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TEXT-BOOK
OP
DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC.
TEXT
-BOOK
OF
DEDUCTIVE
FOE THE USE OF
LOGIC
STUDENTS.
P. K.
PROFESSOR
OF
RAY,
AND
D.Sc.
PHILOSOPHY
(LOND. AND
IN
THE
EDINB.),
PRESIDENCY
LOGIC
COLLEGE,
CALCUTTA.
FOURTH
EDITION.
Honfcon
MACMILLAN
AND NEW
AND
YOKE.
CO.
reserved.}
Printed
and
stereotyped
by
C.
?.
CLA
and
SON,
January,
1886.
Reprinted
March
1886.
Corrected
and
Reprinted
1887,
1888.
PEEFACE.
THE
present
An
work
has
been has
mainly
been
prepared
made doctrines
to
for
the
use
of
students. and
attempt
the work
an
explain
of with of
clearly
concisely
The and
fundamental consists of The first then down the three and three
Logic.
duction duction
Parts,
an
Appendix.
in the and
first
chapter
of
to
the
treats,
of book
place, proceeds
its
definition
province
of the
Logic,
and
special
limits.
subject
The of
lays explains
The
scope
second Deductive of
chapter Logic.
fundamental
principles
treat
parts
Deductive
a
then
successively
In is the
Terms,
on
Propositions,
Immediate
Reasoning.
full
account
chapter
of the The
Inference,
forms.
given
generally
method in this
accepted
of
demonstration
by proving
"
circles,
both
use
so
extensively
and says
employed
mediate
work,
is aid
not
for
new.
immediate of of
inferences,
"
The
circles,"
the
Ueberweg,
of
as
an
in
the in
demonstration
Syllogism, by
especially
modern and have
Syllogistic
proper,
referred
logicians
(e.g.
to
by
Mass,
J. But
D.
gonne,
Bachmann,
Bolazano)
rightly
Euler.
Drobish
to
[and Hamilton]
remarked
that,
according
VI
PREFACE.
the
testimonyof Lambert,
Job. Chr.
Lange, in
his Nucleus
Christ. and that circles, Logicce Weisiannce, 1712, uses was "Weise,Rector of the Gymnasium at Zittau (d.1708), Hamilton circles in his uses probably the inventor1." Lectures
to
his
demonstration
of
valid
moods
by
canons
of circles in his
Doctrines," and
forms In
this work the
proves
of immediate
an
and
mediate has
inference.
been
account
totelian and
Scholastic
reader
methods
moods,
so
that the
in manuals of Deductive givenon this subject of deductive it is held As regardsthe nature inference, that all deductive inference is hypothetically necessary, be true if the premisses that is,that the conclusion must
"
are
true.
The
treats
originin a either universal, such are propositions "All A is B," or proportional, Nine in ten such as as B." Universal treated of in or A's are are propositions dinary Logic ; proportionalpropositionsin Probability. fail to establish universal propositions, Where we can we rules of ordinary and inferences by the canons not draw
"
have
its
Logic;
we
but
if
we
can
establish
propositions, proportional
with the laws
may
still draw
inferences
in accordance
and
Probability. The Appendix is partlysupplementaryto the text, and additional matter to the reader. partlysupplies
1
rules
of
302.
PREFACE.
VU
special
feature
at
of
this of
work almost
is
the every
large
number
or
of im
examples
portant
given
division laws and
the
a
end
chapter,
in
of
chapter.
of
Repeated
to
concrete
practice
apply
is the
as a
ing
most
the
rules
Logic
examples regarded
this
important
part
and
of
the it of is
study
with space
of
a
Logic
view been
to
mental that
so
training; large
an
practice
to
amount
has of have
devoted and
the
exercises. of the
Most
of the of
examples
propositions,
been in have
many from in
examples
syllogisms,
and their
authors,
occur
given
exactly
Some from have
they
other
in
on
writings.
and The
some
been
taken and
works
Logic, Papers.
University
been
College
rest
especially
prepared My
Dacca from
best
are
due very
to
Mr
A.
W.
Garrett, Principal,
I have On received many and his im the
College,
him in
the
valuable of this
help
work. the
the
preparation
both had
to
portant
matter
points
of the
are
with the
language
of
work,
also Normal
advantage
Bandhu
help.
Head
My
thanks Dacca
Mr
Jagad
and Mr
Laha,
Kant have
Master,
Assistant revised
School,
Rajoni
who
Ghose,
Master,
the
Dacca and
Collegiate School,
assisted
me
kindly
proofs,
with
their
suggestions.
DACCA
COLLEGE, September,
1883.
PREFACE
TO
THE
SECOND
EDITION.
THIS and
edition additions
been been
carefully revised;
made
on
and
alterations
wherever
they
of
appeared
chapter
of
"The
Theory
has
Predication
in of
Import
The
Propositions"
"
been,
Kinds
part,
Terms
re
written. has
"
chapter
to
on
The
Various
"
been
subjected
and
careful of
revision.
Appendix
as
E,
as
The
Nature foot-notes
Province and
Objective
have been and
some
Logic,"
added. additions
of whom
well I
are
some
references
ought
due have
to to
add the
that
some
of these
of my
alterations
to
criticism in the
reviewers,
of the
referred
body
Work.
DACCA
COLLEGE,
November
29, 1885.
THIRD
EDITION.
IN
this
edition,some
foot-notes
as
alterations
well
as
and text.
additions
have
been
made
in the
in
the
PKESIDENCY
COLLEGE,
CALCUTTA.
CONTENTS,
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER
The
I.
and
V
of Logic.
PAGE
Definition,
from
Province,
the Point Point
Parts
" 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
-
Logic
From From The
Subjective
of
of
Point
of
View
.
1
.
Objective
Linguistic
not
View View
.
6 ..,.'.
7
tenable the
by itself
first
of
Hamilton Mill in
adopts
his the
"
8 Hamilton's
; and
6.
Examination
a
Philosophy,"
in but
adopts
he in 7.
8. 9.
qualification
of
his the
"Logic"
second 9
adopts reality
phraseology
.
the
third,
.
"
Spencer
The The The The View
adopts
the
second in this
to
10 work
.
adopted
of
:
" . . .
10 11
. . .
Eelation
End
Logic
other
Sciences
.
and
of
Province
of
Logic
.
t
12
.
..
Parts
Logic
. .
1 i 15
. .
Deductive
Logic
"
.
"
CHAPTER
II.
The
Fundamental
Principles Identity
Contradiction Excluded Middle
of Deductive
"
Logic.
."
" 1.
2.
of
of
16
17
... . .
3.
of
17
CONTENTS.
PAGE
" 4.
5.
A Postulate
of
Logic
.......
20 20 22
Mill,Hamilton, and
Other
Ueberweg
6.
Principles
PART
I" CHAPTER
TERMS.
I.
The
Various
Divisions and
of
Terms.
" 1.
Name,
Tabular The
Concept, Conception,
View of various of Terms
Term
defined.
.
A
24
.
Divisions into
of Terms
2.
first division
Single-worded and
27 and Col
28
Many- worded
3.
The
second
division
into
Singular,General,
and Concrete
lective
4. 5. 6.
30
36
36
7.
Connotative
Non-connota36
tive.
8.
The
Divisions
of Terms
41
.
9.
Exercises
42
CHAPTER
The Denotation and
II.
and
a
Connotation,Division
and between Connotation of
of Terms. Definition,
defined Connotation 47
.
" 1.
2.
The The of
Denotation Eelation
a
Term and
46
the Denotation
3. 4.
The
Explanation of
on
by Diagrams
...
48 50 51 54
Denotation Relations
Connotation
5.
Exercises
6.
"**
The The
Definition Rules
and
Division
of Terms
....
54
55
7.
of Definition
Exercises
V
57 of Division
. .
8.
The
Rules
58
Exercises
62
CONTENTS.
XI
PART
II." PROPOSITIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
The
and Definition
Divisions
of Propositions.
PAGK :
"
1.
defined. Proposition
the Sub of 63
ject,the Judgment
2.
3. A
Predicate, and
View of various into
Copula.
of
Definition
Tabular
Divisions
Propositions
66
The
first division
cording to Relation
4. The second division
into Affirmative
and
Negative,ac
70
Pro
. .
cording to Quality
5.
The
third division
into
blematic, according to
6. The fourth division into
71
Universal
and
Particular,ac
73
cording to Quantity
7. The
to 8.
Four
Forms Prepositional
A, E, I,and 0, according
75
The of
Relations
of A, E,
I, and
0,
or
Opposition
77
Propositions
fifth division into
9.
The
or
10.
The
Genus,
......
Species, Differentia,
80
...
Proprium,
11.
Accidens
on
Miscellaneous
Exercises
Propositions
86
CHAPTER
The
II.
the
Theory of Predication
of the
and
Import of Propositions.
93
" 1.
2.
Statement Dr James
Question
View
93 95 96 96
....
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Hamilton's Mansel's
Ueberweg's View
Mill Mill Mill
on
on
the
Import of Propositions
97
97
Hobbes's
Theory
or
on
the Denotative
Class
Theory
...
98
Xll
CONTENTS.
PAGE
"
9.
Mill
on
Hamilton's
Equational View
and
the Doctrine
...
of the
10.
98 101
Mill's
A
own
11.
12.
few Eemarks
104
Classification
of the various
(1)Predicative,
106
CHAPTER
The
III.
Meaning
The The The The
and
Representation of A, E, I, 0, by Diagrams.
and of Eepresentation of Kepresentation of Eepresentation A
E
. . .
"1.
2. 3. 4.
Meaning
....
Ill
.
112 113
I
....
.
114
. .
5. 6.
Eecapitulation
Exercises
115 116
PART
III."
REASONING
CHAPTER
OR I.
or
INFERENCE.
The
Different Kinds
of Eeasoninrj
Inference, with
118
Examples
CHAPTER II.
Of Immediate
" 1.
Immediate
Two kinds Inference defined
Inferences.
124
: a a
of Immediate
Inference from
Inference Inference of
Term.
from
Proposition.
125
.
forms
(2)are
"
129
4. 5.
Contraposition
Subalternatiou
..
.132 .135
.
6.
Opposition
..'-.-..
136
CONTENTS.
Xlll
PAGE
" 7.
8.
VI. VII.
Modal
Consequence
of Immediate
140 141
Change of Eelation
Forms Inference
.
9. 10.
Additional
146
.
Miscellaneous
Exercises
148
CHAPTEE
III.
Of Syllogisms.
" 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Syllogismdefined. Its essential characters Of CategoricalSyllogisms of Testing by Diagrams : the two Axioms The Method Kules The General Syllogistic The Division of Categorical Syllogismsinto Figures each The Subdivision of Categorical Syllogisms in
.
151
152
153
155
.
164
Figure
7. The
into
Moods of
.
Determination
.
Figure
8.
The
Determination
...
Valid
Moods
in the
Second
Figure
9. The
172
Valid Moods in the Third 175
Determination
of the
Figure
10.
The
Determination
..""*....
of the
Valid
Moods
Figure
11.
Questionsand
Exercises
"
"
177
CHAPTER
The Aristotelian
and
IV.
Methods
of Determining
Moods.
et nullo
....
" 1.
2.
de omni
180
in the First
Figure determined
and
by the
181
181
Dictum
3.
of Perfect in the
Imperfect Figures
4.
Moods
182
5.
Ostensive Indirect
or
Direct Reduction
or
6.
Reduction,
Reductio
impossible
7.
Exercises
. ,
.
187
" . , ,
100
XIV
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
The Various Kinds Divisions and
V.
of Syllogisms.
PAGE
"
1.
The The
various
Kinds
or
of
Syllogisms Syllogisms
192
Subdivisions
of Pure
Mixed
193
2.
I." Of Pure i.
"
: Syllogisms
Categorical
193 193
ii.
"
Hypothetical
Syllogisms :
....
3.
II." Of Mixed i.
"
4.
5.
ii.
"
iii.
"
195
200
Dilemma
202
6. 7.
8.
Exercises
-f
207 209
210
OfEnthymemes
Exercises
CHAPTEE
VI.
Of
"
1.
Trains
of Syllogistic Reasoning.
Ana
215
Train
of
2.
the
Analytical Method
in
De 216
Logic
3.
4.
5.
Epicheirema, or Abridged Trains of Syllo gistic Eeasoning with Analyses SymbolicalExamples of Sorites,
Sorites and
. .
217
221 223
Questionsand
Exercises
CHAPTER
VII.
Of
" 1.
I." A A A General Tabular Tabular Fallacies A Tabular
2. II. A.
" "
225
View
........
Non-Inferential
but
Logical
226 Fallacies 227 227
View
of
Non-Logical or Logic
Material
Fallacies in Deductive
LogicalFallacies.
"
1.
Inferential.
(1)
"
Fallacies
of Immediate
Inference
228
CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE
"
3. 2. 4. 5. B. 6. 7.
8.
" "
(2) Fallacies
"
of
Inference Syllogistic
229
Non-Inferential.
(1) Semi-logicalFallacies
"
.231
233
(2) Fallacies
"
or
Faults
of Definition Fallacies.
and Division
Non-Logical or
Material
Elenchi of
9.
(4) The
"
Fallacies
Many
Questions and
Non240
Sequitur
10.
Exercises
:
"
Directions
.
.
for
.
Arguments testing
'
241 242
Examples
CHAPTER
The Functions View
and Value
VIII.
of
the
Syllogism.
Value of the
I." Mill's
of the
Functions
and
Syllogism :
"
1.
The
Syllogism as
Syllogism as
Criticism
Test
of
Reasoning, and
....
as
an
In 250
of General terpreter
2.
The
252
II."
3.
The and
Distinction the
the
Psychology
of
Reasoning
254
254
Logic
Reasoning
to Mill's View Morgan's Objections
4. 5.
Dr Martineau's The
and De
hypothetically necessary
. .
.
character
...
of all Deductive
. .
.
Inference
259
CHAPTER
Probable
IX.
and
Reasoning
the
Probability.
of the Premisses
.
"
1.
Syllogisms accordingto
The The The
Modality
in
261
261
2.
3. 4.
Meaning of
Rules Rules
of
Probable
Proposition
Inference in
....
...
of Immediate
Inference
Probability
.
264
Mediate
Probability:
.
"
(1)Formal
6. 6.
and Rules
(2)Experimental
of Mediate Rules
.
The The
Formal
Inference
":".
Experimental
.
of Mediate
.
Inference
. .
7.
Exercises
......
XVI
CONTEXTS.
APPENDIX.
t
PAGE
A.
"
The
Canons
or
Axioms
of
the
Syllogism according to
so-called
Logicians : " 1.
Lambert's
gures
:
"
Canons His
for the
vindication
of their First
and 2.
3.
Figure
Thomson's
Whately's Canons
Hamilton's Martineau's Canons Canons
on
4.
5.
the Predicative
View
of Pro
positions
6. Mill's Canons
on
positions
B. C.
"
The Note
Dilemma Mixed of
accordingto Logicians
....
"
on
288
D. \f/
"
Note
on
the Reduction
of Inductive
Reasoning
to the
Syl296
V
E.
"
of
Logic : Objective
distinction of
" 1.
2.
Hamilton's
His
Subjective
302 of
302
Logic
Mill's
and
View
of
his
conception
Logic
3.
Spencer's View
of
"
His
the
Theory Reasoning. Logic, like Mathematics, is an Objective Science,while the Theory of Rea Science soning is a Subjective
....
303
Mr of
"
Carveth
Read's
View,
of
Dr
Venn's 306
Spencer'sView
His distinction the different identification
. . .
View:
5.
meanings of the word Logic and his of Objective Logic and Metaphysics Summary
307
310
DEFINITION,
no
PROVINCE,
[iNTROD.
in accordance with
thought
The
is valid word
unless
it is conducted used
In three senses. in, at least, it means the widest mental state or phenomenon, sense any of knowing,, whether it or sense willing. In a narrower feeling, of perception, act or product of knowledge,whether means an imagination,"c. As used in logic, thought inference, memory, the process, and the product of sometimes sometimes means it stands for conception, or comparison : in the former sense judgment, or reasoning; and in the latter sense, it is a concept, a or a judgment, or reasoning. Logic treats of these processes
them.
thoughtis
and
must
lays down
the
laws
and
rules to which
they
in order that
they may
be valid.
individual concept is the productof comparing two or more thingswith a view to find out the attribute or the attributes in that is, which they all agree. as a thought, Eegarded subjectively,
it is
an
idea
or
of attributes
notion
or
collection
of individual
things.
to those
For
man
is an
men
'
all individual
that those
animality and
or
'
concept
'
man
is the idea
notion
*
correspondingto
'
the concept triangle is the idea or notion Similarly, to the attribute of being bounded by three lines,' corresponding is the possessedin common by all triangles ; the concept horse idea or notion corresponding to the collection of attributes in
attributes.
'
'
'
which
all horses
agree
; the
concept
or
l
'
animal
'
is the idea
or
notion
to corresponding
the attribute
attributes
'
in possessed
common
by
all animals
; the
concept
metal
corresponding
in all metals.
A view
judgment
to affirm
or
is the
productof comparing two conceptswith a deny one of them of the other. Kegarded sub
a a
notions between two or concepts. In the judgment logicians) and for example, there are two concepts, man is mortal,' man of a certain relation (agreeand there is a recognition mortal,'
' ' ' '
CHAP.
I.]
between
AND
PARTS
OF
LOGIC.
is perfect,' judgment 'no man there are two concepts, man of and a recognition and perfect,' in certain relation (disagreement) between them. a Similarly, the judgments 'all metals are 'all sensations are feel elements,' 'all material bodies are ings,' gravitates,' extended,''matter there are two and a recognition of a certain relation concepts,
ment)
them.
In
the
'
'
'
between
them. that
our
judgment does not include any concepts or judgments that are intuitive, or that is, not the result of experience, as they are called d priori, but due to the very nature,constitution, forms of the or original mind. defined above,does not inquireinto the truth as Logic, of these d prioriconceptsand judgments, the existence or falsity of which is affirmed by some It does not and denied by others. lay down the conditions to which these must conform in order that they may be true. It treats of the principles and conditions
concept
or
It is evident
definition of
of
to
which
those
concepts and
conform
judgments
that
which
are
products of
be free from
comparison must
error
in order
they may
two
or
and A
self-contradiction.
is the
reasoning
a
product of comparing
which It is the of recognition
more
judg
in
or
ments, with
warranted
two
or more
view them.
to arrive at another
is contained
a
by
relation between
judgments,or the establishment of a relation between two concepts, of a third. In the reasoning "All men by means are are men fallible, philosophersare philosophers ; therefore there are the three concepts, philosophers,' fallible," man,' and and a relation between the first and the last is estab fallible,'
' ' '
lished the
by
means
of the
a
second.
In
the
concepts 'man' and fallible.' In the second, between philosophersand man.' In the third, between the result as philosophers and fallible,' of a comparison between the first two judgments. In the sim that is, in immediate a judg plestform of reasoning, inference, is inferred from ment another judgment, while in the most for instance, complex form, in induction, a judgment is the result of the comparison of a number of judgments. In the inference
' ' ' ' ' ' '
of recognition
relation
between
1"2
4
"All
men are
DEFINITION,
PROVINCE,
no man
[iNTROD.
an
mortal,therefore
is
"
example of
the former.
In the inference
is
of past ages have died ; therefore, all men now dead,all men living will die,or all men have an example of the latter. are we mortal," that is, in as something existing " 2. Kegarded objectively,
things
or
a objects, concept
is
an
attribute
or
collection
or
of
attributes
in which
number
of individual
things
viewed
agree1. For example, the concept 'man' that is,as something existing in men, is
tributes in which all individual
men
objects objectively,
at
con
the
aggregate of
agree. of
the Similarly,
attribute
Mr
'beingbounded
by
in
With
Mind
of
to
remarked and
confusion
to
suggest
metaphysical doctrine
himself holds." is
a
hardly probable
no
that of
the
There
is,I maintain,
in the
confusion word
phraseology;but
Logic is
an
there
change
concept necessitated
If
by
change in the
considered in that
of the
term
Logic.
of
science objective
"formulating the
general laws
must
correlation
term
among
existences
and objective," be
if the
some
concept is to be retained
a concept science,
be be
objective;and what
an
is
an
concept? objective
in which
I hold
a
that
it of
attribute
or
number
individual
things agree.
great
as
of the word
a
concept
"
so
I have
admitted.
collection of attributes united by a sign,and represent concept "jas_a ing a possibleobjectof intuition." The second charge brought against the passage is that "it is calculated it is
to
meta
hardly probable that that the metaphysical doctrine here alluded to is the Hegelian doctrine of the Identityof Thought and Being or of by that passage, Logic and Metaphysics. If this doctrine is suggested this is not due to any accident but to great correspondenceor re semblance between the Logic of Hegel and the ObjectiveLogic of and Province The Nature of English Logicians. See Appendix E, Logic." Objective
I suppose
"
which
himself
CHAP.
I.]
AND
PARTS
OF
LOGIC.
5
collection Thus
of
three
'flower' the
attribute
or
attributes
all individual
flowers
agree.
eyery"
attribute or a collection o"_attributes, an concept is objectively idea or notion correspondingto that attribute and sv.ljectii'ely an
or
collection of attributes.
^
\ is, according to some judgment, regarded objectively, attributes ; according to others, two relation between a writers, two relation between a things; and according to others again, relation between a a thing and an attribute. For example, the
are as
been
'mor
relation
between
the
attribute
the between 'humanity,' and of things 'all men' two 'mortal,'and between groups and the attribute 'mortality'; the group of things 'all men' is affirmed of in that judgment the attribute 'mortality' that is, of things called 'mortal' the attribute 'humanity,' or, the group is affirmed of the group of things called 'man,'or, the attribute In of things called 'man.5 is affirmed of the group 'mortality' relation is expressed the judgment 'all metals a are elements,' between the collections of attributes, two namely, those of of things, between two metal,'and of element groups ; or "c. and Similarly,every judg 'elements,' namely, 'metals,' denial of a cer affirmation is an or regarded, ment, objectively tain relation between things and attributes. A reasoning, regarded,is the establishment of a objectively of a third, relation between two things or attributes by means two things or attributes or, the inference of a relation between from one more or given relations of things and attributes. For are example, in the reasoning"All men mortal,kings are men; kings are mortal," a relation between 'kings' and therefore, 'mortal' is inferred from two things, given relations between 'men' and 'mortal' expressed namely, (1) a relation between in the first judgment, and 'kings'and (2) a relation between 'men' expressed in the second judgment. Similarly, in all rea regarded,a relation universal or particular sonings,objectively between two a thing and an things or attributes or between collection of attributes
' ' '
6
attribute and
DEFINITION,
is inferred from
one or
PROVINCE,
more
[iNTROD.
of
given relations
between
things
attributes.
From this direct and close connexion
thought,and things and attributes, concepts, judgments, rea or, between the one relations of attributes on sonings, hand, and attributes, and things, and inferences, the other,Logic may be regarded on (from the objective point of view) as the science of the most universal relations and correlations of things and attributes, that is,the science of the principlesand laws to which we must conform in order that a relation established by comparison of things and inferred from or one or more attributes, given relations between them, may be true. in language by a singleword, " 3. A concept is .expressed of words, called a term or name. For example, or a combination the concept 'man,' or, the aggregate of attributes in which all
men
agree
as
well
as
the
idea
or
notion
or signified expressed by the word man. that is,both 'flower,' 'animal,' 'horse,'
correspondingto those words, respectively. the combinations of words Similarly, 'round table,' 'red flower,' 'good man,' 'elementary substance,' or names are symbols for certain concepts. in languagein the form of a sentence, A judgment is expressed above called Eor example,the judgment explained a proposition. the two concepts 'man' and 'mor .a relation between "s expressing tal' is expressedin the sentence 'man is mortal.' A reasoningis sentences in language in a series of connected an called, expressed a rela argument. The reasoningexplainedabove as establishing the two and 'fallible' by tion between concepts 'philosopher' of a third concept 'man' is expressedin the argument means "All men are philo fallible, philosophersare men.; therefore, sophersare fallible." between the direct and close connexion From thought and language, between concepts, judgments and reasonings on the and one hand, and words and sentences, or names, propositions arguments on the other,Logic has been regardedas conversant
butes
and
the
ideas
J
CHAP.
I.]
AND
PARTS
OF
LOGIC.
the science of the use of names, propositions, as language, and rules to the science of the principles and arguments,that is, be rightand free in order that we conform which we must may about from and self-contradiction in fallacy and arguments. sitions, Logic has been thus denned from view. the
use
of names,
propo
three
distinct
points of
from from the the
we
have
the third
definitions
reveal
Logic to
or
other
the mental
psychology
sciences, placesit among the objective of all sciences, of those general treating
are
and principles
phenomena and both mental and material. The third placesit among things, and makes it dependent the linguistic or sciences, philological and languagegenerally.On the first view,Logic upon grammar treats of the processes and products of conception, judgment, and reasoning. On the second, it treats of the most universal that is, of the most relations and correlations of things, general of their fundamental and of relations relations, aspectsof things, relations ; on the third, that is, between it treats of language, of the use of names, propositions and arguments, or rather of words
true equally
of all
and
sentences.
have adopted one or other of these views logicians A philosopher of mind will to the exclusion of the other two. naturally adopt the first view and its appropriate phraseology. scientific man will adopt the second A and its appropriate with a a practicalman, phraseology knowledge of ; while mental well as of physicalscience, will try to as philosophy combine_the first or the third with the second. He will adopt' the phraseology of either of the former, but constantly refer to the second for its real meaning, signification, or import. The third view cannot be held by itself, and though Whately really
"
4.
Most
N/
DEFINITION,
seems
PROVINCE,
[iNTROD.
parts is,that
to have
""
maintained
he says in many
meant really Logic does not treat of reasoningapart from, but only as ex pressed in,language. "If any process of reasoning," says he, "can take place in the mind without any employment of lan
of his
nevertheless Elements'^,
such a process does not come or within mentally, guage, orally the province of the science here treated of 2." Whately really of adopted the subject-matter of the third. This phraseology nition of the first
view, and
from
only
the
his defi-;
/ reasoning.' adopts the first view, and defines Logic as " 5. Hamilton the science of the laws of thought as thought,or the science of the formal laws of thought, the science of the laws of the form or that is,as the science of those universal laws or of thought3," to which thought must conform in order that its pro principles be valid. ducts,viz., concepts,judgments, and reasonings, may the word valid to mean free from inconsistency /Hamilton uses and by laws of thought he means" onlythe o^seLF-contradictjon, fundamental of consistency, that is (1)the Principle principles of Identity, of Contradiction, and (3)the Prin(2)the Principle that A is A, that a cipleof Excluded Middle. The first means thing is what it is,that while 'A* is 'A,'it cannot be anything be both B and not-B,at else. The second means that A cannot and in the same the same place, time,in the same respect. If
Logic 'as
the art of
"
the
1
A' proposition
'
is 'B'
be
is
conversant Whately writes,for example: "Logic is entirely about language." Again, "It (Logic) therefore (when regarded as is, the the for art of employing language properly an art), purpose of and truly what is properly an reasoningand of distinguishing argu from imitations of it." Elements, 9th Edition, ment spurious p. 37. 2 Whately'sElements,9th Edition,p. 37.
" "
Lectures,Vol.
defines
in.
pp.
25, 26.
'the
4, 17, 24.
the
On
p. 24 of
Hamilton
Logic
as
of the necessary
forms
and thought,'
afterwards
text.
given in the
form of
expression
'the
means
thoughtto
(p.15).
10
DEFINITION,
'
PROVINCE,
[iNTROD.
be a concept of something of tilings.' A concept must reality to real,and must agree with the real fact which it endeavours represent,that is, the collection of attributes composing the exist in the objects marked concept must really by the classbe a true judgment, that is, the A judgment must name.' objects judged of must really possess the attributes predicated
'
of them.' In the
reasoning
must
conduct thus
to
true
conclusion1.' the
work
referred
to Mill
adopts really
subjectnoticed
by
him
as
the effect of changing it into the second2. really of the In his System of Logic Mill adopts the phraseology third view,but always refers to the second for the real import or
meaning
holds be what
of his names,
the second it is
and arguments. He, in fact, propositions, view, and takes the subject-matterof Logic to that
of view, though in his treatment the phraseologyof the third2. the science he freely uses " 7. Herbert Spencer adopts the second view, and defines formulates the most generallaws of Logic as the science which
accordingto
"
the as objective," certain con which "contemplates in its propositions involved with certain which are predicated, necessarily among existences
as
considered
in isting
we
as
ex
in which
know
them,
We
but in
some
form3." ourselves
to any
"
But
8.
shall not
confine
of these
views.
or immediately concerned with regardingLogic as primarily to an end,with language as a means or thought,and, secondarily, with attributes and ultimately in which thought is expressed, and things,mental or material,real or imaginary, the objectshall freely of all thought,we matter adopt the phraseologyof desirable for purposes this seems of any or all of them, whenever and illustration. explanation
1 2 3
of Hamilton's
4th Philosophy,
ed. pp.
564,470.
Appendix
E.
n.
p. 87.
CHAP.
AND
PARTS
OF
LOGIC.
11
sciences is shown in
the
the
other
I.
LOGIC. MATHEMATICS.
J
Material Sciences.
Mental Sciences.
Religion.
Anthropology.
II.
Logic.
Mathematics.
Biology
Practical Science.
Psychology Sociology.
In the
V
./Esthetics.
1 Ethics.
Eeligion.
mental and the
material
and
sciences
are arc
placed in
Logic
Mathematics
12
DEFINITION,
PROVINCE,
[iNTROD.
to equallyapplicable placed above Mathe
placed above
the sciences
both,as
in the
their
two
are principles
series.
matics,as
its
"
it is the
most
of all
as
as sciences, as
are principles
to applicable
well
to
the
second
table
the
same
relation
next
is shown The
by placing
other sciences
Logic at
are more more
the
top,and
Mathematics
to it.
one
the arranged in order of generality, generalthan the one lying below. the latter more than Physics, general
so
lying above
Mathematics
being
is
Thus
generalthan
try,and
second
i
forth.
The the
dependent upon
table. The far
as
"
truth
10.
so
end
of
Logic as denned
be obtained
here
is the attainment
of the
truth
can
processes
generalization, classification, naming, definition, by supplied "c.,employed upon the data,or materials, inference, Some intuition. direct observation, experiment, perception,or logicians (Ueberweg, for example) have indeed made all truth
of the end of
Logic,and
human
defined it
as
"
of all knowledge1,"that is, and mediate. immediate intuitive and inferential, But, following I have defined Logic so as to the British Logicians in general, exclude intuitive truth from its scope and province. According a to Ueberweg, perceptionand part of percepts are as much while all British judgment, and reasoning, Logic as conception, other points, be on their differences may Logicians,whatever of principles agree diction
,i
regulative knowledgeboth
in
and
the
juris
is said
Truth
agreement
of
thought with
is real when either
its the
and object,
mental.
objectof thought
or
material
It is
1 2
1.
; and
Mill's
Logic,Vol.
i.
pp. 5,
6, 8.
CHAP.
I.]
when the from
AND
PARTS
OF
LOGIC.
