K.)
has been used for obtaining the rheological characteristics of the y ash slurries
at various concentrations. It is equipped with a motor and gear box drive unit.
The motor used is a three-phase synchronous motor having a rating of 1hp at
415 volts running at 1500rpm. The gear box provided offers 60 selected speeds
in the equal ratio of 1:1.259. The main components of the rheogoniometer are
base, main drive, two-way drive box, and column. The column is tted at the
back of the main drive box. It carries the torsion head, the gap-setting transducer,
and ancillaries. The control and measuring instruments are mounted in a standard
housing. A linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) type transducer measures
the torsional displacement of the bar.
For tests with slurry, a concentric cylinder type of platen was used. The cylin-
drical bob (diameter: 50.0276mm and height: 50.3846mm) is attached to a torsion
bar and the concentric cup (diameter: 54.9021mm) can be rotated at the desired
speed. Due to the rotation of the platen, the slurry undergoes shearing action.
For rheometric tests, 50mL of the suspension was prepared by mixing the required
quantity of y ash with distilled water to obtain the desired concentration (C
n
).
An electronic balance with a resolution of 10
4
gm was used for weighing the
materials accurately. The suspension was mixed gently by a glass rod, taking care
to avoid attrition of the particles. The complete slurry was poured into the cup. The
desired speed of rotation was selected by adjusting the gear ratios. The slurry was
well stirred by a glass rod and the bob was quickly lowered into the cup so that the
free surface touched the top of the bob. The motor was started and the deection
of the torsion bar was noted through the output of the LVDT-type transducer.
Such measurements were made over a wide range of rotational speeds. Between
successive readings the bob was raised and the slurry stirred well so that the effect
of settling of solids was avoided in the measurements. Measurement at any given
speed was repeated to ensure precision of the data. Further, at each concentration,
measurements were done on at least two samples of the same material to asses s the
extent of repeatability. The two sets of data on shear stress at any given shear rate
agreed within 2%.
Properties of Fly Ash and Range of Parameters
Fresh y ash sample from the electostatic precipitator (ESP) hopper of a thermal
power plant was used for the present study. The various physical properties of
the y ash are given in Table 1. For transportation of solids through slurry
pipeline, specic gravity is an important design parameter as it decides the settling
characteristics of the slurry. The specic gravity of the solid was determined using
the standard pycnometer method and was found to be 1.992. The maximum size in
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%

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e
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S
i
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(
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r
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n
=
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b
y
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t
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)
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(
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)
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v
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(
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)
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C
n
(
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y
w
t
.
)
5
0
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0
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0
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f

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a
s
h
(
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n
s
i
e
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e
d
)
=
1
.
9
9
2
;
w
e
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g
h
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e
d
m
e
a
n
d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
,
J
n
m
=
4
0

,
J
5
0
=
2
5

.
275
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276 S. Chandel et al.
the y ash sample is 300m and 85% by weight is below 75 microns. In the
sample of the y ash, 85.8% particles are ner than 74m. The weighted mean
size (J
nm
) and the J
50
of the y ash particles are 40 and 25m respectively,
which show that the y ash particles are largely in the category of ne particles.
The static settled concentration is also a very important parameter as it decides the
highest limit of solid concentration that can be achieved by gravitational settling.
The maximum static settled concentration of the y ash slurry is 58% by weight.
By the use of bypass line and stirrer, a concentration of more than 58% was
achieved. A Weissenberg rheogoniometer (model R 18, M/s. Sangmo Control Ltd.,
U.K.) was used for obtaining the relation between rate of shear and the shear stress
of the y ash slurries at 50, 60, 65, 68, and 70% concentration (by weight) with and
without additive. The additive used is a mixture of sodium carbonate and Henko
detergent in the ratio 5:1. The additive concentration used is 0.2% by weight of
the total slurry. The rate of shear during most of the measurement was varied in the
range from 20 to 120s
1
. These ranges correspond to the magnitudes of shear rates
expected in slurry pipeline transportations.
Analytical Method for Prediction of Pressure Drop
The most important parameter for prediction of pressure drop is the friction
factor, which is dependent on the pipe Reynolds number. For slurries having high
concentrations, it is possible to have all three forms of ow, namely, laminar,
transition, and turbulent ow depending on the value of Reynolds number.
For laminar ow, the Fanning friction factor expression is obtained by theoretical
analysis. However, for transition as well as for turbulent ow regimes, the evaluation
of friction factor is based on some empirical correlations. The present analysis is based
on the empirical approach of Darby and Melson (1981). Their mathematical approach
is briey described below.
The relationship for the Fanning friction factor, the Hedstorm number (H
e
),
and the Bingham Reynolds number (Re
B
) is given by
1
Re
B
=
]
16

