Conflicts and Resolutions 1. Conflicts a. Occur when 1 party seeks changes but not agreed by other parties. b.

*take only 1 party to declare, other parties are automatically drawn into c. Dictionary meaning: be in opposition/ to fight d. Believe that our own way is right (one-sided perspective) e. Both parties interests are incompatible f. Express hostile attitudes g. Take pursue their interests through actions that damage the other parties h. Examples of interest: i. Resources territory, money, energy sources, food ii. Power control, decision-making iii. Identity cultural, social and political communities to which people feel tied iv. Status whether they believe that they are treated with respect and dignity, traditional and social positions are respected v. Values ideology, religion, systems of government Main vehicle through which change takes place Help us sharpen our focus Help us to define what the important issues are for us Conflicts are both evolutionary and necessary

2. Conflicts in Ancient and Modern World a. Ancient i. Life or death consequences, e.g.: attack from another tribe, stalked by wild animals ii. Instinct: to survive!!! iii. 3 possible responses (fight, flee, play dead) b. Modern i. Facing more psychological threats a. Threat to our self-esteem b. Threat to relationship c. Threat to our success ii. 3 responses 1. Fighting a. take sides b. identify what they believe is the right side of the dispute

c. involve own feelings d. one-sidedness limit the ability to clearly see the perspective of the other side e. believe that they are in the right side, not wrong side 2. Avoiding a. Protect themselves from the difficulty of conflict by putting up mental wall b. Dealing with the conflict from a safe emotional distance c. Have difficulty in understanding the conflict, or even empathizing d. Useful to give some time and space to a conflict 3. Acquiescing a. Gives in b. Drop their demands and let the other party have what they want c. *sow the seed of future conflict- they might feel abused, manipulated and angry 3. Levels of conflict a. Latent conflict i. Respective parties are not aware of the incompatibilities other than observes ii. Caused by lack of knowledge, suppressed info, rationalization iii. Conflicts become manifest when the parties are aware of the incompatibilities b. Violent conflict i. Peaceful conflict - handled according to regulated mechanism, e.g.: National constitutions, Family and clan structures, Court system, Religious codes, Social mores and customs Elections Debate - Such mechanism operate effectively in Sub-Saharan Africa, former republics of the Soviet Union and zones of peace

ii. Violent conflict 1. Try to dominate or destroy the opposing parties ability to pursue their own interests 4. Determinants of Violence Conflict and Peace a. External and Internal Factors b. Systemic causes (structural) i. Cause objective change in parties material circumstances ii. E.g.: population growth, environmental deterioration, resource scarcity, poverty, ethnicity iii. Pervasive and affect large numbers of people iv. Internal factor ethnic group imbalance (Tutsi/ Hutu Rwanda, Sudan Darfur) v. External factor global and regional isolation, global and regional organisations have procedures that encourage regular contacts and active disputes mediation between gov. and internal groups. A fundamentalist Islamist regime is largely isolated and highly resistant to outsider attempts to resolve its war against non-Islamic people in Southern Sudan. c. Proximate causes (political and institutional) i. Problems in the social, political and communications processes and institutions that mediate the effect of systemic conditions on peoples lives and behavior ii. Crucial influences give rise to violent reactions or solve the conflict peacefully iii. E.g.: government policies, social organizations, militarization, external military aid iv. Internal factor: ethnical political parties, winning group (election) use state power to dominate others (incl. ethnic political groups/ minority). Minority groups rebel to protect themselves. E.g.: Yugoslav 1990, Burundi v. External factor: cross-conflict spillover, avoid the outcomes they observed in nearby countries with similar group conflict. E.g.: Rwanda Burundi, Yugoslav- Slovakia and Czech. d. Immediate cause ( acts and events) i. Actions and events that trigger the violent actions ii. E.g.: killing of Prussian Price WWI, government cracks down on an oppressed group which prompts a rebellion iii. Internal factor: leadership extremism, individual leaders behavior can shape the political atmosphere and promote or