13
formal
what
whether object,
actuallyexistingor
not, is
simply free
Material
The latter is the end of any self-contradiction. is called Formal Logic, and the former of what is called
Logic. In Formal Logic, the concepts,judgments, and reasonings to the It is sufficient if they conform need not be really true. laws of thought,as they of consistency fundamental or principles
are
and called,
be
free from
any
inner
contradiction
or
incon
sistency. In Material Logic,also called by Mill the Logic of and correspond to the realities Truth, they must be true or right, but also be valid not only formally, actually existing ; they must be free not only from really ; they must any self-contradiction, that is, but also from any inconsistency with reality, a concept
must
be
an
attribute
or
collection of attributes
exist actually
between true concepts, two a judgment, a relation ing in things, and a reasoningmust lead to a conclusion that agrees with fact. of truth in The end of Material Logic is thus the attainment while the end the stricter and proper sense, that is, of real truth, selffrom of Formal Logic is merely consistencyor freedom contradiction.
Logic,and also the Logic of definition of Logic, as given above, is Consistency. Hamilton's a definition of Formal Logic,while Mill's and Spencer'sare defi
Formal
Logic is often
called Pure
with Logic. In the latter we are concerned and arguments that have reference to actual terms, propositions, while in the former we concerned not with what are existences, is actual,but with what is possible, is real in not with what Nature, but with what may be realized in Thought. Formal nitions of Material
in its all
sphere all possible judgments, and notions, and and their relations, possibleattributes,
is actual
or
have
given at
beginningof
this
chapter is
word
of Material
mere
valid is taken
or consistency, means
agreement with
or
merelyformally valid
Logic accordingas the of conformity to the principles that is,according as it reality, and If the true. really _valid
14
DEFINITION,
PROVINCE,
[iNTROD.
'
products of comparison, namely, concepts, judgments,and rea are things required to agree with the actually existing sonings, the and phenomena, then our definition becomes definition of the contrary, Material Logic. If, on they are required simply to then our the definition becomes be free from self-contradiction, definition of Formal Logic. of three parts, regardedas consisting " 11. Logicis usually of the process and products of conception; the first part treating
"
the
of reasoning or inference. second,of judgment; and the third, be added To these three parts may a fourth,namely, Method, of a series of reasonings of the arrangement or disposing treating
an
in of
essay
or
discourse.
a
Method
has
been
defined for
as
"
the art
series of many
thoughts,either
for there
are
discovering
others when of
truth it is
one
or ignorantof it,
"
provingit to
two
alreadyknown."
Thus
kinds
Method,
of
we
for
discovering truth,which
which other may for
; and
is called also
or analysis,
of
be termed
to
the others
invention have
it explaining
or synthesis,
found
is called
the method
of compo
and sition,
"
of doctrine1."
"
Without of under
stepping," says
conceived
name
as
bounds
ment
Logic
the'
formal
or
be added to disposing may the three departments regularly assigned conceiving (simple reasoning; and this would consider how judging, apprehension), when employed continuouslyupon any matter what reasonings, effect upon be set forth to produce their combined ever, should of mere is formal,beingone The question' the mind. exposition, of method
"
and
concerns
the teacher
How
should
continuous
a
line
be set before the mind reasoning, the course representing by which they
wrought out, or always in the fixed order of follow actually preliminaryassent is ing from express principlesto which all teaching becomes and synthetic, required? If the latter,
1
Professor
308"9.
J
CHAP.
I.]
a
AND
PARTS
OF
LOGIC.
15
to conclusions, even progressiveroute from principles when made discovery(supposing discovery foregone) was by of to principles, which analysisor regression expositorymethod
no
follows
be
given than
'Elements.'
the On
practiceof
the other
Euclid
it
of his
hand,
line of any
the
truth
about
same
understood
for the
reason
found
successful
in
has before (now of the learner) it something quite definite and to start from ; upon specific which of exposition should be analytic or view, the method to principles, the discovery took at least wherever regressive The that route. is blending of both methods, when possible, doubtless
stances
"
namely, discovery,
that
the
mind
most
effective ; otherwise
it
depends
upon
circum
the character of the learner, but chiefly of the subject in respect of complexity, which ferred, when one alone is followed1."
"
"
12.
identical
Deductive Logic is regarded logicians By_ some Logic ; brothers _sts a part of Material with_JFonnal_
/is
itself with it does not directly concern Logic. According to all, the real truth or falsity of its data,but with their formal correct freedom from inconsistency, and with the legitimacyof ness or the results from them. In this work it is proposed to treat of the the
followingsubjects:
"
The
fundamental
the principles;
name,
concept, the
term
and
its divisions ;
extension,comprehension; the their divisions; the predicables;the theory of predicationand the import of propositions; division; inference,rea definition, inference and its divisions ; soning and their divisions ; immediate its divisions, the syllogism, its canons, its its rules,its figures, moods, its function and value; reduction; fallacies;probable reasoningand probability.
1
i.
p. 797.
CHAPTER
II.
THE
FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES
OF
DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC.
"
to
1.
THERE
is
great
difference
name,
of
opinion
and
among in
a
logicians
Treatise
as
the
nature,
of what
number,
we
origin,
called be
place
on
Logic,
Deductive
have
here may
the
fundamental
as
principles
:
"
of
Logic.
"A
to
They
"A
follows is." it
(1) equal
the
is
A."
thing thing
of in
must
it
"Every
This
means
thing
is
is
itself."
or
"Every
Axiom
we
is."
called the
un
Principle
with
;
Identity.
Deductive 'abide
or
It
really
Logic,
that remain
data,
altered
which
start
we
must
that, by
If
a we
them have
in
all
our
deductions
a
and
reasonings.
possesses have in used that
granted
we
assumed
that admit
must
certain that
;
thing
if
use we
certain
a
attribute,
in
or a
must
always
we
term
meaning,
when their any
always
is
it In
are
meaning, Logic
to
give
change
or
made.
Deductive
things
attributes,
and of the the
same
thoughts, thing
attributes. have
supposed always
nature,
which
no
be
unalterably
as
fixed;
same
must
be
no
regarded doubt,
did
not
a
possessed
In
thing
may possess;
change
but It
and Deductive
on
attributes
it
originally
such
Logic
the
takes
cognizance
all
of
changes.
their relations
assumes,
are
as
contrary,
fixed and
that
things
as
and
are
absolutely
of
permanent Figures.
unalterable
Deductive that
the
properties
or
and axiom
nature
relations of of
Geometrical
this in
And
or
the
principle
expresses
absolutely
fixed that be
postulated
is what it it
Logic,
cannot
by
stating
and
"Every
other than
is,"
can
is, it
change
is, nor
18
be false, at the
If the
term term
FUNDAMENTAL
PEINCIPLES
OF
[iNTROD.
same
time,of
not true true
one
and
the
same
individual thing.
B
must
be
of the
individual
thing A,
not-B
then
true
the of
not-B
be
be not
words, two contradictory both be false;taking A as before to mean and the same individual thing, and using the term B in the one in both, the two sense same propositions'A is B5 and 'A is not-B' and cannot both be false; if one are contradictory be false, the other be true; that is,if the proposition must 'A is B' be false, then the proposition'A is not-BJ must be be true. then 'A is B' must true, and if 'A is not-B' be false, For example, the two and 'a leaf 'a leaf is green,' propositions, is not-green,' both be false;a leaf is either 'green'or cannot then its be not true of a leaf, not-green':if the term 'green' be true of it; that is,two con must 'not-green' contradictory
true
*
of it.
and the same terms both be false of one cannot tradictory and 'notand 'not-yellow,' thing. Similarly, 'liquid' 'yellow' and the both be false of one cannot liquid,' 'good and not-good' same a sample of water, or any thing,such as a piece of gold, other these
individual
thing:
if
one
of them
be
false of any
one
of
be true of it. In other words, then the other must things, "a leaf is green" and "a of the two contradictory propositions leaf is not-green," both cannot be false ; if one the other be false, must of the contradictory "this be true; similarly, propositions and "this sample of water is not-cold," sample of water is "cold," "this piece of gold is yellow," and "this pieceof gold is notand "this piece of chalk "this piece of chalk is solid," yellow," be false, both cannot be false: if one the other is not-solid,"
must
be true.
Principle of Contradiction,two contra be both be true, that is, must cannot one propositions dictory of Excluded false ; and, according to the Principle Middle, both According
to
the
of them
cannot
be
must
be true.
Of the two
is B' and
'A
is not-B'
(taking A
individual thing,and
must
in
one both),
be false
CHAP.
II.]
must
DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC.
19
if is, the propo is not-B} must
one
be true is B' be
accordingto
true, then
sition 'A be
the
be false; if 'A is not-B' be true, then "A is B' must false; 'A is B' be false, then 'A is not-B and if the proposition must be true. then 'A is BJ must be true; if 'A is not-B5 be false, the truth of one con therefore, According to the two principles, of the other,and the proposition impliesthe falsity tradictory the truth of the other ; that is, of two con of one implies falsity be true by the Principle must of one propositions tradictory Excluded Middle,and the other must be false by the Principle
'
have
taken
above
to
mean
an
individual
one thing,
and
thing; and,
cannot
not-B
in that case, two contradictory B terms both be either true or false of A ; or, in other
con
'A is B' and 'A is not-B3 are words,the two propositions and cannot both be either true or false. But tradictory, class of things, that is, if A be a general term a signifies
name
if A
or a
for each
individual
of
number
of
then things,
the two
B and not-B might both be true or false of terms contradictory B individuals and false of others, A. all might be true of some to A,'so that the two propositionsA is B and A is belonging
' ' ' t ' '
not-B
'
would
'
both
be false in
one
sense, and
true
in another
"
if false
'
is taken
stands
and class,
if ' A
'
is taken
for
part,or
' '
at
least
one
and the two name man take,for example,the common and terms wise not- wise.' Now, man contradictory as a class is not either 'wise' or 'not- wise'; in other words, the two pro is wise and is not- wise are both false, if man positionsman
' ' ' '
'
the term
'man' both
or
be taken
to universally 'man
'
denote
all men,
while denote
they are
some men
be taken
two
to partially
terms contradictory the two propositions A is may be both false of a class ; that is, B and A is not-B be a generalterm if A may be both false, In other words,the two contradictory or common name. pro then A is B' but 'all A is and 'A is not-B,' are positions not.' B,'
man.
' ' ' ' ' '
Hence
2"2
20
and
'
FUNDAMENTAL
'
PRINCIPLES
OF
[iNTROD.
be neither
true
some
is not
; and
of
both these,
can
false (Law of Excluded nor Contradiction), Middle); one and the other true. be false, must If all the things belonging to the class A are, however, individually that is,if considered,
(Law
of
'A}
be
taken
dividual be
true.
for
or
single in
must
'not-B' of
a
Thus
or
must
be
true
as an
single
be
individual man,
of is,
considered
individual
must
thing,one
class of
or
of these
two
terms contradictory
true, though, on
wise,and that we shall give here is a pos " 4. (4) The next principle tulate of Logic. It is thus stated by Hamilton The : only of Logic which is requiresan articulate enouncement postulate the demand, that before dealingwith a judgment or reasoning expressedin language, the import of its terms should be fully understood ; in other words, Logic postulates to be allowed to in language all that is implicitly contained state explicitly in the
"
"
whole, some
belong
to the
or term, proposition,
argument, the
may
same
its
meaning
which
and
import
be stated
words,
expresses
the
thing.
the logical of a pro characters of a term or Thus, in describing it is allowable to make in like, position, any verbal changes we order to reduce it to the logicalform, provided the meaning remains any the
testingan argument we may form of words we please, provided the thought constituent propositionsor in the argument
same.
the
In
state
it in in
contained
as a
whole
remains
unaltered.
Mill
"
" 5.
tulates. every He
regardsall the
is true of words
four in
one
as
pos
Whatever form
is true
also in
other
which
conveys
meaning2."
of Identity, Principle regardsit as the most of Logic, and calls it a first Principle of universal postulate
givesthis
for the
1 2
Hamilton's An
Lectures, Vol.
in.
p. 114.
Examination
of Hamilton's
Philosophy, p.
482.
CHAP.
II.]
DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC.
21
have
Thought.
is included
According to
in this.
him
the the
"
we postulate
given above
assertion
For
and
it is allowable
which are equivalents, logical contradictory to make of as mutually con use indispensable affirmation of the assertion
"
vertible1."
may
For
the
"A
is
B,"
B
"
we or
is not
"
of the of
'
assertion
"
is not
we
'
may that
sub
denial A is B
its
contradictory'A
assertion of its
is B
is,the
'
denial of
not
and
the
A contradictory
is
For the Principleof Excluded the same. logically Middle, Mill gives the postulatethat it is allowable "to sub stitute for the denial of either of two contradictory propositions, That the assertion of the other2." is,of the two propositions B3
are
'A
one
is B
'
and
is not
B,'we
:
may
substitute
the
assertion
we
of
substitute
B'j
*
and
for that
may of the
postulatesthe universal postulatesof which ought to be placed, at the earliest, in the second reasoning,' essentially part of Logic the Theory of Judgments ; since they' involve the ideas of truth and falsity, which attributes of are
"
of
names
or
concepts. This
of words is true
remark of
seems
to applicable
: Identity
Whatever form
is true of
form
also in
every
words, which conveys" the same meaning") as we and for stating in logical requireit for making verbal alterations, form the meaning of a term, before describing its logical charac Still less is the remark ters. to the postulatewhich applicable We have given above. we require the aid of that postulatein order to state explicitly the thought that is implicitly contained in a term, and, in the case of an ambiguous term, to recognize its different meanings and treat them such. It is hardly neces as to describe the logical characters sary to say that it is impossible
1
other
Ibid. p. 488.
Ibid. p. 490.
22
of
a
FUNDAMENTAL
PKINCIPLES
OF
[iNTROD.
its fully understandingand explicitly stating meaning or meanings, the thought or thoughts,the attribute or here thing,signified are by it. For this reason, all the principles term
without
placed in
of Terms
the Introduction
or
Concepts.
calls the
Hamilton laws of
the principles
'
'fundamental
to call the second the Law of Non thought/and prefers the absence of contradiction as an "as it enjoins contradiction,' condition of thought1." indispensable Axioms of Inference, or Ueberweg calls them the Principles and places them at the beginning of the part treating of Infer
ences.
To
these
three he
adds
of
the
or (determining
Reason. sufficient)
of this is
as
or Principle
Axiom
by
Leibnitz of this
seems
best,and
that
no
follows be
:
"
"
In virtue
we principle
know
a
fact
can
found
no real,
proposition true,without
rather than in another."
sufficient reason,
why
Axiom
it is in this way
to
According
Ueberweg
Middle the
:
"
of Contradiction
and
the
of Excluded
namely, principle,
The formula that 'A' cannot and that it must
Principleof
c
of this is
is either B and
"
which is not^B,'
means
be both 'B'
not-B'
(Law
of
Contradiction),
Middle).
is B is
be
one
or
the other
(Law
:
"
of Excluded
of
axiom follows
which
'
B,
as
i. e., every
serve
to -belongs
the
subjectnotion
axiom
may
to predicate
the
same.'
He
regards this
should
be
" 6.
To
"
the
of
added
the
: following
nullo3.
"Whatever
be
is
or
or
denied
of
class
distributively may
in.
affirmed
Hamilton's
Lectures,Vol.
p. 82.
283, "c.
3
Chapter rv.
CHAP.
II.]
DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC.
23
denied
to
of
thing
belonging
to
a
to
that
or,
"what
belongs
maintain
while
higher
it
can
belongs
deduced
lower."
the three axiom
logicians
of
from
Thought,
of
regard
those
as
an
independent
incapable
deduction
The
fundamental
axioms
or
canons
of
Syllogism
Lam
as
different
logicians "C.1).
(Mill,
Martineau,
Thompson,
Whately,
The
(7)
Mathematical
that than
"
Axioms
"
(1)
is
that
of
Argumentum
than
a
fortiori,
which axiom is
namely, greater
"
thing
is
to
which
greater
than the
second, (2)
to the
third, equal
of
a
greater
the
same
third";
are
that and
two
things
axioms
thing
nature.
equal
each
other";
other
similar
See
below,
Appendix
A.
PART
r
L"
TERMS.
CHAPTER
I.
THE
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
"
More
1.
name
may it is of
be
a
defined
as
sign
for
thing
of
or
things. signi
accurately,
some
word,
or
combination
words,
or
fying
mental noumenal.
object
or
thought,
substantive
the
names
or
something
or
real
imaginary,
or
material,
For
'
attributive,
'
phenomenal
*
example,
chair'
are
words of
animal,' things,
plant,'
while
flower,'
words
'table,' 'paper,'
'
real
names
the for
centaur,'
golden
the
mountain,'
words mental
"c.,
are
standing
imagi
are
nary
names
objects;
'mind,' things
'
'soul,'
or
signifying
'
substances, "c.,
are
*
words for
'
'
gold,'
silver,' things
'
'
mineral,'
the words
'
copper,'
'
names
standing
'
material
sensation,' "c.,
'
pleasure,'
are names
pain,'
per
ception,'
attributes
imagination,'
of
memory,'
'
expressing
'
mind,
while
solidity,'
colour,'
matter
'
figure,'
the
hardness,'
'
"c.,
are
words
signifying
attributes
of
words
think
names
'feeling,' phenomena
'
'wishing,'
of
'hoping,'
while
are
'
"c.,
words
are
'
acts
'
or
mind, "c.,
words
names
the words
moving,' phe
'
melting,'
or
expanding,' changes
'
cooling,'
;
signifying
nomena
of
bodies
the
are
thing-in-itself,'
noumena
mator
ter-in-itself,'
realities which
mind-in-itself,'
are
expressing
all
believed
to
underlie
phenomena
and
the
20
attributes
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PARTI.
things, such as men, is a generalconception or animals, trees, flowers, individual conception is an individual an Objectively regarded, it is an idea of the thing. while,subjectively, thingitself, The process of forming concepts may be regarded as consist ing of the following steps: (1)the observation of individuals;
common
in possessed
by a
number
of individual
of each of them (2)the analysis (3)the comparison of them with the attributes in which those in which of these
common
into
one
its constituent
they all agree, and to separate these from if possible, they differ; (4)the mental unification,
that is, the thinkingof attributes, them
together the making of the aggregateof them a single of thought ; or object of this aggregate, or or (5) the expression single symbolization of thought,by an audible, other sign, or visible, object usually by
For term or words, called a name example,in forming the concept metal,' (1)different individual metals,such as gold,silver, platinum,"c.,must copper, mercury, be observed and experimented upon; (2)the attributes of each of them methods must be found out by physicaland chemical ;
a or
.
word
combination
of
'
(3)they must
the attributes
be
when (4) these attributes, be thought of together;and (5)symbolized for found out, must to others, well as for communication reference afterwards as by a other sign. The concepts man,' horse,'plant,' word, or some 'flower,' '.element,' "c., are formed in 'animal,''book,''table,'
' ' '
another
the
same
manner.
sense,
is
an
name.
It is the
or
expression
In
a
in language of the
narrower
concept or
it is the
of
individual
the
individuals.
sense,
or subject
of predicate
propo
is that is, that of which something is said, or sition, For example, said about something,in a sentence or proposition. and the combinations the words man,' horse,' plant,'flower,' 'elements of words 'floweringplant,''elementary substance,' animals that live in water,' heat and electricity,' that conduct
' ' ' ' ' '
that which
the smell of
narrower
are flower,'
terms
in the wider
sense,
but
not
in
the
sense, in which
they must
be either the
or subject
CHAP.
I.]
VAKIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
27
the
predicate in
denied is
name,
affirmed
or
that is, either they must be proposition, denied of something, or something must be affirmed or of them; in other words, a term, in the narrower
a a
sense,
part of
whether
wider
sense,
it
is
Every term or though it may not actuallyform, is capable of forming name, of a proposition, either the subjector the predicate that is, some be affirmed or it may or thing may be affirmed or denied of it, denied of something ; and this is the best test by which a term be distinguished from a mere word combination or name or may
a
part of
sentence
or
not.
of words.
Terms
are
are
divided
by logiciansinto
in
a
certain
:
"
broad
which divisions,
given below
I.
tabular
form
man.
e.g., man
of business.
sun.
Socrates, the
II.
"
book.
TEEMS IV.
water.
v
'Privative, e.g.,
V.
wife.
God.
"
while For
2.
The
first division A
single-wordedand
of
a
many-worded.
a
singleword,
of words.
combination
'man,' 'metal,''animal,''paper,'are example, the terms 'wise man,' 'rational animal,' worded ; while the terms singleA many-worded white paper,'yellowflower,' are many- worded.
* '
term
may
consist of
of any
number
of words of
a
from
two
or
It may
consist
sentence
upwards. paragraph,
be
28
affirmed sists of bination
or
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TEEMS.
[PART I.
is A
a
denied
of
something. Every
word
is is not
a
term
word
or
con
words, but
of
every
term.
word, or
com
capable of beingemployed by itself as while a word, or combination of a term, is called categorematic, words, which must be joinedwith other words in order to form a
: thus term, is called syncategorematic
words,which
while all categorematic, For junctions, adverbs,"c.,are syncategorematic. interjections, example, the words man,' animal,' rational,' running,'white and the combinations of words a good man,' a rational ness,' "c., while the animal,''a flowering "c., are categorematic, plant,' words of 'and,' 'but,''of,' 'when,'"c., and the combinations words 'instead of,' 'with reference to,' 'on the subjectof,' 'very are "c., sincerely,' syncategorematic. It should be observed that the distinction of categorematic and syncategorematic is applica
are
' ' ' ' ' ' '
and verbs
and combinations
and manyworded of
those words
combinations
words,while the distinction is applicable to terms, that is, to words which are categorematic.
of
and general. " 3. The second division of terms is into singular that is, of an individual thing, is a name A singular term a name in the same which is applicable, thing. For example, sense, to one the present Emperor of Germany,' the Metropolis the terms of 'the Ganges,' 'the sun,''the moon,' 'Socrates,' India,' 'Plato,' the 76th Regiment of Foot in the British Army,' are all singular, signifyingeach an individual thing or object of thought. A is a name of each of two or more term individual things, general which is applicable, in the same that is, a name sense, to each of indefinite number of things. For example, the terms an man,' flower,' animal,' metal,' element,' sensation,'state,'body,' are 'idea,' 'feeling,' general,standing each for every one of an of individual things or phenomena; the term indefinite number for every individual of a largeclass or group of is a name man flower is applicable to every indi things called men ; the term vidual of a group of things to feeling is applicable ; the term each of a large number of mental phenomena ; the terms idea,' each to likewise applicable are 'sorrow,' 'thought,' 'hope,' 'joy,'
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
CHAP.
I.]
one
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
29
every every
of
group is
a
of mental
name
things or
mental.
phenomena.
of
a
Thus,
of
of each
or
individual
number
should for
a
be group
from distinguished of
collective
term, which
regarded as generalterm
tive term
and things taken together, a one as singleobject of thought. Thus, while a of things, to each of a number is applicable a collec
name
"
cannot
be
appliedto
'
each
individual
of
multitude
only to all taken together. Thus, 'a library,' collective terms : each of are a regiment,'a nation,' a forest,' taken together, of a collection of many them is a name things, for The term and regarded as one a complex whole. library,' is applicable to a largecollection of books, and example, signifies
but separately,
' ' '
all of them
not collectively,
to any
a
one
of them
separately ;
'
is
term
one
to applicable
multitude
to any
of them
as
' '
It individually.
'
collective terms
term
inasmuch it is as library is general, libraries throughout the of the numerous world ; the term forest is likewise general, being applicableto the terms 'nation,' 'army,' any forest in any country.; similarly, both collective and general 'a few,''a crowd,' are 'multitude,' because each of them is applicable to a number of collective, things taken together and regarded as a whole; and general, indefinite number because it is applicable to each of an of such
'
"
wholes.
On
the Foot
other
hand,
such
collective terms
'
as
'the
76th
Regiment of
'the Bodleian
in the
British
'the Library,'
and not general, inasmuch each singular, as of them is applicable to a single collection or complex whole, and not to more than Some one. logiciansregard 'regiment' as and collective ; nation a regiment as general, and as general, that is, a nation as collective, accordingto them, a collective
' ' ' ' ' '
term
denotes
an indefinitely
individual
collection
of
things or
and this should be expressed by the indefinite article objects, to it. This distinction in language between a collective prefixed
30
and and
a
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
than
one
generalterm
not
appears
to be
good on
more
ground,
a
should It should
be overlooked1. that
a
be observed
general term
is
to applicable
number
ment
of in
an
things,not
attribute
or
but arbitrarily,
in virtue
of their agree It
collection of attributes.
impliesthat
the
things to which it is applicable agree in an attribute or attri butes. It is, in fact, of a concept as well as of individual a name things. In technical language it is said to denote or signify the things to which it is applicable, and connote, imply directly
or
the attribute or attributes signify indirectly In other words, a general term is a name agree.
connotes
the
attribute
or
attributes which
in1which
denotes
which
belongto
of
an
it.
"
An
4.
is into concrete
or attribute,
abstract.
of
abstract term
collection
attributes, apart
word
from
the used
substance
in
which
sense
it exists.
to
mean
The any
attribute is here
or a or quality, thing, and, also, property, any relation of things and qualities.For example, animality,' all abstract "c., are humanity,3 'whiteness,' 'triangularity,' attribute or a group of attributes apart an terms, each signifying from the substances in which it exists. Equality,' succession,' 'coexistence' abstract terms, each signifying relation of are a the other on things apart from the things. A concrete term is, of a substance, The word or a class of substances. hand, a name substance is here used to mean individual thing mental an For or 'the sun,' 'the earth,' material. example, 'Socrates,' * the table,'man,' animal,' plant,' "c.,are all concrete terms, and not merely attri individual things or substances, signifying butes. The term is concrete, inasmuch it is a name of man as things and not merely of the attribute 'humanity' pos many sessed in common For the same by all individual men. reason, inasmuch of are as generally adjectives they are names concrete, of attributes: the adjective things and not merely significant
' 4 ' ' ' ' ' ' '
accident
See Hamilton's
Lectures, Vol.
n.
pp. 281"2.
CHAP.
I.]
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
31
name
of all
not 'whiteness,' a name this it is also evident that adjectives every white object. From are generaland not singularterms. All adjectives are regarded by Mill and Jevons as concrete land general,that is,as names denoting or signifying directly
colour
and things
implying attributes ; but it is evident and imply attributes that some of them attributes, signify may and be thus general and abstract, of those attributes, and, also, attributes that they may, in some only, and be cases, express be applied to thus abstract or attributive. For an adjective may attribute as well as to a concrete it may an thing,that is, qualify both abstract and substantive nouns. For example, the adjective 'boldness.,' 'great'may qualifythe abstract terms 'goodness,' size,' extension,' firmness,' strength,' beauty,' generosity,' "c., as well as the concrete terms 'man,' 'philosopher,' 'poet,' 'small,' 'picture,' 'equal,''greater,' "c.; the adjectives 'large,' well as things ; in as less,' "c.,may likewise qualifyattributes, such cases, adjectives should be regarded as general, and abstract rather than concrete. And, when an adjectiveis affirmed of a it suggests to the mind an thing,or of an attribute, attribute, connoting
or
' ' ' ' ' ' '
and
not
any
thing ;
white
for
example
in
the
proposition
'
snow
is
suggestssimply the attribute whiteness ; and not any thing or class of things; in the proposition gold is the adjective yellow,' yellow suggestssimplythe attribute 'yellow
'
the white,'
word
of attributes only, are adjectives significant and not of things. This is, however, a matter in which logicians differ,some (Mill, Jevons, "C.1) maintainingthat all adjectives of things,implying attributes, that is,concrete are and names general; others (Martineau,Fowler, "c.2)holding that they are of things,but attributives, not names that is, words which
cases
"
ness'; in
such
"
i.
Jevons'
Lessonst
Deductive
p. 21.
2
See Martineau's
Essays, Vol.
n.
p. 345
Fowler's
32
press
VAEIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
from any
characters them."
terms
or
as attributes,
such, apart
objects
having
Abstract
are
sometimes
general.
'
of a definite in singularabstract term is a name For example, milkwhiteness,'visibleness,' dividual attribute. "c.,are singularabstract terms, signify squareness,' equality,' A
' ' '
ing
of
each
an
attribute
definite perfectly
term
and
incapable of
of each of
a
any
division.
generalabstract
name
is
can
name
group
same
which
be
in affirmed, For
the
sense, of each
example, the terms 'colour,' 'virtue,' 'pleasure,3 'figure,' 'pain,' "c., are time, general,each of them and, at the same abstract, being
to applicable
indefinite number
of attributes.
every
one
of
number of
of attributes
'
colour
'
may
stand "c. ;
'
for any
shade of
for any species of 'virtue,' benevolence, "c. Whenever its name or species, variety, become
degree,
these, and thus course or singular general thing only sense, to one
to
more
than
one.
however, differ in this matter ; and I wish, there Logicians, to note the different opinionswhich they hold : fore, and (1) Some Logicianshold that the distinction of singular
"
generalis
terms
not
should
and
that
abstract
in
one
passage.
He
says
"To
avoid needless
logomachies,the
best
neither as probably be to consider these names in a class apart1." Mr and to placethem nor individual, general solution however is to satisfactory Keynes says, "A still more not applying to as consider the distinction of generaland singular
course
would
abstract do not
names
at
all2".
So far
as
is he
concerned,I
says about
think
it carries any
weight.
1 2
i.
p. 30.
34
notion
an
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
abstract idea
"
of the
desk
before
me
is
an
of that order
body,and
to consider
same
on
which
concentrated
idea is
it
This exclusively.
but abstract,
it is at the
time
individual ; it representsthe figureof this of any other body V not the figure
to generalconception (inopposition the with the individual conception) is not to be confounded abstract (inopposition to the concrete, see " 47). Tht- divisions
Ueberweg
says
"
:
"
The
cross
each
other.
There
are
concrete abstract
and
abstract
individual
conceptionsand
It is evident
concrete
and the
that
question whether
be to abstract terms cannot general is applicable solved without statingclearlywhat is meant by satisfactorily If a singular is term a singularand what by a general term. and if a general term to one a name object of thought, applicable to each of a number is a name of objects of thought, applicable then the distinction is certainly to abstract terms : for applicable
singularand
attributes
as
well
as an
phenomena
abstract
and
substances
like
a
may
be
objects
be
a
of thought ; and
name
term,
a name
concrete,may
"
before me,"
this
"
the
of each of a number of terms, for instance, the figure colour of the rose near me," the
"
solidityof
"
stone," as
well
while the abstract attribute, terms relation,' quality,' quantity,' figure,' attribute,' to each of a number virtue,' "c.,are each of them applicable of
c ' ' ' ' '
each
of
'
rela
is
name
to applicable
what
is 'quality' whatever.
name
to applicable
any
quality of
any
object
1 2
Lectures, Vol.
n.
p. 287"8.
Logic, p. 127.
CHAP.
I.]
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
35
when In
According
become
to
some
they
other
general, pass
is
no
words, there
tween
abstract and
same
concrete
terms,between
abstract from
one
attributes and
things.
and
The
term
may
be
point of
one.
view
another
concrete
is
onlya
what
as
relative
not
be
an
without
This
meant
by
term
and
by
concrete
term.