H
e
6Re
2
B
+
H
4
e
3]
3
Re
8
B
(1)
where
H
e
=
D
2
t
,B
j
m
p
2

(2)
and
Re
B
=
DVj
m
p

(3)
It is also possible to express the friction factor in terms of modied Reynolds
number, Re
mod
:
] =
16
Re
mod
(4)
where
Re
mod
=
6Re
2
B
6Re
B
+H
e
(5)
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Pressure Drop and Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry 277
Though the exact formula for the Fanning friction factor is expressed by Equation (1),
the friction factor can also be obtained approximately from Equation (4).
For the transition from laminar to turbulent ow Hanks and Pratt (1967)
proposed the following critical Reynolds number criterion. It occurs at a critical
value of Re
B
given by
(Re
B
)
c
=
H
e
8x
c

1
4
3
x
c
+
1
3
x
4
c

(6)
where x
c
is evaluated from the relation
x
c
(1 x
c
)
3
=
H
e
16800
(7)
In the turbulent ow regime, the expression for ]
T
is based on the empirical
formulae developed by Darby and Melson (1981). The following expression is used
for evaluating the Fanning friction factor in the present study:
]
T
= 10
c
Re
0.193
B
(8)
where
c = 1.378(1 +0.146 exp(2.9 10
5
Re
B
)) (9)
To arrive at a single friction factor expression valid for all ow regimes, the modied
friction factor is evolved by Darby and Melson (1981) as
] =

]
m
L
+]
m
T

1,m
(10)
where
m = 1.7 +40000,Re
B
(11)
On the basis of the above formulation, a simple computer program was
developed for the evaluation of the pressure drop. The program covers the whole
range of uid ow, i.e., laminar, transition, and turbulent regimes of ow. In the
present calculations, the temperature correction has also been incorporated because
the temperature during the rheological measurements and that during pipeline ow
could be different.
Results and Discussion
The plots of experimental data in terms of shear stress (t) and shear rate (), in
the range from 20 to 120s
1
were analyzed for identifying the rheological model.
It is seen that the variation of the shear stress with shear rate at all concentrations
with and without additives for these y ash sample follows a straight-line behavior.
The straight-line equation is expressed in the form (Bingham plastic model):
t = t
,
+p

(12)
where t
,
= Bingham yield stress and p

= Bingham viscosity.
The straight-line equation was tted for each set of data, using the method of
least squares. It was seen that the values of t
,
are nonzero for all sets of data.
This implies that the y ash slurry, for the data presented, shows a non-Newtonian
behavior and can be represented by a Bingham plastic model uid. A typical
rheogram of y ash slurry at 65% concentration is shown in Figure 2.
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278 S. Chandel et al.
Figure 2. Rheogram of y ash slurry at concentration C
n
= 65% (by wt.).
Effect of Solid Concentration on Slurry Rheology
Table 2 shows the variation of the yield shear stress and Bingham plastic viscosity
with concentration, and it is seen that in the range of tests carried out, the values of
both yield shear stress (t
,
) and the relative Bingham plastic viscosity (p
r
= p