discourage conflict. E.g.: Rwanda ethnic leaders ( Coercive) in contrast with the Tanzanian president Julius Nyereres (conciliatory). iv. External factor: absence of third party engagement, early intervention of third party brings positive inducements for peaceful resolution of a conflict. E.g.: Somalia, Sudan are examples of disputes escalating into violence when third parties intervened late. e. Ethnic Conflict i. Ethnicity- identity felt by people as a language group, tribe, clan, religion, or region ii. Primordial view- ethnic conflict arises when ancient hatreds are unleashed because controls were removed. iii. Instrumentalism view- use group identity as a tool to mobilise people in pursuit of specific gains by playing with their emotion (invoking hatred), through propaganda or covert actions. iv. ethno-political- conflicts with ethnics 5. Forms of Governance a. Concepts of Authority i. Legitimate power, has the right ii. People accept as just iii. Government- monopoly on legitimate force and violence iv. 3 sources of authority: 1. Traditional based on custom, decline as society progresses 2. Rational-legal based on written rules, bureaucratic authority 3. Charismatic someone that is believed to be touched by God or possesses outstanding traits. E.g.: Ghandi, Joan of Arc b. Monarchy i. One ruler ii. A single family rules from generation to generation iii. Legitimized by tradition iv. Dynasty, e.g.: Dynasty Tang, Qing v. Absolute monarch, rule by divine right, e.g.: Saudi Arabia vi. Constitutional monarchies, traditional leaders serve as symbolic heads of state with the presence of elected officials. E.g.: Malaysia, Europe vii. nobility formally reigns, but elected officials actually rule

c. Democracy i. A type of political systems that give power to the people as a whole. E.g.: Dewan Rakyat ii. A system of representative democracy, give authority to a leader iii. Through election process iv. Socialist Approach: 1. Political economy 2. Economies meet everyones basic needs 3. E.g.: Cuba provide basic medical care without regard to people ability to pay 4. Oppressive government regulation of social life 5. E.g.: Cuba/ China do not allow their people to move freely across their border v. Capitalist Approach: 1. Freedom to act in peoples own interests 2. Personal liberty 3. Individual has the right to select their leaders 4. Inequality distribution of power, wealth d. Authoritarianism i. A political system that denies popular participation in government. ii. What I say is the law iii. Cares little about the needs of common people iv. Make use of force in response to opposition v. E.g.: Iraqs Saddam Hussein imprisoned and tortured people who resisted his rule. vi. Another e.g.: Saudi Arabia, military juntas in Congo and Ethiopia, Zimbabwe. vii. Heavy-handed government does not always breed popular oppositions. viii. *soft authoritarianism in Singapore e. Totalitarianism i. A highly centralized political system that extensively regulates peoples lives. ii. Gov. gained the ability to rigidly regulate population iii. E.g.: Vietnamese gov., North Korea iv. Uses surveillance equipment and powerful computers to collect and store information about its people/ observe v. Seek to bend people will to the government vi. Have total concentration of power, allowing no organized opposition vii. Try to make citizens fear of them

viii. Demand full loyalty to the gov. ix. Business is owned by gov. 6. Levels of Conflict a. Micro-level i. Study on small scale structures and processes in society ii. Focuses on individuals and their interactions iii. E.g.: relationship between adult and children b. Macro-level i. Focuses upon social structure, social processes and problems, and their interrelationships ii. E.g.: effects of industralisation on older peoples status c. Three perspectives: i. Interpretive (micro-level) 1. Social world is created in an ongoing manner through social interaction 2. How we relate to each other on a day-to-day basis ii. Normative (macro-level) 1. Rules and status exist to provide social control/ order 2. Necessary for survival 3. E.g.: role theory, age stratification, structuralfunctionalism iii. Conflict (macro/ micro level) 1. E.g.: causes of poverty, opportunities distributed via social class, gender 7. Types of Conflict a. Major conflicts i. Intrapersonal within own self ii. Interpersonal with other people 1. People-focused vs. Issue-focused a. People-focused is based on emotions and feelings, personal attack b. Issue-focused is centered on issues and events 2. Personal differences a. Common conflict as people have unique set of values, perceptions and expectations 3. Informational deficiencies a. Misinterpreted communication b. Different conclusions may be drawn from past experiences 4. Role incompatibility

a. Differences between the responsibilities assignemt to an individual and what the individual would rather be doing. 5. Environmental stress a. Stressful environment b. Uncertainty of future or scarcity or resources iii. Intranational within county or border (ethnic cleansing, rebellion) iv. International outside the border/ country (WW II) b. Another types: i. Relationship conflicts a. Presence of strong negative emotion towards other b. Miscommunication c. Stereotypes d. Repetitive negative behaviours ii. Data conflict a. Lack of information b. Misinterpretation c. Disagree on which data is relevant iii. Interest conflict a. Competition over perceived incompatible needs iv. Structural conflict a. Cause by forces external to the people in dispute. b. E.g.: time, organizational change, limited physical resources or authority, geographical constraints v. Value conflict a. Perceived or actual incompatible belief systems b. Happen when people attempt to force one set of values on others c. Another types of conflict 1. Man vs. Man 2. Man vs. Nature 3. Man vs. Society a. E.g.: Edmund the bastard in the King Lear 4. Man Vs. Technology/ Fantasy d. Types of Organisational Conflict i. Interpersonal conflict ii. Intragroup conflict within the group iii. Intergroup conflict with another group