The of
definition
course
of
concrete
term word
or an
'the
name
of
mean
is thing,' either
a
thingmay
an
sub
attribute abstract
; for
possessinganother
as
'
The
'
definition of
term
the
name
of
attribute
is also
attribute possessinganother simply an attribute of an an or attribute, attribute, apart from the sub stances or phenomena in which they exist. Terms expressiveof phenomena are usually regarded as concrete. A It phenomenon is a thing as it appears to us. is a change of a thing, thought of with reference to the thing. It is, in fact,the thing in that particular state of change. The 'the risingof the sun,''the boiling terms, for instance, of water,''the anger I felt yesterday,' which 'the present state of my mind,' "c. are concrete : the risingof the sun the sun in the state of rising; the boiling means of water
' ' ' ' ' '
ambiguous or an attribute,
the
word
attribute may
means
'water
are
in
the
state
of
If boiling.'
the from
of
things thought of, or signified, apart then they really become the attributes of those things. Terms of mere expressive or circumstances, aspectsapart appearances, should be regarded as abstract : the rising from things, of the if it simply meant sun' would the circumstance be abstract, of or aspect of risingapart from the thing sun ; the boiling would be abstract, if it simply meant the appearance water or this is a state of boilingapart from the thing 'water.' But be difference of opinion; and until matter which there may on the terms 'concrete' and 'abstract' are more defined, definitely
' ' ' ' '
3"2
36
I do
not
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART
of
I.
think
there
can
be
any
solution satisfactory
the
difficulty. negative, " 5. The fourth division of terms is into positive, of an the presence term and signifies privative.A positive attribute or a substance;a negative term, its absence; " privative the the presentabsence of an attribute and implies term signifies and human are positive capacityfor it. For example, man ;
' ' ' '
blind,' lame,' negative; and is positive, The term 'pleasant' 'not-pleasant' "c.,are privative. while 'unpleasant' would seem to be positive as signify negative,
'
not-man
and
'
not-human
'
are
'
ing not merely the absence of pleasurebut the presence of some and inconvenient,' positive pain ; convenient,' not-convenient,' and 'immoral' likewise positive, are 'moral,' 'not-moral,' nega and positive and inor tive, respectively.Organic is positive are ganic' negative; 'metallic' and 'metal' positive,while and non-metal non-metallic are negative; wise is positive and not- wise while negative, ignorant might be regardedas It is evident negative or privativeaccordingto circumstances. from the examples given above be con that these terms may crete when or or abstract, concrete implying the presence absence of things or substances, and abstract when of attributes
' ' ' * ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
"
only.
" 6.
solute. A
The
is into of
an
correlative
or
and
ab
correlative term
attribute It each
'
substance another
implying another
term
substance.
to
implies
other
'
related
to
in relation
' '
are
called
'
correlatives.
' '
and example, father and child,'husband murderer and and wife,'greater and less,'cause effect,' member of a pair one murdered,'are all pairs of correlatives, the other absolute term, is, An on implying the other member. of a substance does not imply which or hand, a name attribute, another substance or attribute as water,' air,'horse,'tree,' 'man.' 'the solar system,''gold,' 'body,' 'flower,' bird,' 'silver,'
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' , '
For
" 7.
and
a
The
next
and
is into connotative is
one
non-connotative.
connotative term
which
denotes
meant
attribute.
By
is subject
here
CHAP.
I.]
VAKIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
37
attributes1."
or an
attribute
two or has, in fact, significations that is, to things or meanings, one direct as applied to subjects, and the other indirect objectsof thought possessingattributes, For example, the term as is conno implying attributes. man inasmuch it signifies as tative, directlyeach of an indefinite number of things or substances called men, and connotes or at the same implies, time,an attribute or collection of attributes, term
* '
which which
a same
is
possessed,in applied to
of substances attribute
common,
; the
by
term
all men,
'
and
in virtue
of
it is
them
metal
number
taken
or
implies,at
are common
the
to
time, the
which
' '
them, and
term
a
them distinguish in
as as
substances; the
for each of
colour
is connotative such
it stands
number
of attributes
or
and
connotes
at implies,
the
ess, greenness,
"c.,
attribute
in which
the terms 'animal,''horse,' Similarly, 'mineral,' 'house,' 'table,' 'figure,' 'flower,' 'paper,' 'tree,' 'plant,' all connotative, are having each two significa quality,' virtue,' called the denotation, and the other indirect, direct, tions,one those attributes agree.
' '
called the
on
connotation
of the
"
term.
non-connotative
term
is,
a signifies subject only or an that is,it has only one either of attribute only," signification, and does not imply anything else. a thing,or of an attribute, For example, the terms squareness,'visibleness,' "c.,signifying
the
other
hand,
one
which
'
'
each
an
only,are
non-connotative.
terms
" -
: belong the following all generalterms or (1) All concrete terms that are also general, also concrete; for example, 'man,' 'bird,' that are 'fish,' 'river,' indefinite number 'nation' signifying an directly 'library,' 'lake,' of things,and implying attributes which they possess in com connotative2. are (2) All abstract terms that are general, mon,
To
of connotative
Mill's To
Logic, Vol.
i.
p. 31.
this head
used
that substantively,
38
or
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
abstract names,"
all
generalterms
be
that the
are
abstract.
"Even
says
Mill,"though
may
names
only
instances
justlyconsidered
have attributes may
themselves
which
in some attributes, may as connotative; for attributes ascribed to them; and a word
connote
an
of
denotes
attributes As
an
attribute of those
term
attributes1." denotes
or
example,
he
gives the
'
which 'fault,1
and connotes a or signifies directly quality, signifies another attribute an as indirectly quality, namely hurtfulness,' of that quality. The general abstract terms 'virtue,' 'beauty,' 'relation,' 'colour,' 'quantity,' 'quality,' 'modality,' 'figure,' "c.,
are
connotative2.
and
Each
of these the
terms
denotes
number
of
attributes
connotes
attribute in which
Relation denotes they agree. various kinds of relation, likeness or unlikeness, succession or coexistence, equality or inequality, dependence or reciprocity, and
connotes
the
attribute
in
which
or
general terms,
Whenever
to
a
whether is
concrete
term
a
which
is
each
of
number
it is con thought be substances,phenomena, or attributes, notative of thought of each of which it denoting the objects is a name, and connoting the attribute in which the different objectsof thought agree. A term cannot, in the same sense, of objects of thought, unless be appliedto each of a number of
"
these The
common
each of thought resemble objects various objects of thought will be attribute the
other
in
some
attribute.
the
connotation,of
(3)
Certain
as is, or
concrete
names general
or
names
of
thingsimplying an
attribute
attributes.
1 2
Logic, Vol.
To this head that
as is,
i.
p. 33.
names,
when used as abstract general belong also adjectives of attributes, names implying other attributes. For
' '
example,the adjective great may denote an and connote the attribute thing, greatness,
'
attribute
as
well
as
CHAP.
I.]
VAKIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
39
or imply at singularterms which denote things,and connote information or tributes belonging to those things, convey some For example, the singularterms, 'the sun,' 'the about them. of John 'the first Emperor of Borne,''the only son Stiles,' the present Prime the author of the Iliad,' father of Socrates,' 'the present Viceroy of India,' of England,' "c. are Minister
' '
inasmuch and connote as they denote individuals, connotative, or imply certain attributes belonging to them, or convey some information
terms
that
the British
belongalso the collective such as the 76th Regiment of Foot in are singular, 'the English College Army,' 'the University Library,'
about them.
'
To
this head
"c. people,'
To the class of non-connotative
terms
: belongthe following definite indi signifying
"
(1) All singularabstract terms or terms vidual attributes, such as milkwhiteness,' 'equality,' 'square the of the desk before me,' the smell ness,'visibleness,' figure of the rose near "c. me,' 'the colour of this piece of chalk,'
' ' ' '
(2) Those singular terms, vidual things or substances any attributes belonging to
names
if there
be
any,
which
denote
or
indi
only,and
them.
"
do not
connote
imply
"
According to
belong to
connotative
;
this class.
Proper names,"
or
not
they denote
not
the individuals
Mill,
as
are
called
by
be the
are
indicate
imply
we
any
name
attribute
a
longing
name
to
those
or a
individuals.
When
name
child
names
by
Paul,
marks
dog by
to
the
Coesar,these
individuals
names
simply
used
enable Whenever
those the
to
be
made
given to objects that is,whenever they have properly convey any information, they denote but any meaning, the meaning resides not in what in what they connote. The only names which connote nothing these have, strictly are speaking,no signifi ; and proper names A proper cation. is but an name unmeaning mark which we in our minds connect with the idea of the object, in order that whenever the mark meets to our our thoughts, eyes or occurs think of that individual we we object. When predicate may we (or affirm)of any thing its proper name j when say, point-
subjectsof
discourse.
40
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
a
ing
that
to
man,
this is Brown
we
or
Smith,
so
or
it is any
York,
do
not, merely by
about
city,
the their
to
reader
information
them
except that
is contended of
a
connotation
the
meaning etymological
a
caused
name
it to be affixed to
no thing. Surely,
who be
uses
the
what
it
can denotes,
ignorant of
circumstances of the
of
the
country, and
Thus, accordingto Professor Jevons, all proper names, such as John Smith, Dart mouth, De Morgan, France, Socrates,Plato, "c., are connotative,signifyingdirectly things, and implying the attributes them from or qualities belonging to them and distinguishing
these other
term2.'
individuals.
Professor Jevons has
nor
Mill stands
of
Each
the
and predecessors
to note true
and
student
ought
the
opinion
names.
meaning
of proper
non-connotative, being merely while according meaninglessmarks put upon individual things, to the other, they are connotative,denoting individuals and belongingto those individuals. The question ponnoting qualities
is
a
psychological one,
if
as a
and
cannot
be discussed what it
here.
is true
proper
a
name or
always means
sign for
an
does,when thing. At
But
as our
symbol
individual the
name.
stage no
attribute of the
is associated
with
knowledge
individual which
the name,
only the
proper
con
to be at first without would, therefore, appear but it seems of attributes, notation or signification
any
to
acquire
becomes
this
as signification
our
knowledge
2
of
the
individual
Mill's
Logic, Vol.
i.
pp. 36"37.
42
others rise to
not
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
other, gives knowledge of
are
so
connected
and The
do not fact
imply each
that
our
the
Absolute
Term.
that we first come to know attribute one things is progressive, of a thing or of a group of things and then another,givesrise to the Connotative Term rather the fact that the name given ; or to a thing or a group of thingscomes with the progress of our knowledge of the thing or things,to be associated with this additional knowledge, and becomes afterwards a sign for it, gives rise to the The
distinction
of Term
and
Names.
not
case
Negative
things may
are
onlyby
; that
the attributes
which but be
of Positive
names
Terms),
as
them
absence that
as
of
some
may well
of the
as
of the
of other
attributes ;
into classes by thingsmay be distinguished well as by their positive qualities. " 9. Exercises.
In the logical characters describing be followed What its is
:
"
their
negative
of
should I.
given is
word
see
or
combination it is
of words.
Ascertain
em
meaning,
and
whether
capable of being
a
ployed by
tion. it is II. In the
itself as
the
proposi
then is,
If it is not, then
syncategorenaatic ; if it
describe
"
proceed
to
the
characters logical
worded.
it is
singular or general.
or singular,
it is collective and
collective and
general.
iv. Whether it is concrete
or
abstract.
I have
not
categorematicas
words should rather be than
Singlewords
and
combinations
of words
not terms.
CHAP.
I.]
v.
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
43
it is
vi. vii.
it is absolute
correlative.
or
it is connotative than
one
m.
If it has
meaning,
then in
its
logical
or
with
obvious the
meaning, and
or
accordance
with
other
meaning
1.
Man
'
"
general;
concrete
'Mankind':
concrete
"
and
positive ; absolute ; connotative. worded 3. The Sun : categorematic ; many; singular ; con absolute. crete; connotative; positive; Beautiful 4. : categorematic (accordingto some syncategoresingular ;
'
'
"
'
'
"
matic; because
and
a
the
complete
after
term
consists
as
of the
word
'beautiful'
word
understood
it,such
or 'thing,'
example 'that
that 'that
picture is beautiful':
a
pictureis
beautiful
here
the
im
'Equal':
"
its
logical characters
it is
are
the
same
as
those
of
equal
to
i.e.,it implies something correlative, it. 'Larger,' 'greater,' 'upper,' "c., are also cor
the
relative. 6.
same
logicalcharacters
when collective,
as
'Army':
some one
"
worded categorematic;singlearmy,
it
in the i.e.,
sense
of 'an
when
in
it means
connotes
the attributes
common
by them
'Rational
; concrete
positive ; absolute
water':
8.
conducting heat
and
'animal electricity,'
worded;
9.
living in
figure of this body,''the luminosityof smell of this rose': categorematic; many-worded; stract ; positive ; absolute ; non-connotative.
'The
"
this
flame, 'the
singular; ab
44
10.
'
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
[PART I.
ab
Quantity
'
"
Humanity'
;
tive ; absolute
posi
any
'
'
'
of
varietyor division ; singularand non-connotative, if humanity is that is,incapableof any variety division. or something individual, it is very difficult to describe the logical characters of a Sometimes difference of opinion as to from arisingchiefly term, the difficulty the real nature of the thing signified by the term," as to the real
'
"
meaning
Take, for example, the term meanings of the term, "c. It is general; connotative; concrete; positive;but 'phenomenon.'
or or
is it absolute
correlative?
of
According
do
not
to
implies the
while
noumena,
existence
'noumenon,' and
who
according to others
it is absolute.
to 'substance'
or
believe
in
'
the
existence
'
of
relative
attribute
is either
of the
the
existence
to
in
or
not.
evidentlyrelated 'consequent,'and
or
'effect,'
to 'cause.'
'Antecedent'
'
the latter
to the former.
or
Are
'
time
and
'
space The
abstract
answer
concrete, singular
this
absolute general,
or
correlative? different
to
question will
be
givendifferently by
philosophers.
(3)human, (4)humanity, (5)humani good man, (1) Man, (2), whom I saw tarian, (6) humanitarianism, (7)A man yesterday.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
(1) Good, (2) the good,(3)goodness,(4)goods, (5)the highest good, (6)a good quality, great goodness. (7) Encyclopaedia, library, (5)Ency (1) Book, (2) (4) (3)a library, clopedia Britannica. (4) organism, (5) an (1) Organ, (2) organic, (3) inorganic, organism, (6) organicbeing.
nation nationality, (4) (5) (1) Nation, (2) a nation,(3)national, alities.
VI.
CHAP.
I.]
VARIOUS
DIVISIONS
OF
TERMS.
45
VII.
(1) Strong,
the
strong,
(4) strong
man.
man,
(5)
strength
VIII.
(1) Element,
(2) elementary,
substance,
element.
(3) elementary
'Elements
attribute,
of
(4)
elementary
a
(5) the
Euclid,' (6)
chemical
IX.
(6)universe, (7)heat.
(2)
the first emperor,
X.
(1) Multitude,
(5)mind,
XI.
(6) matter,
(7) cause,
(8) motion,
(9) substance,
circle of
(10)
(12) nothing.
sciences,
sen
(1) Sense,
(1)
His
Honour,
Serene of
water
Highness,
to
(4)
(5) the
in water,
the
state
(7) the
the
surfaces
gaseous
of
bodies,
(8)
en
un-
the
the
metals, (9)
envelope
circling
theory
to
of
dulatory theory
these the kinds
of
light, (12)
reason
of
yellowness
the
gold, (14)
of the
lightest substance
world,
(15)
perception
external XIV.
(16) consciousness.
the wisdom of the the
or
(1) (2)
(3) (4) (5)
"The
place which
for the
policy
of
antiquity
had
destined
To
residence
to
Abyssinian
of
our
princes."
minds.
attend
accurately
operation
The
A A
ignition of phosphorus.
of nature.
just interpretation
series of electric
discharges.
XV.
(1) Co-existence,
(2) succession,
CHAPTER
II.
THE
DENOTATION
AND
CONNOTATION,
OF
DIVISION
AND
DEFINITION,
TEKMS.
"
terms
1.
IN
the
or
denote
have
and
seen
that
or
most
connote
same
imply
other of the
attributes
belongingto them,
of which The to each
is,have,
their of the
at the
time, two
the
meanings,
their individual
is called
denotation, and
a
connotation.
denotation of which of
a
term
consists the
same
things
term
in is,
sense,
applicable. The
or
connotation
term
consists
of the
attribute
collection of attributes
of the individual of
'
each
and
For
denotation
the
term
consists
of
all
"
the
things,called
in
men,'
the
whether term
living or
is
dead,
things,
its conno applicable ; while tation consists of the attributes, and 'rationality,' say 'animality' The deno implied by it,and possessed in common by all men.
fact,to
which
man'
tation books
of the
term in
'
book'
consists
of
various
kinds
while
of its all
written
all
languages throughout
of the
world,
connotation
books
'
consists in
attribute
and which
or are
attributes
which
book.'
ferent while
mon
implied by the term all the dif term triangle'in denotation signifies of triangles,the individual things called triangles,
common,
'
"
in connotation
it
attribute of
by
all
triangles, namely,
attribute
com
by
three
lines.
CHAP.
AND
CONNOTATION
OF
TERMS.
47
i.e., has for its deno an signifies individual, tation only a singleobject or thing,its connotation is the group of attributes possessed by the individual thing,and signified by the sun' has for its denotation For example,the term the term. individual thing only,while its connotation consists of the one
When
a
'
attributes
term
an
possessed by
'
that individual
; the term
the
presentPrime
and
connotes
individual Minister
a
person, of
attribute of
of
being the
Socrates'
Prime denotes
England' ;
the
'
term
'the father
implies the attribute of being Socrates's have both a denotation father' ; thus all singularterms and a connotation,proper names alone,according to Mill, being experson,
and
cepted.
among
We
have
already alluded
this and other.
to
the
not
of
view
on logicians
" 2.
increased
The
denotation
to
the connotation
term
close relation
or
each
When
of
is
;
connotation of
or a
increased
again,when
of
more a
term
'decreased,
new
its denotation
increased.
group
one
thingsto
class
term, you
Include
a
subtract
new
or
class within
a
signified by
that
term, and
its connotation
will lose
meaning,
before.
individuals
part of by all
number
in
The
man'
has
the group
of animals
called men,
and
attributes,
and 'animality'
If 'rationality.'
its denotation
or
enlargedby
than
includingin
man,
it 'irrational will
animals'
no
all other
animals
its connotation
consist bers of
'
but as longer be the same before, of that attribute only which is possessedby all the mem the newly formed enlarged class, namely, the attribute thus lose the other lose
an
and animality,'
attribute attribute
"
'
term
"
likewise
sidedness'
as
'
from
such classes,
to its denotation.
The
term
'animal'
attributes
as
locosensibility,
48
DENOTATION
AND
CONNOTATION
[PART I.
motion, "c., from its connotation,when its denotation is en the new in its sphere, denotation largedso as to include plants3 and connotation term giving rise to the new 'organizedbeing.5
'
when its connotation, denotation of inorganicthings,' the is and the decreased connotation increased denotation giving rise 'material to the term includinginorganicas being'or 'body,'
term
'
This
will
its
organicbeings. Thus, we see that addition to the deno tation of a term implies subtraction from its connotation,and that the new class thus produced is generally signified by a new
well
as
term
with
smaller
connotation. of
a
that,when
connoted
the denotation
term
a
is increased.
Again, if
a
you
add
attribute group of
to the attribute
by
term, you
subtract
examples we have of the term Add the attribute 'organization3 to the connotation of material body,'the attribute to the connotation sensibility' to the the term being,'the attribute 'rationality' ''organized the attribute 'three-sidedness3 of the term connotation animal,' rectilineal figure3 of the term to the connotation ; and, in each of the corresponding that term is decreased, case, the denotation number of things possess the added attributes ; and a smaller is, and the decreased denotation the increased connotation give rise it can be shown term. to a new that,when the con Similarly, notation of a term is decreased, its denotation is increased. " 3. The relation between the denotation and the connota tion of a term may be explainedby figures follows : as Let A, B, C, D, be four generalterms, their denotations being representedby the circles A, B, C, D, and their connotations
denotation.
* ' ' '
"
The
^X
a
J- \
/*~*\ \
a
50
will neither
DENOTATION
AND
CONNOTATION
[PART I.
increases
increase
nor or
if the decrease,
circle A
by
the
discoveryof
the
new
individuals possessing
of the class.
and
may the
connotation
or
of
term
are
not abso of
increase
decrease with
of
a
the advance
Given
connotation
less indefinite.
or
Given
is
4
less indefinite.
metal
6, c, what
three
attributes.
that
Every individual thing that possesses Not only the metals at present known
all substances
three
hereafter be found to possess those may be included in its denotation; thus the denotation progress
are now
of the of
term
'metal'
may
go
substances
to be
that
recognizedas
the circle may
out
compound
progress the
; and
thus
decrease in extent
the other defi
with
the that
of chemical
analysis.Suppose,on
term
(
hand,
and
denotation of
a a
of the
metal
'
is fixed and
nite,that is,consists
is
certain
number
of known is then
term
*
elements,
its
conno
represented by
The
common
certain
what circle,
tation ?
attributes
connotated
by
the
in possessed these
by
may
denoted with
'
attributes
increase the
the
of
chemical
to connote
and knowledge,
metal
may
afterwards
both
attributes which it does not at present. Thus, many the denotation and the connotation of a term may vary with
"
1.
4.
Exercises:
the
"
Describe
change
in the denotation
as
and
connotation
of each
in the
to the
series following
you
pass from
3rd, and
so
order,
you
from
CHAP.
II.]
iv.
OF
TERMS.
51
v.
mutual
attraction of the
sun
and
the
vi. vii.
2.
more
Give
terms
a
"
many
examples
as
you
can
of series of
four, or three,
stands
each, in which
denotation and
each
term
of
greater extension
of
a
before
3.
term
The
vary
inversely."
may
Explain and
4.
Can increase whose
criticisethis statement.
you
give
any
any
example of
terms
whose
denotation
without
connotation
change in the connotation, and also of terms increase without change in the deno any may
the denotation and
a
tation ? 5.
Has
What
every
determines
term
a
of
term?
denotation
connotation?
"
5.
If
number this
of terms
" "
be
related
to
one
another
as
figure,
denotation
of
B, C,
be
and be and
as
of B of
contained
in that
if their connotations
shown
the
in the
called
B,
and
tion to C ; B lation to
A,
that
the is,
term
are
and
them
in species
other.
same
distinction between
may be
a
is however
genus
in
relation to
in relation to
A, and
4"2
52
to C.
DENOTATION
AND
CONNOTATION
[PART I.
species
The
attribute
'
'
is called the
differentia of the
B in relation to the genus C, and the attribute ' c ' the differentia of the species A in relation to the genus B. The differentia of a is that attribute which species being added to the connotation of the genus 'b'
of the
species;here the
of the is thus
a
attri
bute
being added
to
connotation
genus
C,
the
connotation
species B, and
the differentia
differentia of the
from distinguished genus;
speciesB.
the other for
By
species is
the
same
species contained
two
are
'
in
as
genus,
example,contains
speciesB
and
C's that
and
by
the
differentia ' b
from
The
the other
two
speciesnot-B
contained
genus
C.
speciesB and not-B included in the genus C are called co-ordinate species. In the figure on page 54, the three sub classes A, B and C contained in the class G are, similarly, co-ordinate speciesof the genus G; and the terms A, B, and C
are
called co-ordinate
to
in relation
to
each
other
and
subordinate
in relation
G, while G
not-C
are
is called called
them. not-C
cover
C and
includingeverything except
the every whole
and
not-
A,
B
are
sense, of
sphere of thought and thought is included in either C or not-C. A and and not-B in their widest and not-B, taking not-A the whole also contradictory sphere terms, and cover
existence.
Two
terms contradictory
are nor
thought and
so
re
lated to each
of be the and
same
other,that both can and the same thing,that one be false, the and if one false,
same
*
be neither if
one
affirmed
denied
must
be
must
true,the other
be
other
true,of
of
one
one
and
thing.
For
example,both
the terms be
'organized being'
and
the
'
affirmed
being thing,nor can both be denied of it ; if * organized be affirmed, being' must be denied,and if the 'not-organized be denied, of a thing ; for the former must latter be affirmed, other of the two or thing must fall into one every possible comprehensive classes
which divide between
them the
whole
CHAP.
II.]
of
OF
TERMS.
53
included
existence be that be
so
sphere
or
thought
two
nor
and
other
of the
in
one
neither
to
in nature each
in
thought.
both
related may
other,that
but affirmed, if be
one
both
be
thing,that denied,of one and the same if one be false, must but, not conversely,
be true, of
of the
two must
the false,
then it,
terms
they are
'black'
called and
contrary terms.
'black'
For be
example,
'white,'if
the same and denied, of one must be denied, 'white' if 'black' conversely, the thing in question it,for both may be denied of it,that is,
'white'
be
may of
no
be
neither
at
black
all.
nor
white, but
'cold' and
of
some
other
colour and
'virtue'
terms, while
and
terms
'hot,''up' and 'down,' contrary 'light' and 'darkness,'"c., are 'vice,' 'hot' and 'cold' and 'not-hot,''light' 'not-cold,'
Thus Two terms. contrary contradictory the whole sphere of thought and completelycover
are
'not-light/"c.,
do
not two
existence,while
between the whole and ed then
them
may
be
The
:
"
difference
that
Suppose
sphere of thought
is represent
existence
by
the
the two
'black'
and
small
under the circle of falling colour C, and jointly cover ing only a part of the largest while the two contra circle, 'black' and dictory terms and 'not-black' and the of
are
represented, by respectively,
of the
the
small
circle
A,
remainder
whole
DIVISION
AND
DEFINITION
[PART i.
of Terms.
of
on
the Mutual
Relations
the
genus,
species,and
differentia
the
following
(1)Plant, (2) Figure, (3) Triangle, (4) Body, (5)Metal, Mind. Book, (8)Flower, (9) Element, (7) Kock, (10) (6) 2. Give a subordinate, and a co-ordinate of the a super-ordinate, terms : following Bock, (5)Substance. (1)Animal, (2)Solid,(3)Virtue, (4) Give the contradictory 3. and a contrary of the followingterms : (1) White, (2) Simple, (3)High, (4)Liquid, (5)Good, (6) Moral, (7) Mind, (11) Matter, Vice, (8)Mortal, (9)Animal, (10) Beautiful. (12) Form, (13) 4. Has every term a genus and species ?
" "
" 6.
ment
Division
and
Definition of Terms
of
a
"
The
state orderly
of the
denotation
term,
or
the
grouping of
or
the deno
classes
to according
the presence
absence,
is the division of the term. varying degree of an attribute, forth of the connotation of a term is its defi the setting And nition,or the definition of the things or class denoted by the definition is more The less completeaccordingas the term. or connotation of
a
term,
more
or
or
the
group
of attributes in The
which
the of
a
things agree,
is
less exhaustive.
definition
a
term, being
its any The
statement
of
division of
term
like
tion.
With
the the
denotation increase
tent.
sub-classes
or
in number
in
ex
in extent
as
represented by
the
A, B, C are smaller classes under G, and if G is enlargedinto G',A, B, G will the whole no longer cover extent. They must increase the larger dotted lines, class or
If
CHAP.
II.]
be
OF
TERMS.
55
and
must
divided
in
different
way,
give rise
or a
to
new
sub
classes.
The and the like concept,
or
the
content
comprehension,
its content the is
its extent
extension.
extent
of in
concept consists of
of
individual
The
or
conceptions or
of
a
things
which
found.
notions The
content
concept
or
consists
essence
statement
of these
definition
of the
concept ;
the
grouping
of the
to their resemblance conceptionsinto minor divisions according is the division of the concept. The extent and and difference, and the relation between the content of a concept, them, may be and capital and small letters of the alpha representedby circles, bet, just as in the case of a term. " 7. Definition as a logical process is the process of deter in mining the connotation of a term, or the attributes possessed It implies obser common by the things denoted by the term. vation,analysis, abstraction, comparison, and even generaliza and is a most tion, important process in science. A definition as a product of thought is the product of this process. In a deserve most a complete treatise on Logic,Definition would prominent place. Here I shall give only the rules to which a definition ought to conform, noting, by the way, the faults to
which form
gives rise.
or
A
:
"
definition should
con
rules following it be
an
conditions
(1)
the
term
That
statement analytical
of the connotation
one
of
defined.
a
This
rule includes
the
given by
et
the older
definition should
of the genus is
be per and
a
genus
differentiam,
term.
statement
differentia of the
the definition is partial stated, and if the whole the definition is or of it is stated, incomplete; to distinguish if it serves complete.An incompletedefinition, the things denoted by the term from others belonging to the same higher class, corresponds to a definition per genus et difa
If
while a complete definition corresponds to a definition ferentiamj The violation of this rule givesrise to per genus et differentias.
56
what
DIVISION
AND
DEFINITION
[PART I.
a
as
has been
called
an
accidental
or definition,
mere
descrip
tion of the
things denoted
by
the
term
as
well
to redundant not
and
stated
in the
attribute
attributes
stated,
it is redundant.
For
bounded
by
three
to
is a figurewhich is example, 'a triangle and which has all its angles straightlines,
'
definition ; right angles is a redundant is a liquidsubstance water is incomplete; man is a cooking and animal iron is the cheapest metal accidental ; and are a is an plant organism having roots,branches,leaves,flowers, is a mere fruits, "c.,' description.
two
' ' ' ' ' ' '
togetherequal
(2)
of the
That
term
it
exactlycoincide
In
in extent
with
the
denotation
words, it should not include should it exclude any nor things other than those to be defined, of them. The violation of this rule givesrise to the fault of too For example, the definitions 'man great width or narrowness. is a sentient being,' metal is a solid substance,' a too wide ; are is a civilized animal,' a metal is a heavy element,' while man
' ' *
defined.
other
are
too
narrow.
(3)
That
it do
not
contain
the
term
to
be
or defined,
any
The
circle in definition.
'man is a as by itself, 'life is the sum of the vital functions,' or organism,' vegetable is defined by a second term, and the second when a term again rational 'man is the 'a a as animal'; and, again, ra first, by is an is a human 'matter tional animal extended sub being,' stance';and, again,'an extended substance is a material body.' this rule it is evident that a term connoting an elementary From
defined
gives rise to the For example, when term is a human 'a plant is a being,'
attribute the
term
cannot
be defined.
or
For
either
it.
itself
its synonym,
as
be
of merely a description
Hence
'
terms
defined.
The
definitions
or
rather
58
DIVISION
AND
DEFINITION
[PART I.
its
is a three-sided figure, equilateral triangle having all equal to each other. angles and sides respectively is a figurebounded lines. by three straight (9) A triangle knowledge. (10) Logic is the science of human
(8)
An
(11)
Gold
is
precious metal.
is
a
kind
of carbon.
is
a a
supporter of combustion.
hard substance.