,p
n
)
increase exponentially with increase in solid concentration. This can be attributed to
the decrease in the consistency of the slurries, which increases the resistance to shear.
Also, when relatively larger numbers of solid particles are present, a comparatively
larger value of initial shear stress is required to start the process of shearing.
The yield shear stress (t
,
) value at 70% solid concentration is 1.945Pa, whereas at
60% solid concentration it is 0.36Pa. The value of relative Bingham viscosity (p
r
) at
60% solid concentration is 16.27 and 275.3 at 70% solid concentration. This increase
can be explained on the basis of the fact that the number of particles and the
surface area of the solids per unit volume of slurry increases with increase in solid
concentration.
Table 2. Rheological properties of y ash
Yield Slurry viscosity Water viscosity Relative
% C
n
Temp. stress p

( 10
3
) p
n
( 10
3
) slurry
(by wt.) (

C) t
,
(Pa) (Pa-s) (Pa-s) viscosity p
r
Remarks
0 25 0.891 1.0 Newtonian
60 25 0.360 14.50 0.891 16.27 non-Newtonian
65 25 1.36 53.40 0.891 60.00 non-Newtonian
68 25 1.712 172.10 0.891 193.15 non-Newtonian
70 25 1.945 245.30 0.891 275.30 non-Newtonian
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Pressure Drop and Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry 279
Table 3. Rheological properties of y ash with (WA) and without additive (WOA)
Without additive (WOA) With additive (WA)
Top particle % C
n
Temp. (

C) Yield stress Slurry viscosity Yield stress Slurry viscosity

size (TPS) (by wt.) WOA/WA (t
,
) in Pa p

( 10
3
) Pa-s (t
,
) in Pa p

( 10
3
) Pa-s
0.3mm 60 25/25 0.360 14.50 0.10 7.75
65 25/25 1.360 53.40 0.99 35.90
68 25/25 1.712 172.10 1.04 110.0
70 25/25 1.945 245.30 1.20 150.20
Effect of Additive on Fly Ash Slurry Rheology
Table 3 shows the effect of a mixture of sodium carbonate and Henko detergent
additive in the ratio of 5:1 (0.2% by weight) on the yield stress and Bingham plastic
viscosity at different concentrations. Data shows a marked decrease in viscosity of
the y ash slurry from 14.50 Pas to 7.75 Pas at C
n
= 60%. Similarly, at 70% solid
concentration, p

reduces from 245.30 Pas to 150.2 Pas. Data also show that the
mixture of sodium carbonate and Henko detergent drastically decreases the yield
shear stress of y ash slurry from 0.360 Pa to 0.10 Pa at C
n
= 60%. Similarly, at 70%
solid concentration yield stress reduces from 1.945Pa to 1.20Pa. From the results,
it is observed that mixture of sodium carbonate and Henko detergent as additive
reduces both viscosity and yield stress of y ash slurry signicantly. The reason
behind reduction in viscosity is that in the turbulent ow regime there is a reduction
in interparticle friction, whereas in the laminar ow regime, this effect can be
attributed to the reduction of surface tension and zeta potential of the ne particles
due to the presence of additive.
Figure 3. Pressure drop variation in 40mm NB pipeline for y ash slurry with ow velocity
at different concentrations (% by wt.).
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280 S. Chandel et al.
Figure 4. Comparison of experimental and predicted values of pressure drop at various ow
velocities and concentrations.
Pressure Drop Characteristics
In the pilot plant test loop, measurement of pressure drop across a stretch 7m
in length for a 40mm NB pipeline at various ow velocities was performed with
water and subsequently for y ash slurries with solid concentrations in the range
of 5070% (by weight); the results are presented in Figure 3. At each concentration
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Pressure Drop and Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry 281
the pressure drop in mWc for a 100m pipeline is calculated from the measurements
over the range of velocities. It is observed that at any given solid concentration
the pressure drop increases with increasing velocity, the rate of increase being more
pronounced at higher velocities. Observations show a large increase in pressure drop
at high concentrations as compared to the pressure drop at low concentrations, and
this is directly related to the non-Newtonian nature of the slurry. The pressure drop
in laminar ow is a strong function of rheological properties, and increase in yield
stress/viscosity increases the pressure drop manifold.
Using the measured values of p