iv. Interorganizational conflict e.g.: different businesses are competing against each other v. Sources of conflict 1. Different goals and deadlines 2. More than one managers claim authorities 3. Group members being dependent 4. Different standard and reward system 5. Scarce resources 6. Status differences 8. Ways to prevent and avoid conflict a. Effective communication b. Counseling c. Recognize points of view d. Non-violence e. Compromise f. Do not hit your listener with too much information g. Avoid bickering and arguments h. Let each other express concerns and listen to each other i. Gain perspective 9. *Water Wars and International Conflict a. Unevenly distribution of freshwater resources among developed countries b. Scarcity in water has triggered desperation in countries that already have little access to water c. Desperation cannot be solved by negotiations. d. Gov./ rebels resort to force to get the water badly enough. e. * who controls water, controls the economy and population f. Causes: i. Use of water system by military, political, agricultural, domestic uses ii. Result of pollution- leftover of war affects the quality of water iii. Wastes from industry and agriculture not disposed properly, might affect groundwater iv. Urbanization- increase the demand of water g. Regions of Conflicts i. The Middle East 1. Jordan Basin River:

a. Area around Jordan River Basin has arid climate and low precipitation, causing water to be more valuable than ever. b. Jordan River Basin is shared among Israel, Jordan and others such as Lebanon and Syria) c. Patterns of water use, overuse and political territorial issues are resulting in disagreement over water distribution. d. Increase in population natural and Israeli settlement e. Without the legitimate water sharing agreement, Syria and Israel have taken over the water supplies. f. Construction of reservoirs on the Yarmuk River reduces the amount water discharge into Jordan River. g. Dominations of groundwater supplies by Israeli state and settlers and walling of Palestinian access to water supply at West Bank. h. Palestinian is charged three times the cost compared to Israeli. 2. The Tigris-Euphrates Basin a. River system is shared by several countries and ethnic groups b. The rising of population c. Syria obtains 85% of renewable water supply from the river. d. The Turks and Kurds have plans to increase their utilization of both rivers. e. Conflict arises from north to south. f. Dams installed by Turkey have prevented some of the water from flowing downstream to the warmer and drier countries. E.g.: Haftendorn g. Dams for agriculture, hydroelectric, industrialization (Turkey, Syria and Iraq) h. Turkey Syria, increased hostility, Turkey plans to utilized it portion of the river have affected the share going to Syria i. Syria Iraq, escalated due to the filling of of Lake Assad by Syria, result in reduction of downstream flow in 1970. Iraqi accused Syria tried to hold back water supplies

3. Warfare in Iraq a. 1991 Gulf War- bombing of water treatment facilities in Iraq by U.S. water shortage in Iraq b. 4 out of 7 were destroyed c. Mass contamination of Tigris River, triggered many waterborne disease d. Bombing in 2003 targeted civilians infrastructure, left Iraqis with little or no access to water in the first week of occupation. ii. Africa 1. Large % of these countries are dependent on the weather to provide water for agricultural industry. 2. Shared areas are Nile River, Volta River, Zambezi River, and Niger Basin. 3. Causes of conflicts: a. Privatisation of water resources to people displaced by dams along the rivrs b. Unequal distribution of water supplies among neighbouring countries c. Growing demand of water d. African gov. poor management of resources e. Inadequate conflict resolution mechanism 4. The Nile River Basin a. Source of water for Egypt and Sudan b. Niles tributaries, lakes and rivers collect and disperse water in nine African countries c. Egyptian uses military forces to ensure their control over the headwaters of Nile d. Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda constructed river projects to increase annual water withdrawals affect Egyptian control over Nile e. National gov. agreed to share water that flows between their countries signed a pact (Uganda, Sudan, Egypt) iii. Asia a. Political issue distribution of water resources throughout Southeast and Central Asia b. Idea of shared water supply has not been easily understood by nations of this region. c. Growing population