(14) A rock is
(15) Inorganicsubstances are dead material bodies. (16) Mind is a thinking substance. life. (17) A plant is a being possessing vegetable is a river of ice. (18) A glacier
II. Define the terms following
:
"
(1) Student,(2)College, (4)Library,(5)Class, (3) University, (6)Term, (7) Mind, (8) Matter, (9) Thing, (10) Food, (11) Plant, (16)Flower, Bird, (12)Lake, (13) Book, (14)Tree, (15) Animal, (18) Virtue, (19)Keligion, (20)Science. (17)
" 8.
from
tion of
division is to be distinguished, the one on Logical what is called physical the analysis or or division,
an
hand,
separa
individual what
thing into
from other, of
an
is called
individual
thing into
of
a
properties.
The division
plant into
its
roots,trunk, branches,and
of an animal into its head, trunk,limbs,"c.,is physi or leaves, which constitute a cal; while the division into the qualities plant or an animal is metaphysical. The division of a pieceof while the division or gold into two or more parts is physical, rather the analysis of it into the qualities, a certain yellowcolour, are "c., which gravity,a certain form, size,solidity, specific
possessed by every
every
into its com be divided physically object may into its qualities, or ponent particles parts,and metaphysically
individual
or properties,
attributes.
.
But
both
these
kinds
of
division be
should
be
from distinguished
cannot
CHAP.
II.]
an
OF
TERMS.
59
a
to applied
individual
class of
thingsor attributes.
The conform
rules
are
or
conditions
: following
"
to which
to
the
(1) That
vidual.
what
is to be
divided
be
class and
cannot be
not
an
indi
In other
words, a singularterm
and divided,
of logical division. The violation is capable term only a general to meta or of this rule gives rise either to physical partition, 'a physicalanalysis.A collective term, such as 'a nation,' 'the animal 'the universe,' (a forest,' kingdom,' being library,' divi of logical in signification, is also incapable singular really
sion.
division the
be
founded
upon
a
the
presence
or
of varyingdegree,
certain
only one
violation
fundamental fundamentum
of
this rule
givesrise
(3)
same
That
the
name
in applicable,
the
sense,
to each
sub-divisions
The
to
or
smaller
classes into
which rise to
the whole
is divided.
gives
class
or partition, physical
(4)
divided. should divided
of
That
the
In other
dividingterms
the
together exactlycoincide
term.
The
of this rule
(5)
exclude
That each
the
sub-divisions do
In other
not
other. of
one
of another.
givesrise
"
to the fault of
division. over-lapping
above rules
examples : (1)A is into (i) division of rectilineal triangles isosceles, equilateral, (ii) divided is general; the princi the term scalene. Here and (iii) ple of division is the equality or inequalityof the sides; the subto each 'rectilineal triangle' is applicable divided term
I shall illustrate the
by
few
60
DIVISION
AND
DEFINITION
[PARTI.
division ; the sub-divisions taken together coincide exactly with the class divided ; and they exclude each other. In this division
an
isosceles
is triangle
denned
as
sides
equal,
the
otherwise
the
second
and first,
division involve
lineal
the fault of
is into figures (iv)six-sided, (v) more-than-six-sided ; here the divided term is of the of division is the varying number general; the principle sub is applicable to each sides; the term 'rectilineal figure3
all the sub-divisions are division; together equal to the whole class; and they exclude each other. (3) A division of plane obtuse ; this also con and (iii) angles is into (i) right, acute,(ii) forms
to the five rules.
From
without
a
the
examples given
of the the
to
above
it is evident
that
we
cannot,
a
knowledge
ascertain whether things divided, rules. There however, one kind is, from the form. In
of
in which
this is evident
It is this
Dichotomy"
a
the
dividing or
Excluded
cutting into
two.
of division to the
class is divided
into two
ing
of Principle
whole.
Its nature
(1)
ANIMALS
Vertebrate animals
Invertebrate animals
I Mammalia
Vertebrate other
animals
than
Mammalia
Birds
Other
than
birds
Eeptilia
Other
than
Reptilia
Amphibia
Other than
Amphibia
(Fishes)
CHAP.
II.]
MATERIAL
OF
TERMS.
Cl
(2)
BODIES
J
Solid bodies Not-solid bodies
Liquids
Gaseous
Not-liquidbodies
other than solid, Not-gaseous (i.e. and gaseous bodies) liquid THINGS IN THE WIDEST
}) EXISTENCES,
OR,
SENSE
(man)
(loweranimals)
examples of division by Dichotomy, the rules given above hold good. In Deductive Logic,we can, strictly speaking, of Logical Division. treat only of this kind For, in no other kind of it, feel perfectly can we specialreference to sure, without that the rules hold good : that the sub-groups the thingsdivided,
In these taken whole
more
less than the for example, are neither greaternor together, not divided ; that they do not overlap; or that there are The reader can easily principlesof division than one.
.
whether
of this
1.
The
Division
of Invertebrate
(1)Protozoa,
(3)Annuloida, (4)Annulosa, (5)Mollusca. (2)Ccelenterata, Division Phenomena of Mental into (1) Cognition, The 2. (3)Volition. (2)Feeling,
G2
3.
DIVISION
AND
DEFINITION
OF
TERMS.
[PART
I.
The
Division
of
Plants
into
The
Division
of Rocks
into
(1)Igneous,(2)Aqueous, and
(3)Metamorphic.
Exercises I. 1.
2. 3.
on
Division.
:"
Test
the
Divisions following
TernH
Terms
into into
Abstract,Absolute, and
General.
Distributive.
4. 5.
Circles.
6. 7.
8.
Pistils.
America.
World
into
Deductive
A
Logic
Chalk
Inferences.
9. 10.
pieceof
animal the
The
body
Lungs,
the
Heart,
the
the
Stomach,
the
Muscles,
Bones, and
Abstract.
Ligaments.
II. 12.
Terms Houses
into
Brick-made, Stone-made,
13.
14.
Hindu,
15.
Truthfulness, Justice,Benevolence, Temperance. and Sciences into (1)Theoretical and Practical, (2)Material
and Mental, (3)Mathematical, Physical, Moral. Substances into
Logic into Deductive, Inductive, Formal, and Material. Immaterial, Sentient and Insentient. Things into Material,
Divide
the following terms logically
:
"
(1) Name,
(2) Proposition, (3) Book, (4) House, (5) Student, Man, Phenomenon, (10) Act, (8) War, (9) (6)Examination, (7) Taste, (14)Touch, (15)Sound, Colour, (12)Smell, (13) (11) State, (16) Force, (17) Energy, (18) Body, (19) Mental Paper. (20)
PART
IL"
PROPOSITIONS;
CHAPTER
I.
THE
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
"
denial of two
or
1.
A
a
PROPOSITION
may
be
defined
as
an
affirmation It thus
_or
of
certain and
relation of
a
a
between
or
twoj^rms. of
a
consists
terms
word,
words, or part
or
word That
expressed
which is it is
as
understood, as
or or
sign of
affirmation
denial.
affirmed affirmed
a
denied
denied
Predicate, that
that
of which which
Subject,and
is called the
stands propo
sign of
affirmation For
denial in the
Copula,
of the
example, sign of
is the the
mortal,"
'are' Some the
men
copula
are
'
or
proposition
"
not not
wise," 'some
'
men'
or
is the the
the
are
the
copula
' '
sign
is the
"The and
sun
'the rises,"
s
sun'
is the
dicate
subjectis
word
affirmation
called slightalteration,
inflection
of the
last
propositionstands thus
of affirmation is
"
The
sun
which
as
the
sign
first
stated,and explicitly
a
is the
in the
proposition may
consist
of
of any
combination
of words
constitutinga
term.
64
In the
"
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PARTII.
virtuous
are
propositionsChalk
"
is white,"" The
is known
not
happy,"
To know
That
all
men
are
mortal
to
" everybody,"
' '
"c., chalk,' the virtuous,3 easy," ' that all men to know are mortal,' are, any subjectthoroughly' the subjects, and to every white,' happy,' known respectively, the predicates. body,' easy are, respectively, The copula of a proposition, when stated in the logical form, consists usually of the parts of the verb to be with or without the negativeparticle not.' It should be carefully noticed that the copulamerely expresses a certain relation between the subject and the predicate, and does not imply the existence of either. For example,in the symbolical 'A is B,' 'A' is the proposition 'B' the predicate, and 'is' the copula which, in the subject, affirmative form, merely expresses the presence of a particular relation between A and B, and does not imply the existence of either the subject the predicate.Similarly, in the proposition or 'A is not B,'the copula'is not' is merely a sign of the absence of a particular relation between A and B, and does not signify
any
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
is subjectthoroughly
either
the
existence
as
or
the
non-existence
of A
or
B.
The
verb
verb from the same copula should be distinguished used as copula and predicate in a proposition. In the latter case, it impliesthe existence of the subject.In the proposition, 'A is,' for example, is means to is existing.' exists and is equivalent
' ' ' ' '
the verb to be is ambiguous ; for the words also, 'is,' 'are,' 'existence,' "c., "c., like 'exists,' 'being,' 'existing,' to context,mean in Thought, that either existing may, according in Nature, that is, or is,free from self-contradiction, existing
'
In this sense,
'
selfand free not only from existence, contradiction but also from disagreement with fact or reality. The proposition, 'A is,' mean simply that the idea or con may or fact corresponding cept A exists in Thought without any reality to it,or it may that the idea A exists in Thought and mean
to corresponding
actual
agrees
with
fact
or
reality.The
senses.
of these
square
in
Thought.
66
tion between
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PART II.
thingsmay be considered (1)in without thought or any mode of our itself, any reference to our of any mode thinking of it, (2)as thought by us independently in language,and (3) as thought and expressed by of expression in language. A judgment is the relation as thought by us. us is the relation as thought and expressedby us in A proposition logiciansit is regarded as the objective language. By some in language without relation itself, or expressed any reference to our thought or any mode of our thinking of it. " 2. The Divisions of Propositions. to a simple or to in Logic usually A proposition corresponds while a compound sentence in a complex sentence in grammar, of propositions to a plurality in Grammar generally corresponds Logic.
two
or
attributes
SYMBOLICAL
I.
EXAMPLES
OF
PKOPOSITIONS.
Propositions(single).
1.
2. 3.
A is
A
B,
simple sentence.
B,
a
that is C is
complex sentence. D,
a
A that is C is B that is If A
complex sentence.
4.
5.
A is either B
C,
compound sentence.
II.
Combinations 1.
2. 3. 4.
A is B A and A and
C ;
or
A is B
or
as
well
as
as
C.
B ;
as
well
D is B.
B and
C.
are are
A that is A that is A is A is
B. B which is G.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
that is F,
B, and
C is D.
B,
but C is D.
nor
A is neither B Neither A
nor
C.
is C.
The
various
divisions of
upon view
certain of the
CHAP.
I.]
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
A is B, A is not f Categorical: B is. ( Conditional: If A is, B.
67
I. Eelation
...
II. Quality
f Affirmative: A is B.
.
Negative:A
is not B. A must is B.
:
(Necessary
( Problematic
be B.
A Assertory:
may
be B.
All A is B.
:
Some
A is B. All
men are
Verbal, Analytical :
animals.
I V.
Import
Eeal, ']
v.
Synthetical:All
men
are
mortal.
We
shall now
Division
divisions in order.
Eelation.
" 3.
The called
to according Propositions
first division of
is propositions
into
(also (1)Categorical
and (2)Conditional (alsocalled Hypothetical, or Simple), Complex),founded on the relationbetween the two terms,or on the A categorical is one nature of affirmation or denial. proposition and the predicate the subject in which is the relation between is simply af a unconditional one, in which the predicate simple, firmed or denied of the subject, without any condition being laid down. For example,in A is B," All metals are elements," B
" "
is affirmed of metals
'
'
'
'
'
is affirmed restriction
are
'
of
or
'
all
under
any
con
dition.
* '
men proposition Some wise is affirmed absolutely of or unconditionally A conditional proposition, the other hand, is one on
in Similarly,
wise,"
men.'
an
some
in which
affirmation
or
"
denial is made
under
certain condition.
In the
'
proposition if A is B, C is D," for example,the assertion C is D depends on the assertion A is B,'or D is affirmed of C, pro vided B is affirmed of A. The truth of the second clause depends the latter is called the antecedent, upon that of the first. Hence or condition, reason, and the former the consequent. The de the conditional nature of or pendence of the one upon the other,
' '
5"2
C8
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PAET II.
before
the
is expressedby the word 'if proposition, antecedent, and 'then' or 'therefore' understood
replacedby consequent. The word 'if is sometimes words such as or 'when,' 'where,''provided that,''suppose,' their equivalents. In the proposition A is either B or C we have conditional affirmation : B is affirmed of 'A,' if C is denied of A C is affirmed of A,' if B is denied of the ; or
" " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
before the
latter.
and the proposition assertion, is, other of the "if in fact, to one two propositions, or equivalent (1) A is not C, A is B ; and (2) if A is not B, A is C." Conditional propositionsare divided into two classes, (1) and (2)Disjunctive, accordingas Hypothetical (or Conjunctive) the two members clauses are or or then,' conjoined by if B is," or.' The propositions If A is, disjoined by either If A is B, C is D," If A is, B is not," belong to the first class, A is B .or C and the propositions "A is either B or C," "Either is D," "c.,belongto the second class. Thus there is
one really
" "
.
'
....
'
"
....
"
"
Disjunctive and hypotheticalpropositionshave been also called Complex and even Compound^ because they apparently consist of more than one proposition. In reality, however,they and express each but are as simple as categorical propositions,
one
affirmation of
or one
denial
"
the
affirmation
or
the
more
denial
of the
dependence
one
assertion
upon
another,or,
The
of properly, clauses of
a
another.
two
of
really equivalent to two rnanyin the as propositions terms, and not to two categorical B a compound proposition. In the proposition If A is,
" ' ' ' '
the antecedent A is and the consequent B is are not two is," assertions in which the existence of A and that of B independent but parts of a conditional affirmation, affirmed, are, respectively, the truth of the one part depending upon that of the other. two are They are, in reality, many-worded terms, like that men 'to live happily,' mortal,' "c.,and mean simply 'the existence of and the existence of B the relation A respectively ; and is that of dependence of the latter by the proposition expressed in the proposition If A is B, C is Similarly, upon the former.
' ' ' ' "
CHAP.
I.]
antecedent
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
69
*
D," the
event
'
'A and
is B' the
means
A
*
fact C
or
of A
being B/
fact
or
consequent
of C
means
'
being
being D '; and the relation the proposition is the dependence of the latter upon likewise be shown The disjunctive former. proposition may be really simple, though apparently consistingof several
event
propositions. logicians(Hamilton, Thomson, Boole, According to some the Ueberweg, Bain, and Fowler), in a disjunctive proposition, truth of one clause or alternative member depends on the falsity of another,and vice versd. Thus in the proposition A is either B or C," the truth of A is B of A is C,' depends on the falsity of A is B and the falsity the truth of A is C ; the truth of on
" ' ' ' '
'
'
'
"
is
C,'on
"
the
of falsity is B.'
"
the truth B
or
of 'A is thus
The
is
'
is
C,'on
is either
to equivalent
"
or
other
of the
four
hypothe
: propositions (1) If A is not C, A is B, (2) If A is C, A is not B, (3) If A is not B, A is C, (4) If A is B, A is notC. According to other logicians(Whately, Hansel, Mill,and in a disjunctive of one the falsity alterna Jevons), proposition, tive member implies the truth of the other,and not vice versd. above they would Thus, of the four hypotheticals recognizeonly the first and the third, and reject the other two as not implied by the disjunctiveproposition. According to them, the truth of member does not imply the falsity one of the other, and both
tical
may The
be true.
in the
a
followingway
"
"
He
is either
a a
fool
a
or
knave Its
does
not
mean
be both is not is
a
knave.
a
fool.
is
be
the
more
reasonable
whole,however, the
the two
views
merely a
verbal
one.
question is,Are
the two
members
70
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PARTII.
or
exclusive alternatives
is true. is If
not?
If
theyare not,then
Mill's
view is true.
usage, and ternatives not. For
an
Which
seems
true,may
be determined
by
it
the al
or' are exclusive, and sometimes disjoined by 'either in the propositions, "This organism is either example,
plantor
two
animal,""The
are
or
immortal,"the
possess the
alternatives
exclusive
the
same
cannot subject
attributes
expressed by them.
a
metal is either
"
conductor
of
In
the
in presence of a higher, is either a lower prefers pleasure immoral or imprudent," A mental phenomenon is one either of the alternatives are not exclusive : or willing," knowing, feeling, the same subject may possess the attributes expressed by them. He who
"
In
ence
this book is
we
shall
recognizeboth
we
the
views,though prefer
with Mill's
name.
given to
second
the view
have
connected
"
and
4.
Division
The
into
(1)Affirmative
that is, accordingas (2)Negative,founded on their quality, is affirmed or denied of the subject.An affirmative the predicate in which the predicate is affirmed of the is one proposition in which the attribute signified that is, subject, by the predicate
belongs to
denoted
the
subject ;
or
in which
the
individual
or
the
class
by the subjectis included in the class denoted by the there is an agreement between the ideas predicate ; or in which the notions of the subjectand the predicate;or in which or attribute connoted by the predicate accompanies the attribute
connoted
in which, as in the case of the subject;or lastly the consequent depends on the antece proposition, hypothetical the other hand, is one in A negative proposition, dent. on does not belong to which the attribute signified by the predicate the subjectas a class is excluded from the subject; or in which as a the predicate class;or in which there is a disagreement
by
the
in or subjectand the predicate; the attribute connoted by the predicatedoes not accompany in which, as attribute connoted or by the subject; lastly
between
which
the
in the
CHAP.
I.]
of the
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
71
does not
case
depend on,
SymbolicalExamples
A is B.
^
is.
'
If A If A Either A
is,B
is A
Affirmatlve'
B, CisD. is, or
B.
is not.
not
or
is.
J
1
is not
If A If A Either
is,B
is A
B, C is
D. B is not.
Neeatlve'
is not,
Examples:
men
elements
; All
are
mortal.
)
"- Affirmative.
rain,the
ground will be
a
wet.
a
Hydrogen is either
No
men are
metal
or
non-metal.
i
perfect.
blow
from
If the wind
) the
are
predicate
is the
is 'mortality' included
affirmed
of the
in the class
or
idea of 'man,'
'
the attribute
humanity.'
"
5.
Division
to Modality. according
is founded on their modality, propositions and is into (1) Necessary, (2) Assertory,and (3) Problematic. The modality of a propositionis a specialdevelopment of its the predicateis affirmed or quality. According to the latter, denied of the subject the former depends the specialcharac ; on ter of the affirmation or denial, whether the relation affirmed or denied between the subjectand the predicateis a necessary, If the relation or connection assertory, or problematic one. between A and B, the subjectand predicateof a proposition, be founded their very nature that is, one and constitution, on one The third division of and necessarily universally true,the modality of the
proposition
72
is necessary
must
:
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PART II.
sides of
a
"A
must
be
B."
'
"
The
two
triangle
togethergreater than the third." If the connection be established one by experience,and true as far as experience not implying necessity, the modalityof the one extends,that is, are mortal"; propositionis assertory:"A is B"; "All men
"All material bodies If gravitate." the connection be
be
uncertain, if A may and not under others, true under certain circumstances, is said to not be B, then the modality of the proposition or may be problematic rain to-morrow," ; as in the propositions It may He may be wise," He is probably The modality a good man." of a proposition thus consists in the degreeof necessity, certainty, relation between the subject of the connection or or probability must and is expressedby such words and the predicate, as be,
" " "
be, "c. probably, probably, may that Dr Venn, in his work the Logic of Chance, argues on treated of in Pure be satisfactorily cannot modal propositions but only in the Logic of Proba Logic,or the Logic of Certainty, bility1.Hamilton, Mansel, and others exclude modality from from logical Logic. Hamilton excludes it altogether propositions. and keeps the copulafree from Fowler confines it to the predicate all words of time, place,"c.,as well as from and all adverbs degrees of conviction or certainty. Aristotle, gives three kinds or varieties of Ueberweg, following modality : (1)Necessary or Universal : A must be B. (2)Asser A may be B. tory: A is B. (3) Contingent or Problematic: that assertoryand necessary maintains Dr Venn propositions while problematic full belief or conviction, the same express that the so propositions express all the degreesof conviction, into two and not three distinct classes. This division is really Is the subjectneed not be discussed here : but the questionis,
phrases expressive of
"
the
such as all the mental conviction of propositions or certainty the three angles of a triangle are together equal to two right kind and degree as that of propositions like of the same angles," all men are mortal," all material bodies gravitate 1
" " " "
See
"Probable
74
class of
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PARTII.
"A German while the proposition particular propositions, whom I had met at Leipzigwas there is a singularproposition, to the class of universal belonging propositions. One metal is liquid" is a singularproposition belonging to the former class, while is a singularproposition "Mercury is a liquidmetal" when belongingto the latter class. In like manner, by any words, or demonstrative descriptive pronouns, any individuals of of a proposition a class forming the subject are definitely pointed "These out, the propositionis universal and not particular: three men were there," These metals belong to the Copper solid substances," are Group," "All metals except mercury Those metals that do not rust are noble metals," The following
" " " " "
fifteen elements
We have
all universal propositions. are non-metals," explainedabove the quantity of categorical propo
are
subjectis taken in its denotation or extent. when the subject is taken in two-fold division, We get the same for the attribute signified its connotation or intension, by the the attribute connoted by the predicateB may accompany under all circum subject A in every case, or in some cases, under circumstances contin stances or particular universally, gently.In the former case, the proposition A is B is universal, and in the latter case, it is particular.For example, the propo and means, when the mortal" is universal, sition "All men are that mortality accompanies subject is taken in its connotation, that wherever humanity under all circumstances, humanity is, wise is particular, are mortalityis. The proposition Some men when the subjectis taken in its connotation, that in and means, wisdom accompanies some cases, or under certain circumstances, humanity, that in at least one case, where humanity is,wis
when sitions, the
"
"
"
"
"
dom
is. The
hypothetical propositionis universal, when, in every is followed by the consequent; and it is case, the antecedent in some the consequent follows the antecedent when particular, universal proposition If A The case. cases, or in at least one B is," In all cases, if A is, means explicitly, is,B is," or, more that under whatever circum'A' exists 'B' exists, that wherever
" "
CHAP.
]
'A'
OF
PKOPOSIT10NS.
75
the
stances
and
means
the
happening
cases,
of
'B';
if A
is,B is,'
that,in
the existence
at least
one
case, the
existence
of 'A' is followed
by
of
'
B.3
EXAMPLES.
I.
Universal.
1.
2. 3. 4.
All
No
men
man
are
mortal.
is
perfect.
of 760 mm.,
it
boils.
5. 6.
This The
animal
soul
is either
vertebrate,or
or
an
invertebrate.
is either mortal
or
immortal.
7.
Space
is either finite
infinite.
II. 1.
2. 3. 4.
Particular,
Some
Some
In
some
men
are
wise.
are
elements
cases, cases,
not
metals.
is
if water
heated, it contracts.
5. 6.
cases,
are
perception, perception.
"
7.
The
PrepositionalForms
according
and
to
Quality
and
Quantity. divided are Propositions ing to their quality. The the negative, again be may accordingto
or
negativeaccord
well
as
as propositions,
into universal
we
and
particular
their
quantity.
"
get
the
followingclasses
forms
of
: propositions
PROPOSITIONS
I
Affirmative
I
Negative I
Universal No
A is B ;
I
Universal
All A is B ; In all cases,
Particular Some In
some
is B ; cases,
cases,
if A
is,B is.
A
if A
is,B is.
I
B if A is, O
is not.
76 Every
universal
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PART II.
called
universal
affirmative
is proposition
A,
every
negative propositionE, every particularaffirmative propositionI,and every particular negative 0, that is, A, E, I, propositionsof those classes The words the whole,' any,' each/ every,' all,' respectively. 'a few' and 'certain' used definitely, 'no/ 'none/ "c., are signs of A or E. The words some/ not all/ at least one/ not none/ certain used indefinitely, and a few many/ most/ "c.,are signs of I or 0.
are
' ' ' ' * ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
and
the
symbols
for
the
The
qualityand quantityof
from its form.
we
cannot proposition
a
always be
subjectthe pro from
determined
Without
cases,
knowledge
whether
of the
matter,
or
cannot, in many
or man
say
it is universal
affirmative particular,
"
negative. For
learned
"
example,
seem
position Every
its form, but
means men
is not its
men
would
to
be E
from
some
meaning
are
that
are.
not
Thus
it may I ; but in
be
taken, from
"
0 or differently
negation of
as
rather
Logic,it is the proposition All men the propositions than I. as "Every Similarly,
a
"
proof of ignorance," Some of the most valuable books both physics and meta know seldom are read," "Few "All elements is not gold," not are "All that glitters physics," to be regarded "All scientific books are not difficult," are metals,"
mistake is not
as
0,
rather
than
seem
as
I. from of
The
proposition Some
"
acids
have
no
oxygen"
"
would
its form
some
oxygen
being affirmed
means
"
acids. 'having oxygen' is denied of some Similarly,None were there," Nothing is annihilated," Many should be objectsof imaginationhave no objectiveexistence," and tive,
that
"
as regarded negative rather than as affirmative. the modalityof a proposition Similarly, cannot,in
every
case,
be determined
"All
from
angles" would
only. For example, the proposition angles together equal to two right its form to be assertory, but, in
it is necessary. reality,
CHAP.
I.]
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
77
Exercise.
Eeduce
each
of the
to propositions following
the
logical form,
and
it is A, E, I, or 0
:"
(1)
Two
lines straight is
cannot
inclose
space.
can
(2)
Matter
or more
anything whose
of
our senses.
existence
be determined
by
one
(3) A nail driven into wood is not a true case of penetration. .(4) Liquids have no shape of their own. and expansive. (5) Gases are eminently compressible only appliesto the atoms (6) Strictly speaking,impenetrability
of bodies.
(7)
Two
same
portions of portion of
of water
matter space.
cannot
simultaneously occupy
alcohol
two
the
(8)
If
pint
and
pint of
occur
be mixed
together,.the
volume
of the mixture
is less than
parts.
in the free state.
(9) Very
(10)
No
in nature
absolute
a
in the universe.
(11)
(12) (13) (14)
Inertia is
Consciousness The
To
judgment.
at
province of physicsis
have the is in it and
our our
present much
of
a
more
restricted. think
essence objective
thing is
to
clearly
what
omit
what
is not.
(15)
(16) (17)
Not Some
all
of
affections of
If you
things.
a
know
a
what
circle
out
is,and what
square,
you
cannot
make
compound
of them.
" 8.
of Two
The
mutual
relations
of
A, E, I,and 0,
or,
Opposition
Propositions.
but subjectand predicate, propositions having the same in quality, said to be opposed to each other,and are differing their mutual relation is called opposition. The relation of A and E to each other is called Contrary two universal propositions Opposition. That is, having the same and .subject but predicate, in quality,are differing said
to
be
78
DEFINITION
AND
[PART II.
relation is
contmrily opposedto
called The relation of A
each
other,and
0
to each
Contrary Opposition.
and
A
.......
E Contraries.......
..
: : other,as well as that of E and I to each : other, is called Contradictory J ''""" """"' two propositions g *"" J" Opposition.That is, g. and predicate, ^ having the same ^ subject " but differing both in quality and quan*" | ^ ^
said to be each
^
'""
...
and other,
relation is called
Contradictory Opposi0
to each
I.
Subcontraries.
Subcontrary having the Opposition.That particular propositions and predicate, but differing in quality, said to are same subject and their mutual relation be subcontrarily opposedto each other, is called Subcontrary Opposition.
is, two
The and
The
relation of I and
other is called
relation of A
and
I to each
well as other,
as
that
of E pro
same
is called Subalternation. two That is, other, and predicate, and the having the same positions subject but differing in quantity, said to bear to each are quality, the relation of subalternation ; the called the
one
0 to each
other
of universal of
the other
Subalternate ; and
The
called Subalterns.
of three kinds ; Opposition of Propositions is, therefore, and (1) Contrary; (2) Contradictory, (3) Subcontrary. Subalternation is, called a kind of opposition also,sometimes ; but there is no oppositionbetween the subalternant and the subboth of which have the same alternate, qualityand differ in
quantity only.
Exercise. Give the alternant
or
the sub-
(3)
Matter
cannot
state of motion
or
of rest.
CHAP.
I.]
(4)
All
OF
PKOPOSITIONS.
79
plantshave
elements
not
are
flowers.
not
are
(5) Some
(7) Heat
metals.
extended.
expands bodies.
a
metal
can
only be in a sentient being. elastic. are (10) Gases and liquids perfectly (11) Liquids have no shape of their own. is an immediate knowledge. (12) Consciousness (13) In nature, relative motion and rest are alone presentedto (9)
A sensation
our
observation.
(14)
(15) (16)
If all
impeding
sometimes
causes
were move
removed,
for
ever.
body
once
in motion
would Water
continue
to
contracts
A sensation
is sometimes
perception.
" 9.
The founded
Division
accordingto Import
of of the
last division
on
need
notice,is
of
the
relation
of the the
predicateto
subject, or,
in other
words, on
old distinction
and
Accidental
the connotation of the pre Ampliative. When dicate of a proposition is the same the connota as, or a part of, the proposition is called Verbal or Analytical. tion of the subject, of the predicateis When, on the other hand, the connotation the proposition is called Real not a part of that of the subject,
or
In Synthetical.
1
the former
case, the
predicate merelyexplains,
into (1)Verbal, Analytical, "c., and propositions their import, "c., is here given as founded on (2)Real, Synthetical, for the
The
division of
meaning
to
one
or or
import of
the
on
is proposition
different
accordingas
also be
an
it
re
belongs garded
other
the mode
of the two
classes.
It may
as
founded
of
as
their
formation; for
analytical
proposition may
into parts of the
be
regarded
formed of the of
connotation
or resolution analysis and a synthetical subject, pro the of the connotations subject
by
the
predicate.