and t
,
, computations have been carried out to
evaluate the pressure drop in a smooth pipeline of 40mm diameter by the Darby
and Melson (1981) approach. A comparison between the experimental data of the
pressure drop for y ash slurry and the predicted data of the pressure drop at
selected ow velocities for different solid concentrations, namely, 60%, 65%, 68%,
and 70% (by weight) is shown in Figures 4(a) and (b). The gure shows that the
experimental data points fall closely to the line of predicted values, which supports
the prediction methodology. For concentrations 68% and 70% (by weight), 95% of
the predicted data points fall within the 10% deviation range. It is seen that the
pressure drop is always under-predicted for both concentrations. For concentrations
65% and 60% (by weight), 95% of the predicted data points fall within the 15%
deviation range, which is reasonably acceptable for design purposes.
Figure 5. Comparison of experimental and predicted values of pressure drop at various ow
velocities and concentrations (with and without additive).
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282 S. Chandel et al.
Effect of Additive on Pressure Drop
Figure 5 shows the effect of additive on variation of pressure drop with velocity
for y ash slurry at concentrations 60, 65, 68, and 70% by weight. At C
n
> 65%
the effect of additive is more than at C
n
= 60%. This effect is due to the fact that
the additive promotes particle dispersion, hence resulting in reduction of Bingham
viscosity. At C
n
= 70%, overall reduction in pressure drop is 35%.
It has already been shown that additive of soap solution to the y ash slurry
changes its rheological properties considerably. This should substantially affect
the pressure drop in the pipeline. With additive, it is seen that for any given
concentration, at any selected velocity, there is signicant reduction in pressure drop
in comparison to original y ash (see Figure 5). It is found that at any selected
velocity there is substantial decrease in the pressure drop, and quantitatively the
average decrease is around 30%. This highlighted a net saving of approximately
one-third of the total energy consumption.
Concluding Remarks
The main objective of the present work was to study the effect of additive on pressure
drop and rheological characteristics of y ash slurry at higher concentrations, mainly
above 60%(by weight). On the basis of the study conducted, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
1. Slurries of y ash at these concentrations show a Bingham uid behavior.
The Bingham viscosity and yield shear stress values increase with increase in
concentration, the increase being more pronounced at the higher concentrations.
2. Pressure drop increases with increase in concentration, the increase being much
higher at higher concentrations.
3. The addition of soap solution as additive to the y ash slurries reduces
the rheological parameters and can result in substantial saving in energy
consumption.
4. The prediction model proposed by Darby and Melson (1981) is suitable for
Bingham plastic uids ow such as y ash slurry at concentrations above 60%
(by weight).
Nomenclature
C
n
efux concentration (by weight)
D diameter of pipe, m
J particle size, mm
J
nm
weighted mean diameter, mm
] Fanning friction factor
]
L
Fanning friction factor (laminar ow)
]
T
Fanning friction factor (turbulent ow)
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2
Ah head loss in meters of water column per 100m length of pipeline,
mWc/m
H
e
Hedstrom number
m constant
P
R
relative pressure drop w.r.t. water, AP
slurry
,AP
water
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Pressure Drop and Rheological Characteristics of Fly Ash Slurry 283
Q ow rate, m
3
,s
(Re
B
)
C
critical Reynolds number
Re
B
Reynolds number based on Bingham viscosity
V velocity of ow, m/s
V
av
average velocity, m/s
Greek Letters
shear rate, s
1
p

Bingham plastic viscosity of y ash slurry, Pa-s

p
r
relative viscosity of y ash, p

,p
nr
p
nr
viscosity of water, Pa-s
t
,
yield stress, Pa
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