d. Increase in demand e. China and India water shortages pose both a social and economic threat f. *India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh abundant freshwater resources, but not well distributed to drier regions in dire need of water g. Consider the factor of immense pollution being dumped in freshwater supply h. Indus River Basin: i. Between India and Pakistan ii. Largest irrigation canals iii. Building of dams and canals to provide hydropower and irrigation had dried up the stretches of Indus River iv. Water projects caused displacement of people and destruction of ecosystem v. Controversy accusation of overdrawing made by each province -> lack of water supplies to Pakistan and coastal region i. Ganges River: i. India and Bangladesh ii. Ganges river possesses strong religious and economic importance iii. Increasing demands of water in Calcutta iv. Industrialization v. Economic- irrigation vi. Pollutions in the river system, unsanitary water and increase illness, triggers mass migration 10. Resolution in Process a. Non-aligned Movement (NAM) i. Group of states not aligned formally or against any major power bloc. ii. Founded in Belgrade, 1961 iii. Purpose: to ensure the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, and security of non-aligned countries. iv. Against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, all forms of foreign aggression, domination, interference v. Was formed in attempt to thwart the Cold War vi. Five principles: 1. Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and sovereignty 2. Mutual non-aggression

vii. viii.

ix.

x. xi.

3. Mutual interference in domestic affairs 4. Equality and mutual benefit 5. Peaceful co-existence *Bandung Conference (1955) adopted a declaration on promotion of world peace and recognition Founding fathers of NAM: (The Initiative of Five) 1. Sukarno (Ind.) 2. Jawaharlal Nehru (India) 3. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia) 4. Gamal Abdul Nasser (Egypt) 5. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) Ideologies: a. Anti-communist (Suharto) b. Anti-apartheid (Nelson Mandela) extreme opposition to apartheid regime c. Support for liberation movements in various locations (Zimbabwe, South Africa ) d. Struggle for peace and endeavours for disarmament (The Brioni meeting India, Egypt, Yugoslavia) Identified economic underdevelopment, poverty and social injustice as growing threats to peace and security. Current activities: 1. US policy US attempts to stifle Iran and North Koreas nuclear plans and run roughshod over the sovereignty of other nation 2. Puerto Rico supported the discussion of Puerto Rico self-determination before the UN. 3. Western Sahara supported the discussion of Western Saharas self-determination of Sahrawi before the UN. 4. Sustainable development international community has not created conditions conducive to development, factors: debt burden, unfair trade practices, lack of democracy 5. Reforms of UN UN has been utilized by powerful states in ways that violate the movements principles, proposed reforms aimed at improving UN decision-making 6. South-south cooperation collaborated with other organisations of the developing worlds, an effort to increase global awareness about the organization and bolster its political clout 7. Cultural diversity and human rights universality of human rights and social justice, resist cultural homogenization, protection of cultural diversity, tolerance of the religious, social cultural and historical particularities

b. Neutral Power in WW II i. Countries that remained neutral during World War II ii. Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland armed neutrality (continuously amassed soldiers to defend against invasion) iii. Took no official side during war iv. To avoid being attacked by Axis Powers/ Allied Powers v. *Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland supplied voluntary brigades to Great Britain. (Allied Powers) vi. *Belgium, Norway, Netherlands were neutral before they were attacked. vii. Portugal (WWII): 1. Sent 10000men to battle the German 2. Reason continue alliance with Great Britain, which supply troops in times on need/ invaded by foreign power 3. Helped Britain without officially removing itself from declared neutrality viii. Sweden and Switzerland: 1. Sweden unofficially sent volunteers to combat Axis. 2. Swiss shot Axis bombers invading their airspace. 3. Switzerland maintains neutrality, to protect banking interest from plunder by Axis 4. Switzerland shot down Allied planes to appease the German. 5. Switzerland was accidentally bombed by both Axis and Allied airplanes. c. Neutral Power i. Neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards belligerents. ii. Hague Convention of 1907 rights and duties of neutral power iii. Permanently neutral power bound by international treaty to be neutral towards all future wars, e.g.: Japan, Turkmenistan iv. Neutralism/ neutralist policy is a foreign policy where a state intends to remain neutral in the future wars. v. Non-alignment is the implementation of neutralism by avoiding military alliances. vi. Rights and responsibilities of neutral power: 1. Intern belligerent troops who reach its territory 2. Doesnt intern prisoners of war 3. Citizens not recruitable by belligerent, may they may go abroad to enlist 4. Belligerent armies men and material may not be transported across neutral territory 5. May supply communication facilities but not war materials