80
or
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PART II.
meaning, or a part of the meaning, of the information to imparts no new subject; and the proposition those who already know the meaning of the subject. In the and the latter case, the proposition imparts new information, attribute connoted by the predicate is a real addition to that
states
the entire
"All men ra are by the subject.Thus the proposition tional" is verbal, because the attribute is a part of the rationality' attribute or group of attributes 'humanity,' while the propo larger All men mortal is real, sition because the attribute are mor talityis not contained in the connotation of the subject 'man' ; it is something different from, and new to, humanity ; and the proposition expresses the conjunctionof these two attributes. " 10. The Five Predicables : Genus, Species,Differentia, the predicate, Proprium, and Accidens : In a verbal proposition, in relation to the subject, is either a genus, a species, or a in relation to the predicate, differentia. In a real proposition, is either a proprium, or an accidens. In other words, the subject, in relation to the subject, if the predicateof a proposition, be a is verbal,that is, the proposition or differentia, genus, species, of the predicatemust be a part of that of the the connotation be a proprium, or subject. If,on the other hand, the predicate the connotation the propositionis real, that is, of an accidens, is not contained in that of the subject. the predicate If the subjectof a verbal propositionbe an the individual, in relation to the subject, is called a species. If the predicate, in relation to it,is called a subject be a class,the predicate, the subject, in relation to the predicate, a species. genus, and and species, thus entirely The two terms, genus relative to are and one has a meaning only in relation to the other. each other, related to each other as genus and species, Given two terms the
connoted
'
"
"
'
'
"
connotation
of the the of
latter minus
the connotation
of the former
is
to equivalent
differentia of the
bute
which attributes, the three terms Thus others belonging to the same genus. and differentia, implying each the other two, are genus, species, correlatives. Further, just as a genus impliesthat there are
or
group
82
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PAKT II.
the Differentia /. SocraticityHumanity -f the Differentia; of Socrates SocraticityHumanity. the group of at By the 'Differentia of Socrates' is meant tributes by which he is distinguishedfrom other individuals
= =
-
belongingto
The
to
a
the
same
species
a
'
differentia of
genus,
in species, minus
'
reference the
con
genus
the differentia of
=
animal'
"
in
relation attribute
as
a
of
sentient In
higher class 'organic being' animality the being organised being defined ; or sentiency ; animal organizedbeing.
included in the
genus,
the
extension,a speciesis
in the
and
an
in
dividual
'animal' contains 'man'; and species. Thus 'man' contains 'Socrates';'metal' contains 'gold'; 'organism' contains A differentia, when taken in extension, is a animal.3 largerwhole than the species. Sometimes, however, it coincides with the extension of the species ; but the comprehension of the differentia being smaller its extent is than that of the species,
'
theoretically greaterthan
The relation of
thus be
represented by diagrams :
The for
man.
stands
for Socrates.
The
inner
circle
diagram,and
rational is
in the
second,the relation
and
in the third.
CHAP.
I.]
attribute which
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
83
A any
or causally. If it ductively the genus, the property is and if from species, specific;
individual is or species, from its comprehension either de follows from the comprehension of
a
genus,
called that
if generic;
from
vidual.
Thus,
an
individual
thing
its individual
from the its specific property,or a property following property, and even a generic to which the individual belongs, species pro its speciesbelongs. the genus to which from perty following in the specific This last may be included property. A species from its differentia, and one following may have two properties, and the other from its genus. The former is called the specific, the latter the genericproperty,of the species ; or both together are simply called its property. Memory,' for example, may be either from the genus regarded as a property of man, following animal,or from the differentia rational ; power of judging'is likewise a property of man from the differentia. The following of the triangle, as properties proved in the Elements of Euclid, follow partly from the comprehension of its genus figure, partly from that of triangle, and partlyfrom those of specialkinds of triangles. of an An Accidens (oraccident) individual, genus, or species is any attribute which is possessedby it,and which does not its comprehension. If an accidens follow from, or form a part of, if it belongsto all the mem or always belongsto an individual, it is called an inseparable bers of a genus, or species, accidens of that individual, the place or date of birth genus, or species ; as of a particular the blackness of the person, the hair of man, of snow, "c. If, on the other hand, an crow, the whiteness
l '
accidens
is sometimes if it
present and
sometimes
absent
in
an
or individual,
belongs to a part onlyof a species or genus, then it is called a separable accidens of that individual, species, of a particular or genus sitting ; as the walking or person, the wisdom of man, the solubility in water of salts, the opacity of
gases, the of learning the
man,
"c.
a
When
of predicate
is proposition
proprium, or
6"2
an
84
of accidens, the
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PARTII.
is included in the
extension
the extension of the accidens or proprium, when former,that is, taken a as general term, is a greater whole than that of the subject; while, in comprehension, the predicate expresses an attribute not contained in the connotation of the subject, that information about it ; and the propo new is,it imparts some belongsto the class of real. In the proposition sition, therefore, Water boils at 100" C.,under a pressure of 760 mm.," the attri
"
bute
expressed by
water.
the
is predicate
not
part of
the
connotation
five terms
are
"
genus,
called
because predicables,
a
be pre
propositionis,in relation other of the five. A predicable is thus to the subject, one or in relation to the subjects. It of a class of predicates a name the one should be distinguished, on hand, from the word pre
a
'
of (affirmed)
subject in
which means dicament,'or 'category,' and predicates, both subjects and, on which 'predicate,' Given
a means
most
the
what
is affirmed of
or
term
whatever
a
be affirmed
tion to the
is subject,
of
is either
genus,
differentia, proprium, or accidens ; and the subjectas species, must well as the predicate belong to some category or other. Aristotle gave four predicables, viz., proprium, genus, definition, added differentia Later logicians and accidens. species and
' ' '
'
to Aristotle's
came
to
definition from it. Thus and removed list, have explained above. be the five predicables we
'
'
there
Some
further additions to the list. Professor logicianshave made designation,' Fowler, for example,gives synonym,' definition/ in addition idion (a Greek word a peculiar signifying property),
' * *
to
the
other
'
others
one
'
or
synonym
and
be regarded by some of them for example, would designation,' included in accidens,'definition' as a compound of genus as either differentia and 'idion' as coming under and differentia,
or
property.
CHAP.
I.]
the
summum
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
85
older
terms
explainedabove, the
to
mean a
logicians use
or a
term.'
genus
highest genus
genus
cannot
be
kind,and kind,
the
most
lowest
general species
class which
cannot
genus
to
of
its
while
the
intermediate genera
as
called
by
them
subaltern
and
a
example, is regarded by them infima species, an incapable of and and body,' livingbeing,'
' '
summum
'man'
as
further
'
subdivision
'
into
species,
and
animal
as
subaltern
genera
species.
The
two terms
containing and
called popularly
a
'genus'and 'species' express the relation contained. Any class containing another
genus in relation
to the
of
is
others
species. In order to express the containing and contained,we not only use the two but also many and species, others accordingto genus
of the groups in
a
called
terms,
position
ex
system of division
or
classification. For
kingdom and sub-kingdom, class and sub-class, order and sub-order,genus and sub-genus,species and sub used in Zoology and Botany, variety and sub-variety, species, the relation of containing and contained mark as the clearly as two words, genus and species. ample, the
terms
Exercises.
I.
State
whether
the
are followingpropositions
verbal
or
real,
to the
or and whether the predicatein relation analytical synthetical, subjectis a genus, species, differentia, proprium, or accidens:
"
1.
2. 3.
Oxygen
Water Platinum
is
an
elementarygas.
C.,under
metal.
a
boils at 100" is
a
rare
pressure
of 760
mm.
4. 5.
Sugar is
The
sweet.
a
atmosphericair is
mixture
of
nitrogenand
oxygen.
86
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PAKT II.
Copper
All
men
conducts have
are
heat
as
well of
as
electricity.
the power
sentient
thinking. beings.
leaves
plants are
Spring-watercontains Hydrogen
London Milton Give
was
is the
substance lightest
is the
largestcity in England.
he
blind when
composed
the "Paradise
Lost." accidens of
II. each
the genus,
terms : following line, (2)Circle,(3)Straight (4)Square, (5)Eight angle, (1)Triangle, Animal, (10) (G) Element, (7) Force, (8) Material Body, (9) Chalk, (11)Eock, (12) Virtue, (13) Volition, (14)Knowledge,
of the
(15)Pleasure.
"
In method I.
11.
Miscellaneous
Exercises
on
Propositions.
of
a
be followed is
"
given is
sentence. of
a
Ascertain
whether
the
sentence
consists of
II.
or single proposition
of propositions. plurality it is
"
case,
state whether
Affirmative
or
Negative.
Problematic,
Uni
Both
at
once
or Eeal (orAnalytical) (orSynthetical). the qualityand quantityof a proposition also be may by saying whether it is A, E, I, or 0.
Verbal
stated
III. and
state the
of propositions
which
it
consists,
treat each
IV.
Sometimes
not
the
characters
manner
of
are proposition
the
of its to
statement. state it in
In
such
verbal
changes should
the
case
be made the
in order
same.
the
logicalform, keeping
in the as ascertain,
meaning
It is
always
safe first to
meaning
CHAP.
I.]
proposition, or,
to
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
87
of
the
where the
a
attempting
whether whether the
describe
be
this
is not
subject
general
term
taken
or distributively
not,
there be any
attached to the copula or to the negativeparticle there are signs of universalityor negation any
"c. subject,
Examples.
1. "No
man
is
The
:
three
angles of
triangleare
togetherequal
to two
right
angles"
sary, 3.
"
metals
"
but
material
bodies
have
weight":
are
this
proposition
bodies."
may In
reallymeans
this
that "all it is
as an
material
form
an
the
originalform, it
bodies have
be
regarded
proposition,"no
not-material
of all
weight,"
or
is denied
except, material
material
are
bodies, that
none
that
same
have
as
weight
other
than
bodies, and
"all
material
have the
substituted
originalone.
that every
5.
propositiondoes
In and this
the
material metals
"All
are
solids."
"
proposition
proposition
as
'solids' is affirmed
may,
except mercury,
A
be regarded as therefore,
propositionand described
cate
be gorical,affirmative, assertory, universal, and real. Or it may taken I proposition, 'some metals an as but in this are solids,'
full
meaning
state
of the
names
original propositionis
of all the
them
not
expressed. Or
mercury, 'solids'
as
we
might
a
the
and the
form
proposition with
before.
a
all
as
metals
predicateas
solids.' Such
For
example, 'gold,copper,
be
a
a
proposition would
each
propositions, having
'iron is solid,'
certain metal
for its
subject,
a
solid,'
'copper is
and solid,'
so
forth.
88
6. "All is not
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PART II.
is not gold." "All that glitters gold that glitters," It really This proposition is really 0, though it has the form of E. is not gold. that at least some means thing that glitters affirma "If mercury be heated, it will expand": conditional, 7.
"
"All
men
are
are
"
not
'
wise"
men
this sentence
are
is
'
combination
of the
men
rational
wise'
can
(0).
Gravity as
produce motion" : a combination and (2) propositions, (1)'Gravitycan produce motion' (A),
well
as
heat
produce motion'
(A).
Solution.
as
Examples for
Treat I.
"
the
follows:
"
logicalcharacters
of each
of each
or
of them.
II.
"
subcontrary,and the
subalternant III.
"
subalternate
of the
predicateto
the
subjectin each
the
of
In the
hypothetical
one propositions,
other
of which
is
equivalentto it.
of similar molecules.
1.
2. 3.
Every
Some
pure
substance have
no
consists power
animals
are
of locomotion.
Sensations
4.
Nothing
is annihilated.
5.
6. 7.
8.
except one
is
a are
are
virtue.
Only
Some
happy.
no cause. wears a crown.
Certain
ductile. have
9. 10.
substances
Uneasy
Most
that
of the
are
taken
from
Ganot's
Popular Natural Philosophy, Boscoe's Chemistry, and Eeid's In in the form in which exactly they are expressed by the quiry, in that form authors. order that students in are They kept may of the habit the characters of propositionsas they describing acquire in the works of authors, instead of the contracted and actuallyoccur
of the artificial propositions
Logician.
90
35.
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS
[PART II.
Phosphorus
Arsenic
does not
dissolve in found
36.
is sometimes
in the
state, but
more
fre
with chiefly
Truly these
ments
ideas
seem
to
be
very
capriciousin
their agree
and
disagreements.
or
curvilinear.
or
is either uniform
own
varied.
or
cannot
change its
force which of bodies
on
state to
of motion
of rest.
is
tends
never
produce motion.
nor
The
surfaces
are
perfectlysmooth.
animals,
move.
Without neither
friction
the
could
once
44.
If all
impeding
continue
are
removed,
for
ever.
body
in motion
would
45. 46.
to
Some
brutes and
sensible
are
of honor neither
and
disgrace.
like any
sen
Hardness sations.
softness
nor sensations,
47.
48.
A No
sensation
man
can
only be
in
sentient
being.
to
can
conceive
any
sensation
resemble
any
known
of bodies. qualities
49.
If
we
trust
to
the
conjecturesof
we
men
of
operation of nature,
in 50. If
an
have
going wrong
ingenuous
chlorine
gas
manner.
dry
is
be
passed
is
over
formed, oxygen
given off,and
on
stance
produced, which,
is analysis,
nitrogen
peroxide.
51. If
nitrogen monoxide
a
gas
30
pressure to
-
of about
atmospheres at
the
0" C.
or
if it be cooled
down
86" C.
under
ordinary
pressure,
it forms
colourless
liquid.
-
52.
If this
trans
parent
53.
If carbon
not
singlevegetable or
animal 54. If
a
body such
lime
know
could
exist.
pieceof
strongly heated
CHAP.
I.]
The
OF
PEC-POSITIONS.
91
or place by slight friction,
55.
of phosphorus ignition
a
takes heat
by
56.
The
blow, and
to
even
the
of the
hand
may
cause
this
substance number
ignite.
metals is much
of the
larger than
that
of the
non-metals. 57.
58.
the earth. envelope encircling If a series of electric dischargesbe passed through pure oxygen, in volume diminished the gas becomes by about one-twelfth, The
atmosphere is the
gaseous
and 59. If
we
is
partly transformed
know
into of
ozone.
would
God,
we
must
consult
them
attention
humility.
and
not
a
that I know. is
an
Consciousness If mediate
ness
actual
knowledge. potential
conscious
knowledge be
co-extensive
more
in
a knowledge, propriety
is not
with
knowledge.
states
are
63.
Where
are
two, three,or
conscious
memory
mental
as
one.
confounded,
be held
com fast,
we
of them
our
64.
Without
mental
states
could
not
from pared,distinguished
each
to self.
65.
The
theory
of ideas
hath
been
66. 67.
needs
her aid.
make to
attend them
an
accuratelyto
to
the
operations
no
of
our
mind, and
even
object of thought, is
the bulk
easy of
matter,
the
and contemplative,
mankind
is next
to im
possible.
63. He
must
either be
reason
me
fool, or want
of my
reason
to make
fool of me,
that
would 69. If
out
and
senses.
philosophy
deprives them
her be
votaries,and pursued
or en
joyed,let her
must
regionsfrom
is
which
she
have
had
origin.
of these kinds is absurd.
70.
To
reason
againstany
for them
of evidence
absurd, nay
to
reason
71.
We
must
either admit
the
conclusion
or
call in
question the
to unfriendly
premises.
72. Ideas
seem
to
have
something
in their nature
other existences.
92
DEFINITION
AND
DIVISIONS,
"C.
[PART
IT.
73.
If
one
set
of
ideas
covenant,
is
reason
another
to
it,
and
third is
is
punished
virtue
it,
there ideal
justice
no
natural of
the certain
system.
or
74.
75.
The Some
smell
tastes
rose
affection the
feeling
of and
the raise
mind. the
and
stimulate
nerves
spirit.
76.
That about such
a
noise that
is this
in
the is
street,
a
such
another
in that
the
room
me
knock
at
my
door,
person
walking
77. 78. The If
upstairs,
"
is
probably
eyes in of
learned
by
is the he
experience.
work of often looks
at. nature.
parallelism
a man
of lost
the the
it
general
one
hath
sight
eye,
very
loses
the
of
directing painter
exactly
an
to
the
object
sees
he
or
engraver
very
near
objects
better
sailor.
we
see
objects
erect
single
by
inverted
with
two
eyes,
is
as
well
as
that
we
see
objects
and
images,
to
attributed
by
Bishop
Berkeley
81. If
two
Dr
Smith
entirely
have and
custom.
visible
appearances of
the
same
visible the
place, single
they
or
are
incapable
object
distinction,
we
see
objects
one
only.
of
nature
82.
just
interpretation
is
the
only
sound
and
orthodox
philosophy.
CHAPTER
II.
THE
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION PROPOSITIONS.
AND
THE
IMPORT
OP
is the What is
import
the
or
meaning
or
of
proposition or
it ? of
thought
its in A all
fact
subject,of
copula ?
what this
words, (or
"
predications A,
what is
of the and
to
type "A
is the
is not
B,
of
relation
a
between
consistent of the
answer
question is
On of
theory
this
most
of Predication
import
is
to
Propositions.
difference here
an
great
opinion
from The
among
It
is
proposed
give
own
account
views, as
own
possible,in
that
or
their
language "
2.
and I.
point of
seems
view.
to
view
be
'B'
is
to
an
attri
bute, and that this attribute the objectsdenoted by 'A,' as whiteness' is said to belong
*
is referred in the
to
said
'
proposition thing by
called Dr
Snow
*
belong to is white,'
This
:
the
snow.'
view
"
is thus
explained
'
and
defended
James
Martineau think
In
saying
Birds
are
warm-blooded,' we
within
neither
:
of class
'
within blooded'
name,
no
nor class,
of attribute
us no
attribute of
a
the word
;
warma us
representsto
a mere
conception
The
a
genus
it is not
to
name.
but
attributive. such
; it is not
word
mere
'birds'
expresses
a
as attribute,
but attributive,
The
or
term
in the
predicateacts
; the ;
upon
by
its
connotation,
its denota has its
in its
or
comprehension
in its extension
term
subject,by
tion
and
the
foregoing
sentence
94
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART II.
'
we
warm-blood'
to the
class of
objects birds.' Hence it is that,while a purelyconnotative word (an adjective) is all that is requiredin the predicate, is indispensable term in the subject The mind a denotative predicates nothing except about substantive objectsof thought ; and of them (inthe class of propositions under consideration) now it predicates nothing but attributes1." According to Dr MartiClass Theory of Predication and Mill's or neau, the Denotative Connotative false. Theory are both psychologically All propositions do not, according to Dr Martineau, express
'
the
relation
of
substance
and
attribute.
There
are
other
relations.
"The
species
it introduces
"
us, is but
thought."
the
common
It is the
canon logical
basis of all
of
of several
what
is true
of the
of the
not
contained.'"
all Demonstrative
types
of
Demonstrative
relations
and ample, express the relations of time and space, of cause and give rise to types of and difference, of resemblance effect, that of classDemonstrative Eeasoning quite distinct from all attempt," says Martineau, "to coerce reasoning. "The reasoninginto this singletype comprehensive as it is appears in itself,and precludedfrom success to us arbitrary except on ideas of space and violent psychology. The condition of much and difference, to of resemblance seem time, of cause and effect, involve distinct laws of thought,to create for themselves special to require separate of language, and elements and functions of Logic. canons different classes there are According to Martineau,therefore, of thought, and of propositions expressing different categories distinct types of Demonstrative there are as many Eeasoning as
" " "
r:
Essays, Vol.
n.
p. 351.
CHAP.
II.]
are
AND
IMPORT
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
95
these
cate
there
fundamental
laws
of
thought arisingfrom
:
"
gories. " 3.
"To
II.
Hamilton's is to
view
judge
recognizethe
relation
of congruence
or
of
two in which connection, concepts,two individual things,or a compared together,stand to each concept and an individual, considered as an internal consciousness, other. This recognition is called a Judgment, considered as expressed in language,it is called a Proposition Predication." This definition is then ex or two or more thoughts are given in conscious plained. When on our part to discover in ness, there is in generalan endeavour and to develop a relation of congruence them of conflict!on, or endeavour that is, to find out whether these thoughts will or we will not coincide, may not be blended into one or may ; if they their congruence we or coincide, judge,we enounce : compatibility if they do not coincide, their confliction or we judge,we enounce the thoughts,water, iron, incompatibility.Thus, if we compare and rusting, find them them into a we congruent, and connect form a we singlethought,thus, water rusts iron ; in that case defines a judgment as follows : judgment1." Hamilton finally We define a judgment or proposition articulately may, therefore, to be the product of that act in which that of two we pronounce and as predicate, notions thought as subject the one does or does constitute a part of the other, either in the quantity of exten not in the quantity of comprehension V or sion, According to Hamilton, therefore,A and B in the typical judgment 'A is B are two concepts,the one forming a part of From what he says elsewhere, the other. know he maintains we that in the quantity of comprehension, B is a part of A,' and that in the quantity of extension, A is a part of B.' That is, the proposition has a two-fold meaning according as you take the two concepts A and B in their comprehension or in their When extension. 'A' and 'B' are taken in their comprehension, the meaning of the proposition is that the elementary notions* the concept B the are a part of those constituting constituting
"
"
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Hamilton's
Lectures,Vol.
m.
pp.
226"7.
Ibid. p. 229.
96
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PARTII.
the meaning extension, in the extension of
*
concept 'A'
is that of
'
and when
they are
taken
in
the individual
are
a
'
part of
I assert
those
B.'
"
"
4.
III.
Hansel's that
view A
When
butes
the constituting
B, I do concept A are
which
is
not
mean
that with
the those
attri
con
identical
B ; for this is
only true
the
one
in identical
set
judg
is For
that the
same as
objectin
that
a
of attributes
found
is the
"
the other
rose
manner
set is found."
I assert affects in
is
certain with
identical of smell."
that
which
certain
concept and a judgment : "A concept is a collection of attributes united by a A judg a possible objectof intuition." sign,and representing related to one is a combination of two concepts, ment or more intuition." "The common subjects of all objectsof possible from the psycho logical judgments which are to be distinguished such as the spontaneous judgments of perceptive and logical, are imaginativefaculties, concepts V both con 'B' are 'A' and According to Mansel, therefore, is and the meaning of the proposition (when not identical) cepts,
my power
"
Mansel
thus
defines
that
same
the
attributes
signified by
view
:
"
both
'A'
and
'B3
exist in the
or objects. object
"
"
5.
IV.
Ueberweg's
validity judgment is the consciousness of the objective whose forms union of conceptions, of a subjective are different, It is the consciousness, whether but belong to each other. or exists between the corresponding not the analogouscombination elements. As the individual conception corresponds objective
The
to the individual
so existence,
the
judgment
in its various
forms
correspondsto, and is the subjectivecopy of,the various ob relations. A judgment expressed in words is an assertion jective
or
proposition2."
1 2
"
69.
Ueberweg's Logic, p.
187.
98
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART II.
or
"
8.
Mill then
shows
that
the
Denotative
Class
Theory
consists in re accordinglyto which predication in placing an individual under i.e., ferring something to a class, class or one class under a another, is hardly better than the "There theory of Hobbes. is,"says he, "no real difference, and the except in language,between this theory of predication
of Predication
theory of
indefinite The
name
Hobbes. number of
For
class
is
individuals
an
in common makes is what them a given to them is to look upon class. To refer anything to a class, therefore, it as one of the things which called by that common name. are To exclude it from a class, is to say that the common is name Class not to it1." The is, Theory of Predication applicable false. For in the propo psychologically argues Mill,moreover I am sition 'snow is white,' not thinking of 'white as a objects'
'snow'
as
an
and object
the sensation
of 'white'
"
or
9.
view
that
is
connected closely
with
the
Denotative
and is,in fact, only a special Theory of Predication, view of propositions.Ac development of it,is the equational 'A is B' is an equation, cording to this view, the proposition sides of the equation, and 'A' and B to the two corresponding them ; and the meaning of is to the sign of equalitybetween is that the things denoted the proposition by 'A' are identical B.' This view is adopted by Hamilton with those denoted by
Class
'
'
'
'
in his later
of the doc writings. It is the direct consequence This doctrine is, of the Predicate. trine of the Quantification well as that of as that in thought the quantity of the predicate the subject is implicitly contained,and that,according to the that principle, in may
"
to state
explicitly
language
be
all that
is
contained implicitly
'
in the
obtains
Mill's
Logic, Vol.
i.
p.
104.
CHAP.
II.]
of
AND
IMPORT
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
99
have
forms
instead propositions
"
of the
four
we
given in
previouschapter:
(1) (2) (3)
All A is
some
B.
All A is all B.
No
(A.) (U.)
(E.)
A is any
A
B. B.
(4) No
is A
A A
(5) Some
(6)
(7)
(8)
Mill
A is not
B.
(o".)
above view
on
objectsto
"
the
adoptionof
theory
a
the is
the
fol
the
of predicate
but only in its comprehension. In the proposition extension, all oxen ruminate," nobody thinks of other ruminatinganimals, not there are other and none asks the questionwhether or ever is thinking of is the animals that ruminate ; all that anyone phenomenon or attribute of ruminating in reference to 'oxen.' (2) All reasoning being carried on in the ordinary forms of it is desirable that every proposition in logical form expression, be the exact should equivalent of some propositionin the On this ground the proposition form. "all A is all common because B" is inadmissible, there are none correspondingto it it is reallya compound of two in ordinary language,because "all A is B" and "all B is A"; since viz., ordinarypropositions, be acceptedwithout it can never proving these two. Similarly,
"
if you you
take
"
some
is B the
"
to
mean
"
some
is
some
only,"
not
only change
real
meaning 'not none,' it may but you make the whole,' the reallya double judgment, an "some A is some explicit judgments,viz.t A is not any B." (3) Logic should start most elementary judgments. But "all A
1
logicalmeaning of 'some' as be 'all,' into 'a part only,' 'not A is some B proposition some implicitexpressionof the two
"
"
B" with
and the
"some
other
simplestor
A
is all
B," "some
is
Mill's Examination
of Hamilton's
100
some
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART II.
of two have just seen, as we complex,consisting while "A is B than which is the simplestand most elementary, there cannot be any simpler. Hamilton of Mill's objections. He says : some anticipates the predicate often so But, in fact, language quantifies ordinary becomes this determination of the smallest import. This it as does either directly, by adding all,some, or their equivalent to the predicate;or it accomplishes the same predesignations, end indirectly, in an exceptive limitative form, or (a)Directly, as "Peter, John, James, "c., are all the Apostles,""Mercury, Venus, "c.,are all the planets." (6) But this is more frequently forms of limitation or by the equipollent accomplished indirectly, and exception. For example, by the limitative desig inclusion, God alone is good," which is nations,alone or only,we say, God is all that is equivalentto saying,God is all good, that is, that is, virtue is all noble, good ; Virtue is the only nobility," all that is noble. that is, Faith, hope, charity,alone justify." Of animals man alone is rational," that is, is all rational man What that is, all is rational is alone or only risible," animal. form Hamilton "c." rational is all risible, Of the exceptive gives the followingexamples : On earth there is nothing greatbut In man there Man is all earthlygreat." man," which means is all humanly Mind is nothing greatbut mind," which means "all that is great in man1." that is, great,"
are
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
the import of what are called note by Hamilton on following exclusive and exceptive is worth quoting: particles They are, one, but alone, sole, only, exclusively, precisely, just, solely;nothing These not a nnexed to the subjectpreexcept, beyond. (1) particles to its whole extent, denying its or designate the predicate universally, and definitely or indefinitude, particularity limitingit to the subject alone philosophises,' 'the dog alone barks,' 'man alone; as, 'man not only is rational,'of material thingsthere is nothing living(but) organized,and nothing organized not living,' God alone is to be to the predicate, men worshipped,' some only are elect.' (2) Annexed to the predicate, but do not define its quantity, they limit the subject exclude it from other subjects; 'the sacraor only plays,' as, 'Peter
"
" " "
The
'
'
'
CHAP.
II.]
The
AND
IMPORT
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
101
of the predicate in thought,"argues non-quantification themselves,but only in Hamilton, is given up by the logicians forced to admit, and to the amount certain cases where they were
" "
they confess, they could not possiblydeny. The predicate, is quantified in affirmative, in by particularity by universality formal why the quantification, negative, propositions. But should be thus restricted in thought,they furnish quantification,
which
us
with
no
"
"
tive 'A
10.
theory,which Theory
a
may
be
Connota-
or
Attributive
expresses
of
is Predication, relation
proposition 1
attributes
is B'
certain {B'
between
"
connoted
by
'A'
attributes
are
respectively,or, more properly,a relation between the phenomena on which or founded and through which thev respectively
that the relation it is that
mere are
and
\ \
I I
expressed by co-existence, succession, causation, resemblance, or ence2. Take, for example, the proposition "All men
"
known,
and
of
j
S
existmortal"
:
ments
are
water.'
(3) Sometimes
are
the
to
drinks
only, "c.,
mount
"
annexed
the
is
tanta predesignation
to
'all' ; as,
"
'God
clusive, adequate,
1 2
objectof
alone," only,"
ex
Hamilton's In the
case
Lectures, Vol.
of
a
iv.
pp.
261
"
5.
whose is a proper proposition and subject name has, therefore, in connotation,the according to Mill,no signification meaning of the proposition, accordingto him, is,that the attribute or attributes connoted by the predicate belong to the individual thing denoted by the subject. For example, the proposition Socrates is a that the attributes of being a philosopher philosopher" means belong
"
to
the
individual the
denoted
by
the proper
a
name
Socrates.
proper
If both names,
the
subjectand according to
examples
was
predicate of
proposition are
is
a
then,
as
Mill, Hobbes's
such
theory
he
sufficient account
'
"
of it:
'
propositions gives: Tully is Cicero,' Hyde the whole Clarendon,' "fec., of such meaning propositionsis,that the predicate is a name or mark the same for meaningless thing for
which the is subject
a
of
mark.
102
its
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART II.
denoted by the subject objects possess the attributes connoted the The are by predicate. objects not, however, individually designated. They are pointed out only of their attributes; called 'men,' by some they are the objects that is possessingthe attributes connoted by the term 'man,' and the only thing known of them be these attributes; may indeed the proposition is general, and the objects denoted by the
"
meaning
is that
the
in
number,
assertion the
most
of them
*
are *
not
all.
The which
is,
that therefore,
the
attributes every
connotes predicate
are
possessed by
has subject
each
and
individual the
possessingcertain
connoted
other
that attributes,
whatever
has
attributes
by
the
also those
set of attributes
ever
connoted
latter "What
has
the
attributes
has
the
attribute
of
mortality;
mortalityconstantlyaccompanies the attributes of man1." that we the subject of a To the objection construe naturally and the predicate in its extension, in its intention, proposition that construe Mill replies though it is true that we naturally
"
this extension, subjectof a propositionin its extension, or, of the class denoted is in other words, the extent by the name and that it is both appre not apprehendedor indicated directly, hended and indicated solely through the attributes." But what is an attribute ? Every attribute," Mill, says Mr fact or phenomenon, either of outward "is grounded on some the
"
sense
or
of inward
consciousness
; and
to possess
an
attribute is
.another
the fact phrase for beingthe cause of,or forming part of, or phenomenon upon which the attribute is grounded2." The that are means mortal,'therefore, proposition'All men really "wherever the have the various and physical
are
mental
are
phenomena
all
on
which
attributes
assurance
of 'man'
called
not
death,will
fail to
found, there we and mental phenomenon, physical does take place. The proposition grounded
of the word 'mortal' goes
affirm
Mill's
i.
Ibid. p. 109.
CHAP.
II.]
AND
IMPORT
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
103
at
some
no
farther
or
than
to
the
occurrence
of the
phenomenon
time
other,leaving the
asserted here
or
particulartime
the two
sets of
undecided1."
The
relation
between
succession.
person
is
worthy
a
of
the relation expressed is co virtue,' existence or succession, and the things between which the rela tion exists are the attributes connoted or signified by the subject and the predicate of the proposition, rather the phenomena or which they are grounded. and actions upon
dangerous,3 Prudence
is
Besides causation
or
co-existence
mere
and
sequence
propositions may
or
express
resem
blance,as
in such
of
These equal to the heat of yesterday.' not only between phenomena, but also between phenomena and noumena. The only provisionally recognized, subjectto the head of causation.
sums
relations between
are
noumena,
it under
Mill thus
up
: investigation causation,resemblance,
"
other is not
of these
is asserted
or
denied
in every
proposition
an can
which
merely
or
verbal.
This
exhaustive
classification of matters
things that
can
be believed
tendered
for
of belief;
questions that
be
be returned to them2." that can On propounded and all answers the suggestion of Professor Bain that co-existence is of two kinds, one in different places at the same time,and the other
"
in the
same
part
of
or
as place,
the co-existence
a
or
co-inherence
in
every
atom
gold,of
into
the attributes of
certain
specific gravity,
in
Place, the
Coinhering Attributes. Of the five classes given by Mill, Bain adopts only three :" (1)Co-existence, (2)Succession, including Causation, (3)Equality or Inequality.
1
including Bain's
Logic, Vol.
i.
p. 110.
Ibid. p. 11G.
104
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART II.
"
"
not
11.
few remarks
on
Mill's
on
The
to be made
show,
or deductively
or
does
the his pos his
nature
of relations
from
an
an
enumeration
one
them,
that
that
exhaustive has
every in
between
attributes
been
included
is,that Mill does not give a sufficient of the meaning of those propositions which I account he calls | \I them verbal. By calling touch of not without a name \j a verbal, to consider them of no importance. But as contempt,he seems they are as important as those which he calls real propositions. and synthetical, Kant calls the two classes analytical respectively,
"
"
The
second
remark
"
and
them
these much
two
terms
seem
to
express
the What
distinction between
is the
better than
Mill's
on
names.
own
meaning
of
verbal
even proposition1
Mill's
? theory
It is that the
of the
connotation
that is, the phenomena on which the attribute signified subject, is grounded are a part of the phenomena on by the predicate which the attributes connoted by the subject are grounded. The is rational,' Man for example,is that meaning of the proposition the attribute, is grounded the phenomena on which rationality,
'
are
on
which
the attri
butes
are man grounded. Thus it would signified by the term namely, that, to the five heads given by Mill,a sixth, seem, should be added. This last of attributes, inclusion or containing
is different from
any
that
are
mentioned
by
Mill.
It is not
the
V/
"
same
for two phenomena or attributes may co-existence, co-exist without one forming a part of the other. .Thusgravity but one while is not contained in the j)ther; and inertia co-exist, does animalityis contained in humanity. A verbal proposition but expresses, like a the meaning of a name, not merely explain relation between a real proposition, phenomena or attributes. The relation expressed by it is that of containingor inclusion. The different relations between phenomena or attributes may be
as
thus shown
in
tabular view
1
"
See
AppendixF.
106
the connotation
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART II.
same
of the term
to
'
'
man
is not the
being different
degree
constant
different
classes and
accordingto
must
of their and in
our
education
On
anything
with the
fixed.
the
man
progress
knowledgeof
the
attribute
of
'material
are
body
'
of
gravitating.' Now,
How
am
what
the
a
attributes
material
body ?
I to know
whether
Is the luminiferous particular body is material or not? of light), for example, material ? Thus the (themedium tation of terms
ether
conno
being variable
Mill's
and
on proposition,
theory,must
and indenniteness. variability, The nected last remark with the that
or
on
Mill's of
a
theory is
con
import
made
or or
meaning
In the
term, and
been
chapter on
common
general term
is
things, and
connotation
or
implies
of
a
term
indirect
meaning,
But the direct
and
direct
or
explicit
meaning1.
taken
as
in his
entirelypassed over.
should have
the former is Proposition, essential meaning, while the latter is or to require that Mill Consistency seems
theory
regardedthe
as
connotative
or
rather
attributive
mean
explicit meaning, and the denota indirect and implicit. as " 12. From what we have given above of the views of Logicians, it is evident that they differ (1)as to the relation of A and B and (2)as to the way in which A and B and predicate) (subject the meaning of subjectand pre to be interpreted are (thatis, dicate).
1
Mill's
Logic, Vol.
a
i.
"
"A
connotative
term
is
one
which "The
denotes
name
and subject,
attributes
CHAP.
II.]
AND
IMPORT
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
107
recognizes regards the first point,Hamilton, for instance, exclu or the relation of containingor not-containing(inclusion sion) either in the quantity of extension or in the quantity of
As
comprehension,arisingfrom
fliction.' Mansel B must holds be
the
'
relation
of congruence
or
con-
sets of attributes
togetherin some capable of existing that is,the relation of A and B is that of object of intuition, or According to Ueberweg the compatibility incompatibility. relation of A and B must relation, correspond to an objective that is, to a relation reallyexistingamong things. Martineau the and, also, recognizesthe relation of substance and attribute, and of resem and effect, relations of time and space, of cause blance and difference. Mill gives the relations expressed by all propositionsunder five heads : (1) Existence,(2) Co-existence,
by A
and
expressed possible
includes Bain (3) Succession,(4) Causation, (5) Eesemblance. all under three classes,(1) Co-existence,(2) Succession,(3) Equality or Inequality. different views The arising from difference on the second point,namely, the way in which A and B are interpretedby be noted as follows : Logicians, (1) The Ordinary or Pre may dicative View in which A is taken in denotation (or extension)
"
(or comprehension),and the relation of A and B is that of subject and attribute. The light," says Dr Venn, in which a propositionhas to be consistently interpreted We this view is that of predication. on distinguishbetween subject and attribute here, and we assert that a given subject
B in connotation
" "
and
does
or
does not
A, E, I,0,
"
Of the four possess certain attributes1." Dr Venn from this view of propositions, arising
to be
forms says,
These
needs
forms
naturallydetermined
by
the
ordinary
the
ing
needs; all that somewhat more precisein are2." tionally Again, "As
those sition
seem certainly
modes of express ordinarypre-logical them Logic has done being to make their signification than they conven just remarked, these forms of propo
most
to
represent the
3.
and primitive
natural
SymbolicLogic, p.
Ibid. p. 3.
108
modes
in
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION
[PART IT.
itself with
ac
which
thought begins
this
to
express
curacy1." According to
by propositions view,all relations expressed be reduced to the single type of the relation of subjectand may be anything that attribute. The subject of a proposition may It may be a substance, can a possess an attribute or attributes. of a proposition is phenomenon, or an attribute. The predicate and even when the predicate is a concrete an attribute; term,
the term in its connotation interpreted (orcomprehension). This view of Propositions does not ignore the relations of and effect, of resemblance and difference, space and time,of cause propositions;but it holds that, for logical expressedby many and all be reduced to the relation of subject purposes, they may attribute. Some Logiciansholding this view so far as a certain class of propositions, namely, those expressing the relation of that the other substance and attribute, are concerned,maintain and effect, of such as those of time and space, of cause relations, resemblance and difference, can not, or should not, be reduced to the single type of subject and attribute. According to them, there are different classes of propositions founded upon different of thought and givingrise to distinct types of rea categories soning2. is
1 2
Symbolic Logic, p.
The relation and
to
4.
of
subject and
For
attribute the
nature
of
substance
attribute.
purposes
this work
it is
not necessary
of this relation,or
into the
meaning of Subject,Substance, Thing, or Attribute,or to discuss the questionas to whether an attribute possessingattributes becomes a substance attribute. For the Predicative an (or thing),or remains other relations can, in view, it is sufficient if propositionsexpressing be understood the relation of subject and to express some way, be done The in the followingmanner: attribute; and this may the relation of "A is equal to B," for example, expressing proposition
"
according to this view, that the attribute of being means, Equality, by A, whether A and B be tbingsor attributes; equal to B is possessed is the cause of B," expressingthe relation of the proposition"A
CHAP.
II.]
The
AND
IMPORT
OF
PROPOSITIONS.
109
View, in which both A and B are taken in denotation (or extension). This view includes (a) Hobbes' View, (6)the Class View, in which the class or group of things denoted by A is included in the class or group of things denoted by B, and (c)the EquationalView, in which the things denoted those denoted by B. as by A are the same Attributive or View, in which both A (3) The Connotative and the relation expressed and B are taken in connotation, by of A and is variable and depends on the nature the proposition have seen, the funda as we B. Mill adopts this view,and gives, of fact expressed mental relations or matters by real propositions under five heads : (2)Order in time, (3)Order in (1)Existence, and (5)Eesemblance (seep. 103). But, for place, (4)Causation, of Syllogistic the purposes Logic, he gives also a general ex pression for it. "This, then," he says, "is the theory of the reduced but to its ultimate elements: Import of Propositions, and a less abstruse there is another expressionfor it,which, is though stopping short in an earlier stage of the analysis, for which such a scientific for many of the purposes sufficiently the generalexpressionis required. This expressionrecognises commonly received distinction between subjectand attribute, and givesthe following the analysisof the meaning of propo as sitions : Every propositionasserts, that some given subject
(2)
Denotative
"
"
does is
or
or
does not
possess
some
attribute ;
or
that
some
attribute the
is not
in which
portion of
some
subjects
B
(4)
taken
The
both
in connotation B A is
a
(or
one.
and comprehension),
relation
twofold B
are
and
taken and B
when in A.
both
taken
and
in
B comprehension,
is contained
this
Cause
Effect,means,
cause
being the
1
of B
is
to according by A possessed
i.
whatever
and
may
be.
Mill's
Logic, Vol.
p.
180.
See
below
Appendix A,
Mill's
Canons,
pp. 282"284.
110
There
THEORY
OF
PREDICATION,
"C.
[PART
II.
is another
the
views
views views may
of
which of the
point on which Logicians differ in their with the different Proposition. It is connected The different they take of Logic as a science. Proposition arisingfrom difference on this point
as
be noted
follows
"
or View, in which both A Conceptualist Subjective and B are concepts not necessarilycorrespondingto really that is, of thingsthat existing things,but true of possible things, be realised in Thought. may
(1)
The
View, in which both A and (2) The Materialist or Objective to really B are existing concepts corresponding things,and the to a relation of A and B is a relation of concepts corresponding relation of things: e. g. Ueberweg'sview. (3) There is another view which is usuallyidentified with should be distinguished from it. I the second view, but which the view accordingto which A and B stand for really mean existingthings, and the relation of A and B is a relation of view. things: e. g. Spencer's holds the Mill,in his Examination of Hamilton's Philosophy, second view ; but in his System of Logic he very nearly gives it Among English Logicians up and passes on to the third view. intermediate he seems to occupy an positionbetween subjective Logicians, or representedby Hamilton and Mansel, conceptualist and objectiveLogicians, representedby Mr Spencer and Mr
Carveth The Read. difference between the second and the third
view,is that, two are according to the former,the two terms of a proposition to really existingthings, while,according concepts corresponding terms the two are to the latter, reallyexistingthings or phe themselves. The upholders of the second view treat in nomena Logic of the forms and relations of Thought as correspondingto and relations of Things, while the upholders of the the forms
third view
1
See
Appendix E,
"The
Province
of
Objective
Logic."
CHAPTER
III.
THE
MEANING
AND
KEPRESENTATION DIAGRAMS.
OF
A, E, I,
BY
"
the be
1.
A
*
STANDS
Universal
Affirmative
of proposition
type
All A
It may the
two
A,
2.
represented by
of
proposi
of A is
meaning
to
the attribute
connoted
by
belongs
all the
things
it may
not
"
objectsdenoted
is implication The
by 'A,'and
that
or
the
may
belong
the
to
any
other stands
things.
for
cases
the
things
by
the
term
A,
and
for the
; the
in which
connoted
cases
by
are
the term
more
first the
diagram
these shows
numerous
are
things,and
of the
that be
the
two
equal.
one or
meaning
of the two
propositionwill diagrams.
to the denotative
represented by
of
According
of A is that
view class
the whole
of the
included
denoted
the
by
whole
the
B,
this
or
that
the
former
is co-extensive
latter.
And of the
is shown is
a
by
the the
diagrams,
"
in the in the
the first,
class A
part of
The
mean-
class
B,
and
second, the
two
classes coincide.
112
MEANING
AND
HE
PEE
SEN
TAT
ION
[PART II.
other of the
one
or
diagrams.
According to
the connotative the attribute view connoted of A is that the mean propositions, by B accompanies
* '
ing of
latter
to
the the
attribute
connoted
by
"
'
'
in every The
case, that
is,wherever
cases
is.
diagrams
that
are a
may the
be understood in which
are
the
by
occurs
part of, or
cases
less
than, the
; the
in which that
the
attribute classes of
connoted
by
second
shows
the two
coincide
two
equal in number. Thus, on all the three views,A diagrams. On each of them,
in its whole sometimes
can
be
the
taken
a
and partial
case
plainly
is is A
the the
on
views. the
On
the
third, too,this
case,
attribute
connoted
by
accompanied by the attribute connoted by B. This fact is what is meant the subject is distri by saying that,in an A proposition, and the predicate undistributed. buted, By the extent of an attri
bute is meant the number for any of
cases
in which
it
occurs.
" 2.
E stands
Universal
the
type 'No
sented The
is repre
by
ferent
on
of pro
positions.
On
stands the term A ; and the circle B for the B
occurs
the for
cases
first the
circle A
denoted
by
the
in which
connoted
one
by
is
the term
; and
the
diagram shows
"
set
quite distinct
does not
from
the
case
other,
that any
the
attribute
connoted denoted
On denoted
by B by A.
in any
belongto
of the
things
classes that
the second
view,the
A
two
respectively by
and
diagram shows
114
MEANING
AND
REPRESENTATION
[PART II.
preceding case,
in at least
one
by
B ; and
this
as is,
in the
represented by
On
the
case, and
the
diagrams.
the
third view
meaning
every
occurs
of I is that
case,
that,it
may
be, in
there
in which
the attribute
connoted
by
occurs,
the
attribute connoted
by
B; and this is,as in the precedingcases, representedby the diagrams. On all the views, both the subjectand the predicate are also in the always taken in a partial extent, and sometimes
whole
of their extent. and subject the This fact is what I both the
of an predicate
Particular
is meant
buted.
"
form
4.
'
0 stands A
*
for any
Some word
is not
B.'
In accordance
meaning
of 0 is that at least
one
thing,
not
and
that,it
be,
every
thing,denoted
0,
by A,
3.
has
the
0, 1.
0, 2.
attribute attribute
connoted
occurs are
by 'B,5
"
that from
all the
at least
cases one
in
which
the
excluded
be, from
On and
that is,
least
one
thing,
thing,denoted
; that
by
belong
the whole
excluded
it may
be from
in at least
one
case,
that it may
by
'A'
occurs,
by
'B'
does not
occur,
CHAP.
III.]
case
OF
A, E, I, 0
BY
DIAGRAMS.
115
least
of the
latter is excluded
from
at
one
case,
every case, of the former. all the views,'B' is always taken in its entire extent, 'A' be from
a
also in the whole of its extent. part,and sometimes is meant This fact is,what by saying that the predicateof an is distributed and the subject undistributed. 0 proposition 'A3 and {B,Jthe subject " 5. Eecapitulation.Eepresenting and the copula, of a proposition, and the predicate by two circles, A is repre relation of the two circles, or by the mutual position sented by the two diagrams (1)and (2),
always in
"
by
the
by
the four
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
w
8"2
116
and
MEANING
AND
REPRESENTATION
[PART II.
by
the three
(8)
(9)
(10)
that (1) it will be seen comparison of these diagrams, and (6),(2) and (7), (4) and (8),(5} and (9) are (3) and (10), dia and that there are five fundamental identical, altogether
On
grams.
are
To
help the
in
a
memory
of the
;
"
student,these
five
diagrams
given below
1st.
definite order
3rd.
2nd.
4th.
5th.
These
diagrams will
be
henceforth
called the
and the student is advised to remember 4th,and 5th respectively, numbers. their respective A is represented by the 1st and 2nd, E by the 4th, I by the 1st,2nd, 3rd,and 5th, and 0 by the 3rd, 4th,and 5th. undis and the predicate The subject of A is distributed, the subject and predicate of E are Both distributed. tributed.
Both of subject and predicate and predicate of O is distributed, the That I
are
undistributed.
The
the
subject undistributed.
and distribute their subjects, is, only universal propositions distribute their predicates. only negativepropositions
" 6.
I.
"
Exercises
on
the
meaning
and
of propositions representation
by diagrams.
may II.
how
the
four
"
viz., A, E, I, and
propo
order, and
0
which
of them
representA,
E, which
I, and which
respectively.
CHAP.
III.]
OF
A,
E,
I,
"
BY
DIAGRAMS.
117
III. be
Which
of
the the
four
prepositional
which the 5th which
forms"
A,
which
E,
I, and
the
0
"
may which
represented
the
by
and
1st,
by
the
2nd,
?
by
3rd,
by
4th,
Name
which the
by
diagram
IV.
diagrams
represent
A,
E,
I,
and
respec-
tively.
.
V.
Eepresent
and and
state
of
the
following
propositions
to
by
various
its
appropriate
theories of
diagrams,
meaning import
of
according
the
predication
1.
of
propositions
men
are
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
men
are
men
are
elements is
are
metals.
produced
have bodies is
by
clouds.
plants
material
flowers. extended.
7.
8.
are
man
perfect.
are
9.
10. 11.
metals sensations
elements.
All
are
feelings.
bodies is white.
at
gravitate.
12. 13.
14.
boils
100" bodies.
C.
under
pressure
of
760
m.m.
expands
15.
Friction
produces
heat.
PART
III.
REASONING
OR
INFERENCE.
CHAPTER
I.
THE
A
one or
DIFFERENT
KINDS
OF
SEASONING
OR
INFERENCE.
Reasoning is
more
we
the
act
of the
to
mind another
to
by
which
we
pass
from them.
given judgments
from
one
following from
different
When
but
pass
judgment
another
from
it,
contained
Immediate.
another
the reasoning is called in,or directly impliedby it, When from two more we or judgments to pass any of
justified by all of them the reasoning is called Mediate. The new jointly, judgment, or the judgment obtained from the given judgment or judgments, is called the Conclusion, and the given judgment or judgments, the
them,
but
different from
Premiss
than
or
Premisses.
If the
a
conclusion
be
not
more
general hand,
called
either of the
premisses in
If the any of the
mediate
is called
more
Deductive.
than
conclusion
be,
on
the
other
general
of what
premisses,the reasoning is
Inductive.
ment
Inductive
Reasoning
Reasoning the conclusion is a develop in,or implied by, the premisses. In conclusion contains or implies more
CHAP.
I.]
what
REASONING
OR
INFERENCE.
119
or
than
is contained
Thus
we
in
or
impliedby
any
misses.
Immediate
Mediate Medn
Deductive
Inductive
under and Inductive, kinds, Deductive Inference? Immediate Immediate Seasoning, as it is usually is the conclusion in no case is all Deductive, that is, treated of, more general than the premiss. But if we define Immediate Reasoning as a reasoning in which a judgment is obtained from be more that the former another judgment, it is evident, may
Are
there
also two
"
generalas well as less generalthan the latter. If the conclusion be called Induc the reasoning should certainly be more general, tive. If, for example, we could,in any case, draw the general from conclusion from a a singlejudg instance, that is, single be ment or proposition the reasoning,in that case, would of a single premiss only,and should be Immediate, as consisting called Inductive, as general than leading to a conclusion more
" "
the
premiss.
In Deductive
mediate
reasoningand all Logic,however, all immediate and the following classification reasoning are deductive,
"
REASONING
Deductive
Inductive
I
Immediate Mediate
Syllogistic
: Non-Syllogistic
e.g., certain
mathe
matical
deductive
reasonings.
120
THE
DIFFERENT
KINDS
OF
[PART III.
The latter is Eeasoning is either Inductive or Deductive. again either (1) Immediate, or (2) Mediate, accordingas the conclusion follows from one than one. A premiss or from more Mediate Deductive when it con Seasoning is called a Syllogism, forms to the axiom called Dictum de omni et nullo, Whatever is affirmed or denied of a class distributively, be affirmed or may denied of any thing belonging to that class," to some similar or axiom axioms. It may be called Mathematical,when it con or forms to some other of the axioms in mathematics, such one or as (1)that thingswhich are equal to the same thing are equalto of equals are equal,(3)the prin one another,(2)that the sums that 'a thing which called Argumentum a fortiori, or axiom ciple is greater than a second,which is greaterthan a third, is greater
"
"
than
cannot
the
third.'
The
subdivisions
of the
other
main
division
is the inference of a relation Seasoning, regarded objectively from one or more things and attributes. given relations among When universal relation is inferred from one, a few, or a general the reasoningor inference is Induc or relations, particular many tive. When the relation inferred is not more general than the contained in, and is, in fact, or implied given relation or relations, It the reasoningor inference is called Deductive. by, the latter, when is Immediate the inference is drawn from one given relation than one. The or premiss,and Mediate when drawn from more three meanings : word inference, it should be noted,has,at least, (1) the process of reasoning,(2) the product of reasoning con and (3) the conclusion of the premissesand the conclusion, sisting
"
only. We have here used the word in the second sense, but it is in the third. and more used in the first, frequently frequently is called an A reasoning, Argument. expressedin language,
There
are are
thus
as
of the former.
many The
kinds
or
as
there
form of simplest A Mediate the premiss and the conclusion. two propositions, of more deductive reasoninggivesrise to an argument consisting and the conclusion. than two propositions, namely, the premisses
to the
"
122
4. No All
.".
THE
DIFFERENT
KINDS
OF
[PARTIII.
man
is
perfect,
No
5.
elements,
is is
a an
Gold
Syllogistic.
Mathematical.
6.
A is C is
.".
A is
7.
A is greater than B is
.".
greaterthan B,
C ;
8.
is less than
.*.
A is less than A is B is
a a a
C.
9.
part of B, part of
C ;
.-.
A is
A
part of C.
10.
is
equal to B,
C is
.-.
D.
Mathematical conform
to
reasoningsare
axioms
By taking the axioms as major premisses,and the data of the reasoningsas minor form. premisses, they may, however,be reduced to the syllogistic as Examples 6 and 7 given above may be stated syllogistically
follows
6.
:"
the
of mathematics.
Things which
are
equal
and C
to
the
are
same
thing are
to
one
things A and
C
are
equal equal
to
the
same
thingsA
is
another.
greaterthan a second, which is greaterthan the third;the thing A is greaterthan a second a third,is greaterthan which is greaterthan a third (C); therefore the thing A is greater (B),
which tlu'ng than the third
(C).
CHAP.
I.]
REASONING
OR
INFERENCE.
123
be reduced
to
reasoningsmay
INDUCTIVE.
.*.
2.
expands by heat, Water expands by heat, Mercury expands by heat, Copper expands by heat, Gold expands by heat ; All material bodies expand by heat. Water is solidified by cold, Mercury is solidified by cold,
Cocoanut oil is solidified solidified
by cold
.".
All The
liquidsare
other
by
cold.
our
3.
friction of the
palms of
hands
against each
The
wood
"c.,
whom I knew have
"c. ;
.".
The
4.
Many
All the
.-.
died,
in the
All The
men
will die.
are angles of this triangle rightangles;
5.
three
two
togetherequalto
togetherequal
to
.*.
The
three
two
6.
.".
These No An
two
two
lines straight
can
cannot
inclose
a
space,
straightlines line,
inclose be
space.
7.
constructed
upon
this
.-.
An
be
constructed
upon
any
finite line.
Inductive Induction.
reasoningsconform
to
the
canons
and
rules
of
and rules as major premisses, By taking the canons and the data of the reasoningsas minor premisses,Inductive like mathematical,may be reduced to the syllogistic reasonings, form1.
1
See
below, Appendix
D.
CHAPTER
II.
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
of
reasoning,is the of deriving or a deducing a proposition from process or given proposition or premiss. As an reasoning argument and expressed in language,it consists of the given proposition, the propositionnecessarily followingfrom it. As an inference or it is the propositionthus following, the result of the conclusion, The derivation also of a proposition from a term process. may Inference. be regarded as a kind of Immediate Every attribute Thus connoted there by a term may be affirmed of the term.
1.
"
IMMEDIATE
Inference, as
process
"
are
two
kinds
In
of Immediate first
(1)
Take of the
term
the
kind, a propositionis
term
' '
term.
the connotative
two
man,' and
'
consist
attributes
that
rationalityand
we
it is evident
may
at
once
is
rational,3 (ii)'Man
animal.'
that
This every
inference
depends
may of
on
the
axiom
attribute
axiom
by
term
be
analysisof
inference
an
of terms.
equivalent to the affirmation of an attribute of really the of a thing or things,of which or aggregate of attributes,
is affirmed is known
to form
a
attribute
part.
CHAP.
II.]
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
125
Exercise.
Infer
one
verbal Material
propositionfrom
each
of the
terms following
"
body.
(2) Figure.
Chalk.
(6) (7)
Plant. Animal.
(8)
(9) (10)
House.
Man. Mind.
Table.
Book.
is inferred from a given (2) In the second kind,a proposition different forms of it : viz., I. Con proposition. There are seven version ; II. jEquipollenee, Permutation,or Obversion ; III. Con Con traposition ; IV. Subalternation ; V. Opposition ; VI. Modal Of these we shall treat in sequence ; VII. Change of Relation. order.
"
2.
I.
"
of the subject and transposition the predicate of a proposition. The proposition to be converted is called the convertend, and the proposition inferred from it the be denned as a legitimate converse, which may inference, having for its subject and predicatethe predicateand subject, respec of the convertend. In an the tively, hypotheticalproposition, are consequent and the antecedent transposed. In drawing inferences by the process of conversion, the following three rules
must
Conversion
be observed
:
"
the
and the predicate in the convertend (1) The subject and the subject, in the converse. predicate respectively, (2) No term should be distributed in the converse
not
must
be
which
was
(3) The qualityof the converse convertend, that is,the converse is affirmative, and the converse negative.
"
same
as
that
of the
affirmative proposition
negative propositionis
definition of conversion.
in order that the
The The
from
the
second may
rules must
be observed
converse
admissible
the
from followingnecessarily
126
rule is evident
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFEKENCES.
[PART III.
is
from
the
fact
that
if
term
it can some individuals, premiss,to signify not, in be used to signify denoted by the term. every individual, third rule follows from the meaning of an affirmative An affirmative proposition, such as negativeproposition.
means
P,
not
S is included in P ; and from this it does P is excluded from S (or P is not S), follow that at least one that at least
one
for P and
not
S may
coincide.
at least
A
one
as
S is from
P, means
that
from
P ; and
P is included
in S
(or P
outside of each other. S),for P and S may lie entirely A follows I by conversion: from 'All S is P' (1) From 'At least one follows by conversion P is S.3 This foliows or some and can be easily from the rules, proved by the diagrams. By the third rule the of A
must
converse
be
or
affirmative,
that
is,A
I;
can
by
not
the
se
cond
rule it
and, as no rules are by inferringI from A by conversion,it is I. A is represented by the first and P is S.' second diagrams, and from both of these follows I, Some P is not S.3 From the first follow I, Some P is S,3 and 0, Some From the second foUow A, 'All P is S,'and I, 'Some P is S.' Thus from A in every case, follows I from each of them, that is, only by conversion. mortal : its converse is Some mortal are Examples. All men is man,3 'At least one that is mortal is man,3 or 'Some mortal If A is, B is : its converse if is In some cases beingsare men.3 B is, A is.3 The hypothetical also can thus be converted. Some S is P,3we (2) From I follows I by conversion : from infer immediately'At least one or some P is S.J This follows can from the rules, and can be easily proved by the diagrams repre be affirma of I must sentingI. By the third rule the converse that is, A or I ; by the second rule it can not be A; and as tive,
' ' ' '
"
be A ; violated
'
'
CHAP.
II.]
are
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
127
no
rules
I is each
I from by inferring represented by the 1st,2nd, 3rd,and violated of them it will be the
seen
that
the
converse
Some
is S
'
follows.
Hence
"
converse
men are
of I is I l. wise
cases :
its if A
converse
is 'At least is
:
one
In
A is,
some
B is,
its
converse
is
In
some
cases
if B
is.3 I
That
I follows be
from
by
and 2nd
that and
follows may
thus
shown.
and I
I ; from
only.
follows
Thus I
from
them,
From
'
that
is,from
E
I in every
case,
only by
S is P'
conversion.
(3)
follows
follows
by
conversion:
from
'No
No
is at
once
evident from
the
the 4th
diagram
the third
representingE,
rule the
no
follows
must
also from be
rules.
By
converse are
of E
rules
violated
where
can
be
No
man
is
: perfect
its
converse
is is
'
'
No
If A
is,B is
not
its
converse
If B
perfect A is is,
not.'
the the
second
rule
no
nothing follows by conversion : this follows from be proved by the diagrams. By the third rule can be negative, of 0 must that is, E or 0 ; and, as the is violated by inferring E or 0 from 0 by conversion,
of 0.
there is
'
converse
the
P,'is representedby
and I
three
diagrams,viz.,
Some P is not
follow O
by
conversion
S, and
The
as
student
should
draw
the
respective diagrams
that them.
in this
case
as
well
in those
that
follow, and
follow really
the conclusions
asserted to follow do
128
From Some the
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PARTIII.
:
4th
follow E
and
by by
conversion
No
P is
S, and S, and
P is not the
S.
5th follow A and I conversion
:
From Some
All P is
0,
or
from
0 does
every
not
follow from
of 0. From
diagram,we
infer
it from
as
form
the
I does not
follow from
the 4th
from
0.
"
converse
of I is I ; and
two
; and
cases
the
converse same
of
in these convertend
has
the
quality
and
quantityas
the
when
The converse process of conversion is called Simple Conversion. in this case, of A is I. The converse, or the inferred proposition is while particular, case,
or
the
convertend
is
universal;and
is called
when
this
is the
the
process
of conversion
Conversion per
accidens
by limitation.
0 cannot
Exercise.
be converted.
Convert
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
the
: propositions following
"
bodies
are
are
extended.
animals
birds.
is immortal. is the is
a
Hydrogen
Benevolence
body lightest
virtue.
a
known.
6.
7. 8.
Every
Certain Some Matter
None
element metals
is not
are
metal.
ductile.
no
animals
have
power
of locomotion.
9.
10.
metals.
11.
12. 13. 14. 15.
If mercury If If In
In
a a
heated, it expands.
is
judgment judgment
some some a eases cases man
16.
Only
it is not synthetical. analytical, is not synthetical, it is analytical. is followed by a perception. a sensation is not followed by a perception. a sensation of genius can without hope for success industry.
130
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
'
(4)
follows 5th S
'
From Some
0 follows I
S is not-P.'
by
obversion
from
Some
S is not
'
representedby the 3rd,4th,and each of which follows the proposition Some S lies in the regionof not-P.
'
0 is
Example.
"
Some
are
elements non-metals.'
are
not
metals
its obverse
is
Some An
elements
propositionmay also be obverted by taking hypothetical the contradictory of the consequent as the consequent in the of the given proposition inference and then changingthe quality : 'When (1) If A is,B is; its obverse is 'If A is,not-B is not,' B is not: its A is, ever nothing other than B is'1. (2) If A is,
1
"With
as
reference follows:
"
to
this
explanatory form,
A
"
Mr
Keynes
than
has B
'
re
"Whenever
is"
hardly be given as the obverse of If A is,B is,"since other inconsistent is not equivalentto with,' and the existence of
'
is
own
existence.