6. Belligerents may use neutrals port maximum 1 day, except repairing the ship 7. A prize ship caught by belligerent in the territorial of neutral must be interned both the ship and its crew by neutral power vii. European Union (neutral) 1. Austria, Finland, Ireland, Malta, Sweden under dispute 2. EU operates Common Foreign and Security Policy viii. Neutrality to forestall invasion 1. Republic of Moldova a. Has chosen neutrality to avoid Russian security schemes and Russian military presence on its territory. b. *not neutral- parts of Russian 14th army were present at Bendery. 2. Ireland supplied some important secret info to the Allies, e.g.: the D-day secretly supplied to Allies but kept from Germany. German pilots crashed landed in Ireland were interned. 3. Sweden and Switzerland (highly militarized) made concession to Nazi request as well as Allied requests, Sweden involved in intelligence operations, secret military training 4. Spain non-alignment, sent volunteer combat division to aid Nazi 5. Costa Rica having no army, their neutrality and democratic ability are strengthened. 11. United Nation a. International organization- make the enforcement of international law, security, economic development, social progress and human rights easier for countries around the world. b. 192 member countries, HQ: New York City c. Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt coined the term UN d. Principles: i. Save future gen. from war ii. Reaffirm human rights iii. Establish equal rights for all persons iv. Promote justice, freedom, social progress e. Organisations - 5 branches: i. UN General Assembly: chief deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of UN, standard-setting and codification of international law

1. Provide a unique forum for multilateral discussion ii. UN Security Council: most powerful, power to authorize deployment UN member states militaries, mandate cease-fire, enforce penalties, peace and security iii. International Court of Justice: responsible for judicial matters of UN iv. Economic and Social Council: promoting economic and social development and cooperation of member states v. Secretariat: providing studies, information, and data needed by UN branches for their meeting. f. Functions: i. Maintain peace and security ii. Does not maintain its own military but peacekeeping forces which are supplied by member states iii. Peacekeeping force (Nobel Peace Prize) sent to ceased conflict areas to discourage combatants from resuming fighting. iv. Protect human rights and provide humanitarian assistance v. Play an integral part in social and economic development vi. Millennium Development Goals to reduce poverty, child mortality, disease and epidemics, develop a global partnership in terms of international development by 2015. g. Achievements: i. Nobel Peace Prize ii. *blue-helmeted peace-keepers iii. Maintaining peace and security peace-keeping forces and observes missions iv. Making peace negotiating peaceful settlements that have ended regional conflicts (Iran-Iraq war, withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghan, civil war in Salvador) v. Promoting democracy (electoral advice, assistance, monitoring of results) Cambodia, El Salvador, Mozambique, South Africa, East Timor vi. Promoting development UN Development Programme (UNDP) implements project for agriculture, industry, education, environment vii. Promoting human rights UN Human Rights Commission focused world attention on cases of torture, disappearance, arbitrary detention viii. Promoting the environment The Earth Summit resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change, countries adopted Agenda 21 ix. Promoting independence

x. Ending Apartheid in South Africa- imposing measures from an arm embargo to a convention against segregated sporting events, election (April 1994) xi. Providing humanitarian aid to victim of conflict UN High Commissioner for Refugees xii. Promoting womens rights xiii. Clearing landmines in former battlefield in Afghan, Cambodia, El Salvador, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia xiv. Curbing global warming xv. Limiting deforestation and promoting sustainable forestry development Tropical Forests Action Programme xvi. Reducing Fertility rates women have greater control of their lives xvii. Establishing children as a zone of peace UNICEF pioneered Days of Tranquility and Corridors of Peace to provide assistance for children caught in armed conflict. (El Salvador, Lebanon, Sudan, former Yugoslavia) xviii. Improving literacy in developing country xix. Safeguarding and preserving historic cultural and architectural sites Greece, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia, Cambodia, MalaysiaPenang (UNESCO)

h. Role of UN in Korea: i. Korea was under Japanese control was divided after WWII ii. UN failed in effort to unite Korea through nationwide free elections. iii. Called the withdrawal of North Korean troops iv. Established UN command under US auspices and repelling the armed attack on Republic of Korea. v. * issue Korean action illegal because it was undertaken without the agreement of all the permanent council members vi. * establishment of UN command that was a US military command use US already established military structure as the base for UN action. i. Role of Peacekeeping Forces: i. Active in areas where decolonization has led to instability. ii. Go into operation once combatants have been persuaded to stop fighting, typically by pressure from one/ both superpowers. iii. Withdrawal of the former colonial power left a political vacuum and a struggle for domination ensued.