"
The
be
that B is not."
point of
than is taken if B
not-B
does
not
mean
inconsistent
means
with
B.'
connotation, not-B
in from the
of B
'inconsistent
means
"
B,'
B.'
is taken evident
denotation, not-B
is
'other The
will be
followingdiagram:
of not-B Here
denotation
by
the
region
outside
not-B
includes
means
everything
other than is of B the
con
NOT-B
except
B.
B, that
is, not-B
the
Now,
suppose
connotation
representedby
notation consistent
'
the
of not-B
attribute
means
in
with
" ; that
is,if
with
is taken
in connotation, not-B
with
B,'
or
by
B.
according
seen
denotation
"
or
in connotation, is not be
"
it will be
namely,
way
If A
is,not-B
terms
"
given in the
"
the
denotation
or
in connotation
CHAP.
II.]
is
*
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
131
obverse than B
is,something other
be obverted.
Exercise. Obvert 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
the
All sensations
feelings.
has
a
Every phenomenon
Only
Some material bodies
no
cause.
gravitate.
flowers.
plants have
a
Justice is
virtue.
G. 7.
8.
but elements
undecomposable.
If A is not B, C is D. If
If
a a
9. 10.
11. 12. 13.
term
is is
body
B,
If A is
C is D.
If A is B, C is not D. If A is not
B, C is
not
D.
is,"that is,"If A is
and not-B
A
are
is not," is correct,if B
taken is not
conno
it is, in
not," is correct,if B
taken
given in
"If A
"
the text
"
are
valid may
be shown
"
also
as
is,B is
to the
form categorical
"
"
"All A is reduce
; and
obvert the
to
latter, "No
is not-B
"If
; and
then is
obverse
"If A
the
hypotheticalform"
"
is, not-B
not,"
is
B
anything
is not
other
or
than
A
^\
NOT-B
"If
is
nothing
evident dia
be
also
"
II
"
r"
""
the
two
representing
show that "If A
the Both
given proposition.
not-B is not,"that is,the combination is,
A does not exist.
not-B
9"2
132
"
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFEKENCES.
[PAKT III.
" 4. III. Contraposition. consists in taking the contradictory of the Contraposition of the given proposition the subject of the inference, as predicate and the subject the predicate, and then changing the quality as both the qualityand the quantity of the proposition, if re or the propositionobtained or quired. The inference, by contra is called the Contrapositive. of a The position, contrapositive be denned admissible as an inference, having proposition may of the predicate for its subject and predicatethe contradictory and the subject, of the proposition. respectively, A follows E by contraposition : from (1) From 'Every S the contradictory is P' follows 'No not-P is S.5 Here 'not-P,' of the given proposition of the predicate (Every S is P), is taken and the quality the subjectof the inference, is changed from as
affirmative This
to
negative.
from of which
1st and 2nd, representing diagrams, follows the proposition 'No not-P is S,;
is evident each
the
is excluded
"
from
men are
the
regionof
mortal
:
Example. (2)
From
All
its
is man.' E follows I
: from by contraposition
'No
S is P'
follows 'Some
not-P
is S.'
This
is evident
from
the 4th
the quantity of the In this case E. representing is universal. while the given proposition is particular, is perfect is : its contrapositive Example. No man
"
diagram contrapositive
'
Some
is man.' not-perfect
(3)
is not the
From
follows 'Some
: by contraposition
from be
'Some
P' follows
not-P and I
diagrams,3rd,4th
From the 4th 3rd and from Some the 5th
may 0 : 5th,representing
is S.3
This
proved from
not-P each is S. of the
"
follows
Some by contraposition:
I. Hence from
case, follows I
are
From three
also follows
forms,or
"
0 in every
by contraposition.
:
Example.
is 'Some
elements
are
not
metals
its
contrapositive
non-metals
From
elements.'
no
(4)
may be
I follows
:
"
conclusion
by contraposition.This
provedthus
CHAP.
II.]
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
133
I is From
by represented
the 3rd and
the
by contraposition the 1st and is S. But from not-P 2nd, I does not I, Some follow. from all the forms of I,that is, from I in every Hence be inferred by contraposition. case, I (Some not-P is S) cannot Again,from the 1st and 2nd follows 0 (Some not-P is not S) ;
but it does
not
also from
and diagrams1,
(Some
of I.
S)
cannot
be inferred from
diagrams (3rdand 5th) allow I,and two 2nd) allow 0; but from each of them neither
inferred. Hence I cannot
"
others I
nor
(1stand
0
can
be
The Recapitulation.
I, while
1
I cannot
be
be
In the 3rd
diagram, a part of
lies outside P
coincides
with
part of S, and
not
some
not-P, which
of S,
"
and
outside
some
that
from
is certainly the
that
is excluded
part, and
with
not
from
whole, of S
S" is not
; or, in
other the
not-P
a
is not
of
true.
some
In
5th
diagram, P
some
coincides
part
S, and
therefore
of
not-P, which
whether
"
lies outside
not-P
S; but
remaining part of
is excluded
from true.
a
S is not
known,
of
not-P
from
the whole
S.
only
one
part.
Hence
the pro
not-P not-P
we
is not
This
propositionmeans
of S ; but this
can
is excluded have
the whole
be
as inferred,
seen, from
these two
diagrams.
3rd.
5th.
134
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PARTIII.
that
fullynote
converted.
An the
that
I cannot
be
and contraposed,
cannot
be
be contraposed hypothetical proposition by taking may and the contradictory antecedent of the consequent in the
propositionas the consequent and the antecedent respectively and then changing the qualityin the case in the inference, of A and 0, and also the quantity in the case of E. is 'If B is not,A never (1) If A is,B is : its contrapositive
B is not, A never is.' 'Wherever is,' is (2) If A is,B is not: its contrapositive if B is 'In
some
cases
not, A is.'
In
some
cases
(3)
'In
some
if A
is,B
is.'
is not
its
is contrapositive
cases
if B is
not, A
NOTE. The
"
Contraposition is
converted logicians is
also 0
called
Conversion We
by Negation.
have
seen
older
by
this process.
that
also to A and E, and inapplicable to I only. applicable The contrapositive of a given proposition be regardedas the con may in obversion and verted obverse of it ; and contraposition as consisting the process in conversion the inference and
as
of the double
Some
logicianshave
as
indeed
regarded
the process
conversion, and
inference.
accordinglyexcluded
we
Immediate
have
seen
that, with
of a proposition be inferred as im can diagrams, the contrapositive In contraposinga proposi mediatelyas its obverse or its converse. tion accordingto the older method, first obvert it,and then take the
converse
of the obverse.
Examples.
(1)
not-P
All S is P. is
'
No
S is not-P
'
; the converse
is
'
No
of contrapositive
givenproposition
(AllS is (2)
not-P is
P).
S is P.
is 'All S is not is the
No
Its obverse
P'; the
converse
of this obverse
is
"
Some S
S,'which
of contrapositive
the
givenproposition (No
isP).
CHAP.
II.]
Some is
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
135
(3)
'Some
S is not
'
P.
Its obverse
Some
S is not-P
'
; the
converse
of this obverse
is
not-P
is S,' and
is
'
Some
seen
S is not before
is 0, and
0 cannot
be
converted
as
we
have
8).
Exercise.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
All animals
are
mortal.
No
created
being is perfect.
be
can
liquefied.
not
plants are
animals
are
devoid
of the power
of locomotion.
insentient. have
no cause.
6. 7.
8.
substances
that have
is
cases
inertia have
weight.
its
heated, it expands.
if
a
9.
body is heated,
is followed
temperature does
not
rise.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1C. In
some cases a
sensation
by
perception.
If A If A In In
is
B, CisD.
D.
is if A if A
is B, C is not
cases
cases
some some
B, C is
not
D.
is B, C is D.
In all In all
In
some some
cases
cases
if A is not if A is not
B, C
is D.
B,
C is not
D.
D. not
17.
18.
cases' if A
cases
is not is not
B, C is B, C is
In
if A
D.
" 5.
This the
iv._0f
process
Subalternation.
of immediate inference
universal to the
and particular,
with the same subjectand universal, quality. By subalternation follows : (1) From the truth of A, the truth of I,and of E, the truth of 0; but not conversely from
"
consists in
former.
Thus,
136
true ;
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
will not
necessarily
be true.
the the
of I, the falsity of A, and from the falsity of E; but not conversely the former falsity If 'Some 'Some
not
the
latter.
S S
is PJ
be
also be be
false;if
is not
S is P' 'No S
is P; must the
follow
sponding universal.
S is P'
'All S
is P' may
be
may
E Similarly,
0 true. responding
is
even
even
The
(1)that I or 0 simply repeatswhat that what fails true by A or E, and (2) not be universally true,or what holds good The proof of not be universally denied.
fact
fact
the
converse some
lies in the
cases, in at
false in and
true
ence
(1) that something may be true or least one case, though not universally,
true
or
(2)that
or
what
some
is not
may
yet
be
false in
cases, in at least
The from
rules of infer
given above
may
be
the
diagrams.
"
In
6.
a
V."
Of
Opposition.
that A and 0, previouschapter (vide p. 78) we have seen and E and I, are in relation to each other, called, Contradictory that A and in relation to each other, E are called, Opposites, and Contrary Opposites, that I and
are
called
Subcontrary
which exists among opposition subject and predicate,but A, E, I, and O, having the same and quantity,when in quality, in both quality or differing any is the others true e ither or are one given as false, necessarily We shall now unknown. or inquire into these true, false, them, and lay down certain general among necessary connections inference by opposition rules of immediate : consequence
"
Opposites.In
of the
(1)
as
Given
the truth
of A and
(AllS
2nd S is not
illustrated
by
the
1st
false and
also that 0
(Some
P) is false.
138
The
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
be thus tabulated
:
"
results
we
CHAP.
II.]
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFEKENCES.
139
leads
:
"
comparisonof
above
to the fol
lowing conclusions
and
inference the
"
truth
of A. E. I. 0.
"
the
"
of falsity
A.
E. I.
"
A That
0.
"
follows the truth of of a proposition is,from the falsity and from the truth of a proposition its contradictory opposite, the of its contradictoryopposite. Hence follows the falsity rule
:
"
Qf
two
related propositions
must
to
each
other
as
contradictory
one opposites,
be
true
and of A
the other false. follows the of E, and from falsity conversely. That is,
(2)
the
From of
the
truth
of A ; but not falsity of its contrary follows the falsity from the truth of a proposition of one the truth of but not conversely from the falsity opposite, related to each Hence the rule : the other. Of two propositions truth
E,
the
"
other and
as
cannot
be true ;
one
must
be false,
both may
the
0 follows
one
I, but
other.
as
not
of
the truth
of the
the
of falsity
Hence
Of
both
each other
subcontrary opposites,
both may be true. consideration
be true, and
to be
also be
shown
true
by
themselves and by particularexamples. If propositions be affirmed 'All S is P' be true, i.e., if P3 can proposition
' '
of every
c
S,'then
it
can
not
be denied E and 0
of all
must
"
S,'nor
false.
can
of any
one
S,'or,
in other
words, both
it
can
be
Similarly,
be denied in
if the
'No proposition
S is P' be
not A
of every other
be
must
single'S,' or,
I and
be false.
If the
proposition
140
'
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
of at least it may
or one
Some
S is P' be it
can
can
be affirmed
'
'
S,'then
not
of every in other
S,'and
may
not
words, E (No S is P) must be false, If the doubtful. and 0 (Some S is P) true or false, i.e., be denied 'Some S is not P' be true, i.e., if 'P3 can proposition of S,' of at least one S,'then it can not be affirmed universally and may not be affirmed of some or S,5or, in other words, may
be denied of
some
S,'or,
'
'
'
must
be false and
and
now
The
are
other
same
cases as we
may have
:
also be
proved ; similarly
above.
metals
the
given
We
are
shall
give
be
some
concrete
examples
If 'All
contrary 'No metals are Some elements' its contradictory0 is evidently false ; and in the original metals elements' is also false ; because, not are and therefore 'elements' is affirmed of 'all metals,' proposition of consistency it can The principle re not be denied of some. of a class, not must quiresthat what is affirmed of all members
elements'
true, then
its
'
be denied
of any
of them.
If
'
'
Some
elements
are are
are
metals'
must
be be
No
elements elements
metals'
not
its
0 subcontrary
'
Some
metals' may
may
not
be true.
Exercise.
Draw from
follow
the truth 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
: followingpropositions
bodies
are
are
extended.
rewarded.
knowledge is useless.
is both
a
virtue.
G. 7.
8.
uncaused.
useful.
not
9.
10.
None
but elements
are
metals.
are
All metals
except one
solid.
" 7. VI. Modal Consequence. By this process an inference is drawn by changingits modality:
" "
from
givenproposition
CHAP.
II.]
From
a
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
141
(1)
the
'
assertory,or
latter S is
can
the
'
from
*S
must
'
be S may
P'
can
be
or
inferred
'
P,' or
not
a
from This
be P'
S is
P,
we
infer
S must
is evident lower
can
from be
the fact
a higherdegree of certainty,
inferred,
from From
of a problematicproposition inadmissibility of the corresponding assertory and follows the inadmissibility from of an the inadmissibility assertoryproposition necessary, of the correspondingnecessary ; but follows the inadmissibility
(2)
not
from conversely
a
This
is evident
from
degree can
be be
not
be
is wanting, a higher degreeof certainty and that where a higherdegree may inferred, be PJ If S may degree may be established.
' '
S is P'
and
'S must be
be P;
must
inadmissible. former
and inadmissible,
are men
'All men be admissible. may and still the proposition' All missible, be may admissible. die' may
'
wise' may
He
dies
'
may
be
and inadmissible,
He
be admissible. Of
" 8.
This
VII."
mode
Change
of immediate
inferringa
from a given proposition proposition by changing the relation of that is,in inferring the latter, from a cate (1) a hypothetical from a hypothetical, gorical, (2) a categorical (3) hypotheticals from a disjunctive, from hypotheticals. (4)a disjunctive 'All categorical thetical 'If Sis, Pis' (A). From the categorical Some S is P is' (I). S is,
'
(1)
From
the
is P'
follows
the
hypo
cases
P'
follows
'
In
some
if
'
No
'
'
In all
cases
'
if S
some
P is,
cases
never
Some
follows
In
if S
(E). P is is,
cate-
is'
(0). (2)
From the 'If hypothetical S
is,P
is' follows
the
142
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
case
'
case
of the existence of S is a
of the existence
If A
is
B,
C is D' follows
Every
is not
case
of A
being B,
'
is
of C
From
'
If S
P is,
'
follows
No
case
of
the existence
case
in the case of I and 0. Similarly the disjunctive 'A is either (3) From the other of the or cording to Mill one
B
two
or
C' follows, ac
following hypo-
theticals
"
(1) (2)
If A If A
is not C, A
is not
is B. is C. forms may
B,
more
be inferred
"
(4)
The rule of
C, A B, A
is not is not
B. C.
inference, according to Ueberweg, is,that the and the alternative implies the falsity of the other, truth of one the of the one the truth of the other. falsity Accordingto Mill, rule is that the falsity of the one implies the truth of the other be that both the members member, but not conversely ; and may of a the two members true. According to Ueberweg, therefore, like two contradictory are propositions, disjunctive proposition of the one be true,the truth or the falsity not both which can the truth of the other; the falsity or implying,respectively, proposi while,according to Mill,they are like two subcontrary of the one which both be true,the falsity implying tions, may
the truth of the other. metal is either a "This disjunctive propositions, He who prefers of electricity," of heat or a conductor conductor of a higher is either immoral or lower pleasure in presence a "Some either prophets or philosophers," men are imprudent," as be inferred two hypotheticalpropositions, according to may From the
"
Mill,while,from
either mortal
a or
"This animal is disjunctive propositions, soul is either "The vertebrate or an invertebrate," immortal," "Every organism is either a plant or an the
CHAP.
II.]
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFEEENCES.
143
four
as hypotheticalpropositions,
the
two
hypotheticalmay
follows
:
"
again
be
"
(a)
The
four
are hypothetical
If A If A If A If A
is not is not is is
C, A B, A
is B. is C. B. C.
C, A B, A
'
is not is not
'
proposition A is B be true, the proposition A is not C is true. Again, if the latter be true, then by the is false. Hence, Law of Contradiction the proposition A is C from be true, A is C is false. Similarly, if A is B (3)it can A is B is false. Hence, be proved that if 'A is C be true,then be true,the other is false. Again, and 'A is B,'if one of A is C
(4)if
'
the
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
if ' A
false,A Middle (videp. 17, and be true,then is not-B be proved that if can
' ' ' "
is B
'
be
'
is not-B also
'
is true
by
'
the
Law
"
of Excluded
Ueberweg, pp. 260 3). And if 'A it from (2) A is C is true. Similarly, A is C be false,A is B is true. Hence, There and A is C,' be false, if one the other is true. of A is B be true, A is C,' if one of the two propositions A is B and fore, and if one be false, the other is false, the other is true, that is, of the disjunctive propositionEither they are the two members A is either B or C,}in Ueberweg's sense. A is B or A is C,'or
* ' ' ' ' * ' '
"
'
(b)
And
from
the two
hypothetical may
The
"
two
(1) (2)
It has been
1
If A If A
is not is not
C, A B, A
the
is B. is C.
is B
'
and
"
propositions
the other
members
sense.
of
positionA
'
'
in Mill's
(c)
Is it
a
tion from
144
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFEKENCES.
[PAKT III.
weg's sense
in Mill's follows the is
as
of
sense.
disjunctive Either
:
"
is not
or
is C.'
The
proof
follows
(1)
If A
we
is
B,
is C.
this By contraposing
get,
is not
(2)
If
{
If A
C, A
is not C'
B.
is C'
be
false,'A
and
.-.
'
is not
is true
by
same
the
Law
of
Excluded
if A
.-.
'
Middle;
B
'
from is B
(2) 'A
'
is not
Again,
law ; and
is not
be false,A
is true
by
from
'
(1)'A
{
Hence,
of the
two
'A propositions
is C
and
of the one B,3the falsity impliesthe truth of the two members of the disjunc They are, therefore,
'
propositionEither A is not in Mill's sense Thus, a disjunctive proposition hypothetical ; but this of a disjunctive. sense
B
can
or
is C
'
in Mill's
a
sense.
be inferred from
single
is not
in Ueberweg's possible
Exercises. from propositions Distinguishthe following disjunctive other,and note the ambiguity,if any, in their meaning : I.
"
each
1.
2.
The An
individual A is either B A
A is either B
or
or
C.
C.
or
or
3. 4.
5.
Some
is either B
C.
Every
Either
A is either B all A is B
or
C.
is C. follow from also in each of
all A
II.
Infer the
the above
sense
of III.
Ueberweg's
Draw
which
follow from
the
followingproposi
tions
by change of relation : 1. Only material bodies gravitate. 2. No plant can without lightand grow
3.
heat.
No
animal
can
live without
a
oxygen.
a
4.
A mineral
is either
simple or
compound substance.
146
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
invertebrate.
or
This animal
or
Every
An
animal
invertebrate.
animal
invertebrate.
unknowable.
Substance
A substance
or or
unknowable.
or
All substances A
either knowable
unknowable.
body is either solid or fluid. This body is either solid or fluid. Every body is either solid or fluid.
All bodies
are
either solid
or
fluid.
" 9.
Given
Additional Forms
a
of Immediate
Inference.
'A"" ^ B; with 'A' and 'B' as its subject proposition the propositions and predicate respectively, immediatelyinferred forms : or other of the following from it will be in one with 'A' and 'not-B' as subject and predi 1. 'A1" not-B,'
"
"
cate. 2. cate. 3.
* '
Not- A
""
B,'with
'
not- A
'
and
'
'
as
and subject
predi subject
Not- A
*"
not-B,'with
' ' '
'not-A'
and
'not-B'
as
and
predicate.
4.
5.
'
""
'
'
""
cate. 6.
cate.
'
""
not-A,'with
'
'
and
not-A
'
as
subjectand predi
'not-A'
as
7.
Not-B
"",
not-A,'with
'not-B'
and
subject
and
predicate.
Of these
converse,
these
are
forms, the 1st is called the obverse,the 4th the and of the given proposition, the 5th the contrapositive But all that we have recognizedand treated of above.
that the the other forms may also
it is evident
be
immediately
inferred from
given proposition.
repeti
This
is not."
CHAP.
II.]
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
147
diagrams of A, E, I,0, shown be easily to be legitimate inferences may the following it is to be remem and admissible. In proving these inferences, the bered that 'A' and 'not- A/ and "BJ and cover not-B,' whole sphereof thought and existence (vide 52)* : pp. 51
On and comparison of inspection the
"
"
"
I." From
A "All A is B
is not-B
not-A
"
follow:"
not-A B is A
(5)No (6)Some
not-B
is A
positive).
B is not not-A
is not-A
II." From
"
No A is B
"
follow :"
NOT-A
is not not-B
(0).
(E,converse). contra(5)Some not-B is A (I, positive). (6) All B is not-A (A). (7) Some not-B is not not-A (0).
V
/A=NOT-B
^
"
-^
NOT-A
III." From
"
Some
is B
"
follow
:"
A is not not-B
B is A
(6)Some
1
B is not not-A
course
(0).
that
a
It is of
a
assumed
every
term, whether
subjector
of predicate
has proposition,
term
to it. contradictory
10"2
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART III.
:"
"
Some
is not B
"
follow
is not-B not-B
(7) Some
The other
seven
not-B
is not not-A
forms
in the
case
of I and
given above,three have alreadystated, names as we special the others contrapositive respectively;
Of the forms
"
(2),(3),(6),and
are
(7)
"
have
no
names. special
That
these
inferences For
valid may
be
the
easilyproved
inferences
also
by
the
older
method.
example,of
converse
drawn
from
A, (7)is
the obverse
of its the
contrapositive,
of the
(6)
is the
obverse
of its converse,
(3) is
obverse
of the last. and (2)is the obverse contrapositive, Of the inferences drawn of its from E, (2)is the contrapositive (3) is the obverse of (2),(6) is the obverse of its converse, the and (7)is the obverse of its contrapositive. Thus converse, of its four well additional
as
forms method
may
be
inferred
by
the
"
older method
the
an
as as
adopted in this work, by inference from an inference, and by the latter as an inference from the given proposition. by
the
former immediate
"
I.
10.
Give
Miscellaneous
the obverse
Exercises.
converse
of the
of the
following : propositions
"
(1)
The
useful is not
the beautiful.
am,
He (c)
is.
equal
number
to B.
B. of substances small.
are
containing more
than
four
ele
ments
is very
no
Where
any.
objectis distinguished, we
not
conscious
of
CHAP.
II.]
A is
A
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFEKENCES.
149
greaterthan B.
B.
:
followinginferences agreeable;
"
disagreeable.
are
2.
.".
elements non-metal
metals
is element.
3.
.*.
body
is
4.
.".
Some Some
not
5.
the
of vision ; is not
.*.
If the have
sensation
not
produced, the
of
light
fallen upon
the eye.
6.
.".
All A
is B. not-A the
"
Some Give
III.
converse
: ing propositions
1. 2.
Every
man
is not learned.
are
sentient
beings.
3. 4.
is annihilated. not
B, C is
D. the
IV.
the
"
of contrapositive
: ing propositions
1.
2. 3.
cause.
is
perfect.
not
is B, C is D.
4.
If A is Give
B, C is
converse
V.
the
contrary or sub"
1.
2. 3. 4.
All sensations
No
man men
are
feelings.
is immortal.
are
Some Some
wise.
are
elements
not
metals.
150
VI.
state
OF
IMMEDIATE
INFERENCES.
[PART
not selfish'
as
III.
Given
the
proposition
can
'Some
men
are
true:
the
propositions that
be inferred
from
false,and
VII.
state
(3)as
Given
doubtful the
or
unknown.
'The virtuous from
are
proposition
can or
happy'
as
true:
the
propositions that
be
inferred
it, (1)as
true, (2) as
and false,
(3)as
Given
doubtful the
unknown.
'
VIII.
the and
proposition
can
Some
men
are
unjust
'
as
true
state
be inferred
from
it, (1)as
true,
(2)as false,
true:
unknown. 'No
man
Given
proposition
can
is infallible'
as
state
the and
be inferred
from
it, (1)as
or
unknown.
verbal
or
Infer each
many
analyticalpropositions as
"
you
can
from
of the
following terms:
(6)man, (7)plant, (8)metal, (9)force, (10)book, (14) mind, (15) perception, (16) (11) table, (12) horse, (13)mammal,
(4)circle, (5)square,
sensation, (17)house, (18) philosopher,(19) king, (21)nation, poet, (20)
(22)society,(23)paper,
XI.
from the Draw
as
(24)chair, (25)examination.
inferences of the
as
many each
you
can
from
the
"
truth
and
also
of falsity
: following propositions
AU No Some
S is P.
S is P.
S is P.
(4) Some
Infer
S is not
as
P.
many
propositions
as
as
:
you
"
can
from
each
of the
true
has
cause.
antecedent
of
phenomenon
of
is the
cause
of
phenomenon.
commencement
a
(3) (4)
(5)
The
absolute
phenomenon
of
is not
con
ceivable.
The infinite non-commencement
a
phenomenon
is not
conceivable.
At least
one
substance
has
no
cause.
CHAPTER
OF
III.
SYLLOGISMS.
from two " 1. A Syllogismis the inference of a proposition the inferred proposition being less general given propositions, than either of the two given propositions. As an argument fully of one expressed in language, it consists of three propositions, from the other two, which, the conclusion,follows necessarily called the Premisses,and thus differs from Immediate Inference, which, as the simplest and most elementary form of argument, and the proposition the conclusion consists of two propositions, follows. From the propo the conclusion which from necessarily Some mortal mortal follows All men sition are beings are the latter is a conclusion men' inference, i.e., by immediate the aid of any other proposition. derived from the former without that is,a conclusion aid is necessary, is In a Syllogism such drawn from not one propositionbut from at least two propo sitions. For example, from the two propositions 'All men mortal and are Philosophers are men,' I infer the proposition Here follows mortal.' (1) the conclusion Philosophers are from the two propositionstaken jointly,and not from either of them be brought two singly. The propositions must is legitimately infer the third which together before I can involved in them, and yet is distinct from either. The con either of clusion is not the same as Philosophers are mortal mortal' and the two are 'Philosophers propositions 'All men does it follow them. from of are men one By this cha ; nor inference. from an immediate racter a syllogismis distinguished Again, (2) the two propositions being true,the conclusion must
* ' *
"
'
'
'
'
'
152
be true. The
one
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PARTIII.
with the other makes the conclusion conjointly valid. or necessarily admissible, legitimate, a By this character, that is,a correct or valid syllogism, is distinguished syllogism, from an apparent one or a mere combination of three propositions in which the conclusion does not follow from the premisses. And (3) the conclusion can not be more general than either of the two from which it is inferred. The propositions pro is less general than the position Philosophersare mortal the latter being applicable are proposition'All men mortal,' number to a much of individual things than the former. larger is distinguished from an induction, a syllogism By this character, in which the less general to the more we general, pass from to the universal 1. from the particular A syllogismis either pure or mixed. It is pure when both its premisses have the same that is,when relation, they are both categorical both hypothetical mixed when or they ; and have different relations, that is, when of them is hypothetical one and the other categorical, and the other cate or one disjunctive in a gorical. These distinctions will be referred to more fully subsequentchapter2. " 2. Of Categorical Syllogisms. A of two CategoricalSyllogism is a syllogismconsisting conclusion categorical premisses and a categorical necessarily It is a reasoning in which is term a followingfrom them. affirmed or denied of another of a third. Given two by means terms or : if I affirm deny one of the other,I get a categorical 'A is B' or 'A is not B.' In this act there is no proposition is merely an act of reasoning,mediate or immediate ; there judgment, the direct comparison of one term with the other. If could be thus directly affirmed or denied of every every term other,there would be no such mental act as reasoning;there
' '
would
we
be
we
no
need
can
of it.
But
constituted and
or
circumstanced
term
as
are,
not
affirm directly
a
deny
every
of every
terms
other.
We
have
1 2
often to establish
relation between
i.
two
below,Part III,Chap.
v.
154
constitute the minor
a
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
combine
If the major or syllogism ; if not, not. premiss is represented by a singlediagram,then with each diagram representingthe other this one
valid
premiss,and
then the
not.
if the
conclusion
follows
from
a
each valid
combination,
three In
syllogism ;
whether what
use con
if
not,
way
we
may
;
ascertain and
two
premisses lead
clusion.
In
two following
any
conclusion of
if so, to
this
method
:
"
we testing syllogisms,
the
axioms
(1) (2)
not
Two
circles
with
part coincide
Two
a
any
the
same
circles of which
coincides
and
do
not
with
other
third
by
any
the
part
each
by
the
;
that
part.
is
When firmative
first axiom
when and
the when
second neither
negative;
clusion. The
truth
of these the
axioms
is evident words in
to
every
person
who
ex
understands
meaning
of the
which
they
are or
part" may be "the whole" pressed. "Any the same the part with which one And smallest part possible."
may other may
"the
coincides
which the
part with The coincides or does not coincide. meaning of be further illustrated by the following diagrams :
be either
a
part
or
the
whole
of the
the words
"
CHAP.
III.]
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
3
155
diagram, two circles A and C coincide with B by any the same part, namely, the whole of C or a part of A ; therefore they coincide with each other by that part,that is, all C is A" in fact, This diagram is, a A is C." "some or repre
In the first
"
"
sentation is
of the also
A," and
A
all C is B ; therefore is
all C
B, all B
is
A;
therefore
some
is C."
third B
A,
C coincides does
coincide with
not
by
the
same
other A
C) ;
therefore
"
part,that is, no A is C," or in fact, This diagram is, a representa C is A." no tion of the syllogism all C is B, no A is B; .'. no A is C," and also of the syllogism"no A is B, all C is B ; .". no C is A." In the third diagram no because neither conclusion follows,
they do
coincide
with
each
other
by
that
"
"
axiom
is
circle C
lying either
outside
or
mere
combination
of three the
does not
follow from
the the
still further
in this most
important
testing
shall give below certain rules to which we syllogisms, every Kules conform. These categorical syllogism must Syllogistic
follow from
the definition of
: syllogism categorical
"
15G
1.
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PARTin.
contain three and must Every categorical syllogism only three terms, neither more nor less, namely, the two extremes between which we find a relation, and the third or middle term
"
with with of
which each
we
compare
each
extreme
in order
to compare
them
means
other.
If there
be less than
the
two
there three,
extremes.
is
no
the finding
relation
a
between train of
no
If there
a
be
more,
either there is
or syllogisms,
there is A is D."
series of is
C, C is
a
Here
there
are
four
syllogisms.The first two propositionsgive the 'A is C,'and this proposition conclusion and the next, namely, C is D,' allow the conclusion 'A is D.' But the following propo do not constitute any reasoning: sitions containingfour terms Here there are A is B, C is D, B is A, and D is C." four pro from which not infer any relation between we can A positions, and C or D, or between B and C or D. This will be evident from the following the last two propositions representing figures :
' "
"
and
may
or
may
not
can
lie outside
not
or
D,
that
is,their
those
two
relation is
unknown, and
be determined
from
It follows from this rule that no term should be propositions. ambiguous ; for an ambiguous term having two distinct meanings is reallyequivalentto two terms, and the three terms are, in that case, really to four. equivalent contains when fullyexpressed, 2. syllogism, Every categorical three and onlythree propositions, namely, the two premissesin the middle or third term which is compared with each of the
"
two
extremes, and
the
conclusion
which
expresses
relation
CHAP.