iv. The peace imposed is not genuine and problems caused by the war in the first place remained unsolved. v. preventive diplomacy separate antagonists, providing time and opportunity for negotiations and keep local conflicts from spreading over an entire region. vi. Carried out in Middle East, Cyprus, Congo, South Africa, Mozambique, Somalia, Cambodia vii. To provide protection for humanitarian operations viii. E.g.: Suez war ended when American and Soviet pressure persuaded British, French and Israeli gov. to stop their attack on Egypt. 1. Peacekeeper sent to supervise the cease fire 2. Endure orderly withdrawal of British, French, and Israeli forces 3. Patrol the Egypt-Israel border ix. *UN unable to influence Soviet behavior in Hungary (1956) / Americas war in Vietnam/ Soviet aggression in Afghan/ paralysed in Gulf conflict (due to multi-power interests) j. Role of UN in the Gulf Conflict i. Started by Iraq invasion of Kuwait (1990) ii. Imposed extensive embargo on commercial and financial dealings with Iraq and Iraqi-occupied Kuwait iii. Sanctioned the use of military force to ensure compliance with the embargo iv. Authorized member states to use all necessary means to expel Iraq from Kuwait if Iraq had not already withdrawn by January 1991. v. After defeating Iraq, UN peacekeeping force moved in to monitor a demilitarized zone along the Iraq-Kuwait border.

k. Role of UN in the case of South African Apartheid i. Crime against humanity ii. Security Council established a mandatory arms embargo on South Africa, iii. Wider economic sanctions by the General Assembly iv. Provides a world forum to put pressure on countries that continued to have diplomatic and eco. Relations with South Africa and the nation itself v. 1991, legal basis for apartheid had been abolished vi. 1993, new constitutions between black and white 12. * Un weakness: a. Cannot transcend the sovereign power of states. b. Unable to legislate laws that nations must abide by

c. 15 members of Security Council often paralysed by the vecto rights of superpowers. d. Financial crisis e. Financial reform politicized (use UN as a platform for blatant antiAmericanism) f. UN failure to solve poorer states social and economic developments neo-colonialism and economic self-interest by rich states at UN, refusal to grapple fairly with problems in developing regions, e.g.: Middle East, Southern Africa g. All countries pay lip service to UN charter but there is serious disagreement about the nature if political and social problem face, solutions and role of UN in implementing them. 13. Law of war and peace a. International law of armed conflict is an attempt to constrain conflict b. Armed force may be used for self-defence c. Before the stage of war, peace settlement must be exhausted. d. War criminals policy makers who wage an illegal war commit a crime against peace/ planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances e. * only the loser have been tried, not the victorious party f. Just war just revolution oppressive gov. may lose its claim to legitimacy, when oppression becomes intolerable, and violence justified. g. Principles governing law of war: i. Prohibition of unnecessary injury ii. Distinction between civilians and soldiers iii. Recognition that the demands of humanity should prevail over the demands of warfare h. Nuclear war/ weapon i. *dropping of atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki intentions have been questioned ii. *atom bombs were dropped 1. Not only to finish war against Japan 2. To measure the effects of weapons on people and property 3. To signal the extent of American power to the Soviets iii. *Baruch plan to internationalise nuclear energy failed Soviet suspicion of US intentions and refusal to allow verification inspections on Soviet territory iv. Nuclear umbrella:

1. Fearing of Soviets expansion (e.g. Stalin), the west adopted a policy of relying US nuclear superiority to threaten massive retaliation 2. Western unwilling to pay for large conventional forces to match the Soviet ones. 3. *nuclear weapons were seen as cheap alternative 4. Nuclear umbrella flexible response, aggression by Warsaw Pact forces will be first met with NATO conventional forces, if fails, with tactical nuclear weapons; in the last resort, with a long-range US strategic nuclear attack on Soviet sites. 5. *1977, Henry Kissinger said nuclear umbrella is a myth. 6. *USA wont sacrifice American cities to defend non-US territory. 7. *Both the USA and USSR will do their utmost to prevent nuclear weapons exploding on their territories. (mutual assured destruction)