III.]
the
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
157
from necessarily the
between
two
extremes, and
middle
term
are
which
follows
premisses.
3.
The
must
be distributed
at
least
once.
This
given below,follow from that part of which requires definition of the syllogism that the conclusion follow from the premisses. The necessarily present rule
those that the middle be taken
term
once
which
with
which
the
two
extremes
or
are
compared, must
extent.
entire the
In other
term must
words, the
at least
whole be
two
of the circle
standing for
either
middle
two
once
compared
one
with
of the
one
circles
extreme
with
part of
the
middle
no
term,
and
case
comparison
could from
This
will be evident
"
All A
is B.
All C is B. No conclu
sion.
All A from
and
all C
are
each
compared
with
no
part
of
as
B, and
to the
comparisons we can draw relation between C and A, that is, can we outside of C, or that it lies inside of C, or
This
is evident from the
these two
conclusion
not
lies
that A
C intersect.
The the
three
a
cases
leads to Middle.
of Undistributed Fallacy
4.
not
No
term
must
one
was
of the premisses. The non-distribution of a term in one of the premisses means that its extent has not been that it has not been exactly definitely stated whether expressed,
the whole
or
distributed in
part
of its extent
is
meant,
one
and
has has
been
said about
it
is,that
at
least
individual
158
been From
term
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PARTin.
the whole about
taken
into
while consideration,
and
is not
excluded1.
of the
this vagueness in
one
indefiniteness
can
the extent
of the
we premisses,
in its entire
; but
this
be allowed
can
this
can
not
be ; unless be
as
generally
not
one
term
in the For
conclusion it must
as or
it is distri
buted in
what
we
premisses.
not
are
to infer in mediate
well
two
that which
follows in that
not
one
follows
if be
This
All B is All B is
.-. All
A, C,
C is A.
From
But
from
the
second, which
the premisses, it does not follow. represents Hence the conclusion in the general form is not true. C not being distributed in the second premiss,can not be distributed in the conclusion. The The
correct
conclusion
a
is
'
Some
C is A.'
the
Fallacyof
dicate in the
term.
5.
called fallacy, technically Illicit of the pre either of the subject or Process, of the minor of the major that is, or conclusion,
If
both the
is
For what
nection and
be
is
inferred.
no con
between this
and
each
of the
two
extremes
extremes
from
themselves"
the two
be connected
in.
See
CHAP.
III.]
can
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
159
This A
be proved by the comparison of the diagrams. easily negative premiss is representedby the 3rd, 4th, and 5th
the 4th
diagrams.
Take C may
and
4th.
other
or
Here
no
conclusion
follows.
and
include each
4th and
4th.
A and C either lie outside each
we
Take other
not
we or
4th.
each
Here
and other,
C,'but
can
this conclusion
does
not
not
infer it
generally.
we
may
prove
the
rule thus.
The
negativepremisses
EE, EO, or 00 in any order; and it will be seen, the comparison of the diagrams,that no on conclusion follows from any of these combinations from of premisses, generally i.e., each particular of each combination. A conclusion may case
be either
1GO
follow in
one case
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PARTIII.
if it does not
a
of
can
follow in
not
conclusion legitimate
case,
of that combination.
The
4th
and
4th.
;
namely,4th
this
no
and from
conclusion
we
have
seen. already
6.
conclusion
must
be
negative.
That
must
the
conclusion in which
it does follow,
no
cases
conclusion
no
follows. connection
middle
must
term
and
one
extremes,
that the other
and
be the
can
affirmative, expresses
middle infer
term
there is extreme.
connection
between
we
and
From
connection
may
between
extremes.
be
represented by
two
circles A
and
lying outside
each
and other,
the affirmative
premiss by
either
another
C,
each
ent
In
all these of C
differbe A.
Part
must
within Hence of
B, which
we
may
part
lies outside A,
or
"
Some
is not
A,"
negative con
clusion.
To
to
prove
the
rule
more
the
followingmethod.
any that
IE, 10 in diagrams
order.
It will be
cases
from
a
the
comparison of
the
in those
in which
conclusion
the follows,
conclusion is
negative.
162
From
"
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART in.
the
follows
No
C is A.3
4th and
2nd.
that to prove a negative conclu it can be shown Conversely, be negative.A negativeconclusion sion one of the premisses must
means
that this
no can
there
is
no
connection
a
between
the
two
extremes,
that of the
a con
and
only be
connection
a
proved by
between
premiss which
term that
expresses
there is
and
there
one
extremes, and
nection
a
premiss which
the middle
term
is
between
and
the other
extreme, i.e., by
a
affirmative
premiss. A negativeconclusion,
means
C is not A' of A.
"
that
at least
In order to prove
the this,
part of C following
a
a
premissesare
necessary,
1st,that
part of B, and 2ndly,that the part of B part of C lies outside the whole of A, the tive and the second a negativepremiss.
being an
Here B
the crossed
A, therefore
the
crossed
part of
the conclusion must are If both the premisses affirmative, of the be affirmative. For, if the conclusion be negative,one of Kule 6 ; but both must be negativeby the converse premisses
CHAP.
III.]
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
163
therefore the affirmative; premisses are, by supposition, be shown it can be affirmative. conclusion must Conversely, must both the premisses that to prove an conclusion, affirmative the be affirmative. For, if one of the premisses be negative, conclusion will, by Kule 6, be negative ; therefore both the pre the misses
8. must
be affirmative. the be
If both
In
The
two
be particular, can nothing premisses premisses are either II,10, or particular the first combination the middle
term
inferred.
in any
00
order.
is not
dis
be
as
the
conclusion
in the con distributed, also, which was not distributed in the premisses clusion, ; hence there will be an illicit of the predicate or process either of the subject
a negative,
be
will be
in
the
conclusion. the
No
conclusion
follows from
the last
com
particular. the conclusion must 9. be particular, If one of the premisses be particular.If one the other must premiss be particular, be universal, for from two particular premissesnothing can be
inferred.
Hence, the
two
premissesare
either
IE,
or
and that,therefore, be the middle must tributed, term; and if the conclusion were term would be distributed in it a universal, which was not distributed in the premisses ; hence there would be
an
The
conclusion
of IE
or
El
must
be
in the pre
terms
only
distributed
one
; of these
must
be the middle
be distributed in the conclusion. can only,therefore, But the conclusion must be negative, of the premissesis as one and if it were, also, both its subject and negative, universal, and hence there would be a predicatewould be distributed; 11"2
other
164
term
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
was
not
distributed
or
in
the
from
OA
AO
must
be
of
terms
distributed in the
premisses ;
other the
must
be
the
middle
term, and
will be
the
of predicate
the
which conclusion,
distributed. Hence the predicate therefore, be undistributed, that is,the conclusion conclusion must
be
particular ; otherwise
This rule
can
there
would
be
an
illicitprocess.
No
OE, as both the premissesare negative. be proved from the diagrams. Take the
the 3rd and 2nd
combination
IA.
diagrams follows
3rd and
2nd.
'
1st and
2nd. the In
as
1st and
2nd
as
some
cases,
2nd, a universal
may
follow ; but
follow in the other cases, it is inadmissible. it is evident that ifthe conclusion this rule, From both the be the
is
of the be universal. For, if one must premisses Therefore the conclusion will be particular. particular,
universal, premisses
both
premissesmust
The last three
be universal. the 7th, 8th, and 9th, are viz., rules, other rules. A violation
some
merely
of those
of the
of any
rules
be
observed
not
be violated.
into Figures. Categorical Syllogisms conform to the nine must syllogism Every valid categorical and proved above. By the help of conditions laid down or rules, invalid valid from an a those rules, can we easilydistinguish
"
5.
CHAP.
III.]
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
165
of two premisses categorical syllogism. Given any combination determine and we a conclusion, can, by the aid of the rules, When wThether the conclusion follows from the premissesor not. whether they only two premisses are given, we can determine and if so, to what conclusion. conclusion, In every categorical syllogismthere must be two premisses determined and a conclusion by the premisses. Given the pre misses, the nature of the legitimateconclusion is given along have differ the middle term In the premisses, with them. may and the primary division of in different syllogisms, ent positions is founded the difference in positionof on syllogisms categorical in the premisses. in relation to the extremes the middle term called Figures, and The division is into three classes, technically lead to any is
as
follows
:
"
premiss, and (1) The middle term is the subjectin one in the other. predicate in both the premisses. (2) The middle term is the predicate (3) The middle term is the subjectin both the premisses. Taking B to be the middle term and A and C the extremes, be thus symbolically the three classes may expressed:
"
1st Class.
2nd
Class.
AB CB
3rd Class. BA BC
BA CB
.-.
C A
or
C.
/.
C A
a
or
C.
.*.
C A
or
C.
The
conclusion
a or
expresses
relation
between
C and
by represented
either A If the
we
and C
the
as
them
the minor
the
the
the two
in which the minor and they occur premisses we get four classes or Figuresas premiss respectively1,
1
major
"
follows:
It should
term
be observed is
between is
no
the
reason
major and
the minor
purely conventional.
should It is due
to usage
why
the
and
the
predicate
term'
major
term.
'minor
166
1st.
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
3rd.
BA 4th. AB BO
.-.
2nd.
AB CB
.-.
BA CB
.-.
BO
.-.
CA the 1st
CA
CA
term
CA in subject the
(1)
In
figurethe
middle
is the
premiss.
in predicate
(2) In the 2nd, the middle premisses. (3) In the 3rd,the middle
both
the
term
is the
subjectin
both
the
premisses.
in the major (4) In the 4th,the middle term is the predicate premiss and subjectin the minor. The conclusion is always a proposition, having 0 and A for respectively The in its and predicate. subject
or
on
of position
on
term
premisses. The
distinction
founded
the
between
the
subjectin
the
between or conclusion,
distinction
major
the
major
On three
between
there syllogisms
are
are
Figures,and
the second
there 0 A
or
four.
On
the A 0 ;
first method
the conclusion
is of the form
of the form
and, on
best
we
method, it is always of the form 0 A. As adapted for teaching and as sanctioned by high authorities, and shall adopt here the four-fold classification, take the
to be
conclusion
always of
are
the form
0 A1.
and
'major
term'
applied to
The
the
subject and
of the
the
re predicate,
the
conclusion.
definition
of the
minor
term
is
and subject,
the definition
major
the
term term
; in other
as
words,
the of
subjectin
term
1
is defined
minor
a
term,
term
syllogism.
a
figures by
double
division.
Ueberweg,
CHAP.
III.]
6. Subdivision
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
167
each
"
of
Syllogismsin Categorical
another
not
Figure
position
into Moods.
A syllogism may
of the middle
term two
only in
in the
the
premisses,but also
quantity and
Each of the two pre premissesthemselves. of the in each figure consist of any one misses of a syllogism may forms four prepositional A, E, I, and 0. The major premiss
qualityof
the
any
one
one
of these Thus
four
forms, and
the
minor, again,may
combi possible
of them.
there may
be sixteen
of
premissesin
each
the first letter in each combi figure, major premiss,and the second letter the
EA EE El
IA IE II IO
OA
OE
01 00 combination of pre Of
con
EO
not
are
be any
other
enumerated
each
of these
combinations
does not
a
valid
and does not, therefore, constitute clusion, the rules given above, and by the method the
we diagrams,
valid
of the
syllogism.By
comparison
of find out
shall
now
test these
combinations,and
which
of them and
yieldvalid
do
forms
of
Moods,
Of
which
the sixteen 00
as
combinations
may
at
once
OE,
three
and
chief
invalid in all
because figures,
more
conclusion
sense
comprehensive
then subdivides the middle
the
is
according as
term
in the major premiss and predicate in the minor, or the subject in the major premiss and subjectin the minor, the former predicate subdivision and the latter to the fourth of correspondingto the first, the four-fold classification given above. The second and third primary classes do
not
give rise
double
to any
are
subdivisions. called
The
four
classes the
thus
obtained
sense.
by a
division
by him
Figuresin
narrower
168
follows from
two
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART in.
negative premisses(Rule 5). We may also be inferred from because nothingcan reject II,10, 01 as invalid, two particular premisses (Rule 8).
We
shall
now see
what
conclusions
the
remainingnine
OA
lead
com
binations AA, AE, AI, AO, EA, El, IA, IE, and
which
which of them
to,and
and
yieldvalid
forms
of
or syllogisms
moods,
do not, in each
7.
figure.
in the First
"
1.
A.
A. A.
Valid Moods
Take
All B
Figure.
For
or
AA
is
"
The be
conclusion is A.
i.e., A affirmative,
by
Rule
7, it must
as no
A,
I ; and
rule
A in this case, it is by inferring A as the conciusion A AA Tnat m giveg the diagrams,thus : The be proved from the 1st figurecan by the 1st and the 2nd diagram. major premiss A is represented two diagrams. The minor by the same premissA is represented
All C is B ;
is violated
All C is A1.
"
Combine
the which
each
of the
one
with
each
of
other, and
follows
draw
from
the
conclusion
each
combination,
the sub the
con
2nd.
clusion.
the
There
are
namely,
1st
1st and
2nd, 1st
and 'All C
1st,2nd and
From and
1st
1st,and
2nd
2nd
2nd.
follows A
is A.'
From
and
the
other
two
cases
of A A
AAA
a is, therefore, in the first figure. From valid mood I A follows I by subalternation, or
figurefollows
A.
may
1st and 1st.
be inferred
from directly
the
dia
grams.
:
"
2.
1
Take
next AE
be
No
conclusion
follows.
For
by
Rule 6,
It should
remembered
as
in the
examples that
as
B follow,
is taken
the middle
as
term, A
as
the
major term, C
the
minor
term, and CA
the
form typical
of the conclusion.
170
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
O by inferring
in
Rule
is violated
conclusion follows.
4th the major pre diagrams, representing premiss 0, respectively, nothing follows,
or
From
the minor
C may
be outside
inside A.
1st and 5. E.
4th.
For
EA
No
"
The
conclusion
is E.
by
Rule and
in
6, it must
as no
be
B is A
A.
E.
.-.
All C is B ; No C is A.
rule is
case, it
this
From
and
not
the 4th
and
'
1st follows E
'
No
C is A.'
From
'
2nd A
'
also follows
No
C is A.' 0 may
From
E follows 0
or by subalternation,
be inferred
from directly
diagrams.
4th and
G.
E.
1st.
El
No
"
The
Bis
conclusion
n"t
no
is 0.
A,
I. O. 1st
as .-.
Some Some
C is B ; C is not A.
by Rules 6 and 9, it can be anything else than 0; and as O in rule is violated by inferring
For From the 4th and 4th
this Cas6) it ig Q
also from
follows Some
C is not
and
5th
CHAP.
III.]
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
171
4th and 7. IA
:
"
1st.
can
3rd.
this
No
conclusion
term
B is not I.
and
the
"
subjectin
No
IE: be A
conclusion than
follows. 0
'
by
Rules
6 and
as
9, it
in
not
anything else
Some
O,
is distributed
in the
0 inferring
9.
no
in this case,
:
"
conclusion
term
follows.
,
OA
Here
can
is not
hence
conclusion
accordingto
lead, then,to valid forms of syllogisms or and Ferio. The conclusions of called Barbara, Darii, Celarent, and EAO, which also valid, be inferred the moods AAI are may and from the conclusions of AAA EAE by subalternation. Hence they have been called subaltern moods, and are quite
useless. with another one can we By comparing these valid moods rules of the first figure the following two special : generalize (1) The major premiss must be universal. This is true of
"
AA, AI, EA, and and yieldthe following valid conclusions, moods: AAA, All, EAE, EIO, technically
every
one
(2)
true
premiss
must
be affirmative.
This
is also
of every These
two
of them.
rules of the first figure be proved thus special may rules. If the minor by the general syllogistic premiss be nega tive,the major premiss must be affirmative by Rule 5, and the conclusion A will be distributed in the negativeby Rule 6, i.e.t when in a negativeproposition, it conclusion, beingthe predicate
172
has not
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART in.
major premiss,beingthe predi the minor can cate in an affirmative proposition. Hence not be be affirmative an negative; it must, therefore, proposition. if the be the middle term B will not major Secondly, particular, be distributed in the premisses, being the subjectin a particular and predicatein an affirmative proposition. The proposition, be universal. major premiss must, therefore, " 8. Valid Moods in the Second Figure. because the middle term B is not 1. A A :" Nothing follows, distributed, being the predicate in two All A is B, A. All C is B, A. affirmative propositions. No conclusion. From the 1st and 1st diagrams repre-
been
distributed in the
1st and
sen
1st.
tingthe major and the minor premiss A respectively, nothing because C might be inside or outside A. follows,
2.
A. E. E.
AE
"
The
conclusion
All A is B, No C is B ; No C is A.
by Kule 6, it must be rule is E or 0; and as no negative,i.e., violated by inferring E in this case, it is E. This be can proved from the diagrams. The major premiss A is represented by the 1st and 2nd diagrams; and the minor premiss E by the 4th. Combine
is E.
For these and A.' in the usual 4th From way. From E
'
the 1st No C is
diagrams follows
the 2nd
1st and
4th.
lows.
AEE
CHAP.
III.]
mood
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
173
E follows 0 the
of
or syllogism
in the
2nd
figure. From
by
be inferred directly O may from or subalternation, because the middle AI : 3. Nothing follows,
"
diagrams.
is not
term
distributed.
4. not
no
AO
"
The
is 0. 0 ; and
For
as
by
^. O. "-
Eules
6 and is B
9, it can
B ;
A-
be
anything
All A Some
"'"
rule is violated
by inferring0
The
in
C is not c is not
this case, it is 0. A is
major premiss
2nd
Some
diagrams;
and
the minor
From grams
and
3rd
dia
follows
C is not
1st
and
4th, .1st
2nd and follows
and
5th,
2nd AGO
and 5th
3rd,
also
1st and
4th,
0. of
:
"
valid form
5.
3rd.
figure.
No
A. E. No
EA
by
0;
A is
B,
;
Rule and
6, it
as no
must
negative,z."?.,E
All C
is B
rule is violated
E in by inferring
C is A.
the No
4th
and
1st
fol 2nd
X
X
C is
A,' in
E. form in the
4th
is, syl by
4th and
1st.
second 0
follows 0
subalternation, or
inferred
6.
can
may the
be
diagrams.
is O. than For
E" I. "-
The
conclusion else
by
Rules
No
and
9, it
not
as
anything
0 ;
and
rule is violated
by inferring
0 in this case, it is 0.
"'"
Some Some
A is B, C is B ; c is not A-
174
From
the
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART in.
'Some
4th
and
3rd
follows
0 A.
C is not
A.'
The
part lyingwithin
B must
be outside
x^~X~^\
3rd.
2nd,
4th
and
5th of
follows 0
'
Some
C is not A.'
EIO
or syllogism
mood
A is
in the second
I. A.
Some
B,
?.
because
IA
Nothing
middle
can
be
is not
inferred distri-
All G is B, No conclusion.
the in the
term
buted
1st
From
or
the
3rd and
lie outside
inside A.
3rd and
8.
can
1st.
IE:
be
"
No
conclusion
follows.
For
as
by
Rules
6 and
9, it
not
anything
else than
no
0 ; but
Eule
4 is violated
by
the
0 inferring
9.
in this case,
"
conclusion follows.
for the
same
reason as
OA:
Nothing
of
follows
in
case. preceding
The
are,
valid forms
or syllogism
moods
in the
second
figure
called therefore, AEE, AGO, EAE, and EIO, technically and EAO and Festino. also AEO are BaroJco, Camestres, Cesare, and EAE forms of AEE valid,being merely the weakened ; as their
conclusions
follow
by
subalternation
from
those
of
the
called subaltern
moods.
CHAP.
III.]
these
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
175
the following generalize
From
valid moods
we
"
can
rules of the second figure : special (1) The major premiss must be universal. be negative. must (2) One of the two premisses (3) The conclusion must be negative. Each of these rules holds good in each of the valid moods. rules. If They may be thus proved by the generalsyllogistic the middle term will not be be not negative, of the premisses one the conclusion must be distributed. If one premissbe negative, negative by Eule 6. The conclusion being negative,the major and term, which is the predicatein it,is distributed, must, be also distributed in the premisses therefore, ; and this will not be the case, unless the major premiss be universal, because the in this premiss. major term is the subject " 9. Valid Moods in the Third Figure. Take AA conclusion is I. For by Eule 7, it must The 1. : A or I; but as Eule 4 be affirmative, i.e., ^. A All B isis violated by inferring All B is C ; A. A, it can not be C is A. A ; and as no rule is violated by inferring *" '" Some
"
"
mood
figure.
Eule
AE
:
"
No
conclusion
follows.
by
A E.
6, it
B
must
be
All B is A
No
is
C*
9, it can
is A
B
conclusion AI
:
"
follows.
conclusion is I. For
No
conclusion.
The
by
Eules
A
7 and
^ Some Some
B
be
rule
I.
is' C;
case, it is I. 4.
!" No conclusion
as
"*"
C is A. is A
follows the
case
for of
^ 0.
^11 B No
the "AJ2"
5.
reason
in
C,
be
EA
"
The
or
conclusion
as
is O. Eule
For
by
Eule
6, it
must
E negative, i.e., it
can
4 is violated
rule is violated
case, it is 0.
176
6. not
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
by
no
El
"
The
conclusion
is 0.
For
as
Eules
rule
6 and
9, it can
O ; and 0.
is I. I ; and
is violated
by
IA
:
"
The
conclusion
else than
For
as
by
no
Rules 7 and
rule
9, it can
be
is violated
by
can
IE
:
"
No
by
Rules
4
6 and
9, it
be
0 ; but
conclusion is 0.
as
Rule
is violated
by
9, it
follows.
For
as
OA
be
:"
The
conclusion than
by
no
Rules
and
not
anything else
0 ; and
rule is violated
by
0 inferring That
in this case, it is 0.
rules are proved above by the syllogistic be shown can as valid, by the comparison of the diagrams, really of the first and second figures. in the case The combinations there AA, AI, EA, El, IA, and OA yield, in the 3rd figure, and give rise to the valid conclusions fore, AAI, All, EAO, EIO, LAI, and OAO, techni followingmoods" callycalled Darapti, Datisi, Fdapton, Ferison, Disamis, and the conclusions
BoJcardo.
From these
valid
moods
we
"
can
: figure be affirmative. minor premiss must be particular. conclusion must hold good in all the above-mentioned which These two rules, be thus proved by the general in the 3rd figure, valid moods may If the minor premiss be negative, the conclu rules. syllogistic be negative by Rule sion must 6, and the major term, the will be distributed, which has not in the conclusion, predicate in the been distributed in the premisses,being the predicate be affirmative by Rule 5. If the major premiss,which must the minor conclusion be universal, term, the subjectin the con in the will be distributed, which, being the predicate clusion, affirmative minor premiss, has not been distributed in the
"
of the third
Moods
in the Fourth
Figure,
178
4.
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
of
Explain and illustrate the method comparison of the diagrams. and show how Define a syllogism, 5.
follow 6. from Prove
:
"
syllogisms testing by
the
the
rules generalsyllogistic
its definition.
as
thoroughlyas
middle term
you
can
the
following generalsyllogis
in the
tic rules
The
must
be distributed at least
once
premisses.
No
term not must
be distributed
one
in the conclusion
which
was
distributed in
the
of the
If both
premisses be
be
premisses. negative,nothing
conclusion
can
be
in
ferred. If
premiss negative.
one
negative,the
of the terms how many
must
be
'mood.'
reasons
figuresare
the
there?
and
moods?
for your
8.
to
a
answer.
which and
the combination
concrete
AA
leads
examples.
combination AEE
the
figure or
figures in which
and
the
valid mood,
Give
givingreasons
draw
"
concrete
in every
11.
conclusion,if
which
follows
from
each
of the
of premisses in any figureby the comparison followingcombinations of the diagrams :" AA, E A, AO, and EL Test by the comparison of the diagrams the following combi 12. nations 13.
or
moods the
in every
figure:
"
AEA,
Prove
If both
can
be
inferred. If
one
To
the conclusion must premissesbe particular, be particular. must conclusion of the premisses one prove a negative be negative. of the
If the conclusion
must premisses
be affirmative.
CHAP.
III.]
(5) (G)
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
179
If the conclusion
be universal.
be
If both the
must
In
the
first
figure the
major premiss
must
be
uni
must
be
uni
versal. In the
third
figurethe
figureone
minor
premiss must
be affirma
premissescannot
have the
be
negative, particular
must
of quality
the
quantityof
must
the minor.
be
negativeand
universal
affirmative.
the figureor
can
be
A be
be
Name
the moods
have A, E, I, and
for respectively
and
in those 18.
in which figures
mine
by
rules of the firstfigure, and deter prove the special the valid moods in that figure. and rules of the second prove the special the valid moods in that figure. rules of the third prove the special the valid moods in that figure.
prove
and figure,
by
State
them and
figure,and
and figure,
by them
State and
determine
by
them
figure.
12"2
CHAPTER
THE ARISTOTELIAN
IV.
SCHOLASTIC VALID MOODS. METHODS
AND
THE
OF
DETERMINING
"
I.
Aristotle's Dictum
is the supreme Aristotle axiom and his
de omni
or
et
nullo
"
This
celebrated
Dictum
to according
both followers,
"
and
modern.
Whatever is predicatedof by Whately : be term whether a or distributed, negatively, affirmatively may in it." Mill of anything contained predicatedin like manner states it as follows : Whatever be affirmed (ordenied) of a can class may be affirmed (or denied) of everything included in the class." The is quite self-evident, Dictum being merely a state translated
"
It is thus
ment
of the of
meaning
of the
term
class.
class is
an
indefinite
number
Whatever included
The must of the
states
individuals, possessing certain attributes in common. those attributes or belongs to the class, possesses
Whatever
of
a
is
in it.
does
not
possess
them the
is not class
included.
is that it
very
condition
thing'sbelonging to
which
are common
possess
to the
individuals
class.
that
Dictum
a a
in
form
simply
to
a
what
a
belongs to
class
not
or so
higher
belong
lower,that is,to
otherwise
it could what
or
to
thing included
; and
in the its
can
be
included
in
does
to any
not
not
belong
included.
to
class
belong to former,
"
class
individual
so
in the
as
otherwise
men
it could
be
are
mortal," 'mortal'
it may
is affirmed of any
as
All and
therefore
or
be affirmed
of class,
class,
of
any
such individual,
'all
kings,' 'some
or beings,'
CHAP.
IV.]
METHODS
OF
DETERMINING,
"C.
In of the the any
181
in the
higher
*
class
'
'man.'
is denied
propo class
No
man
is
perfect," perfect
be denied
*
man,'
a
'
and
it may
therefore
of any
'
of any individual, such as or beings,' class, included in the higher class man.' These reason or Socrates,' : give rise to the following (1) All syllogisms ings,stated fully, all kings are men, therefore all kings are mortal ; men are mortal, are beings are men, therefore some (2) all men mortal, some are mortal, Socrates is a man, beings are mortal ; (3) all men
"
of
part
therefore
Socrates
men,
is mortal.
kings
are
therefore
some beings are perfect, is perfect, Socrates perfect; (3) no man is not perfect. Socrates
is perfect, all (1) no man is man no kings are perfect ; (2) no therefore not some beings are men, is
a
And
man,
therefore
" 2.
By applying the
have that
1st
Dictum in the
to the
of premisses we
shown easily
given
valid in the
giving rise to the four moods we have figure, the Dictum, we From deduce can easily alreadyestablished. the two specialrules of the 1st figure. According to the first it,something must be affirmed or denied of a class disbe universal, the major premiss must affirma that is, tributively, tive or negative. According to the last part of its second clause, that is,the minor in the class, be contained something must
clause of
premiss
must
be
affirmative.
And
these
are
the
two
special
figure. Applying the second of these two rules to the 16 combinations, we reject AE, AO, EE, OE, IE, 10, OE, and 00, and we rejectIA, II,OA, 01 ; and applyingthe first, the remaining four AA, AI, EA, and El, accordingto the first
part of the second
to
the valid
moods
Barbara,
"
1st
3.
The
Dictum
is
the
figureonly,and can not be appliedto any syllogismin the other figures. Hence Aristotle regarded the 1st figure as perfect, the very type of syllogistic and the other figures as reasoning,
182
as
METHODS
OF
DETERMINING
[PARTIII.
of figures,
which of for
first three
the
considered
the
as
to be the normal
and standard
from
mode
reasoning,and
other
two
as
deviations
are
it,allowed
word The
'
special purposes,
from
as
in figures of been
Rhetoric
admissible deviations
the normal in
mode
figure
fourth
'
used
Logic has
to
Rhetoric.
figureis
said
have
been
by Galen,
and
is often
called Galen's
figure.
:
"
4.
Of Reduction
except the Regarding all the figures axioms or by which having no principles
those nullo with figures proves those the
same
first
to
as
prove
as imperfect, in syllogisms
in the unless
dc omni et the Dictum as cogency Aristotle did not recognize first, any be transformed
test
it could
into
one
submitted
a
to the
of his Dictum.
in syllogism
the
second, third,or
figureinto
Whether
or can a
one
in the
is first figure
not, is
be
so
If it
reduced,it is valid.
this method the
not, not.
Aristotle determined
forms in the of syllogistic validity rules, have, by the syllogistic imperfectfigures. Later logicians rules,or by other methods, first determined or by the special
entirely by
the
valid moods
in those
reducing them to the the valid is adopted, method Whatever to them. mately applied have ob those we the same as are in the other figures moods of the comparison of the diagrams tained by the joint method are rules. The valid moods in all the figures and the syllogistic given in
the
and then given directions for figures, be ulti that the Dictum so first, may
mnemonic following
verses
"
prioris Darii, Ferioque, ; Barbara, Celarent, Festino,Baroko, secundoo ; Cesare,Camestres, Datisi,Felapton, Tertia,Darapti,JDisamis, Bokardo, Ferison,habet ; quarta insuper addit Bramantip, Camenes, Dimaris, Fesapo,Fresison.
CHAP.
IV.]
lines
mean
VALID
MOODS.
183
in the first
These
that there
are
contains six and four in the second,that the third figure figure, valid moods, and the fourth five. The three vowels in the name of the stand for the three propositions of each of the moods for its minor m0od the 1st for its major premiss, the 2nd
"
premiss, and
EAE
an
Thus
in E
the
with
the rest.
two
methods
in the the
truth
mood
in
an
imperfect figureby reduction to a perfectmood, that is,to a mood in the perfect figure : (1) the one is called Direct or Ostensive Reduction, and (2) the other Indirect Reduction or' ad impossibile Reductio per deductionem e. Reduction (i. by de In the first method the premisses duction to impossibility). of an imperfect mood are converted,obverted,contraposed,or
"
in transposed
with is the
them
same
mood the
having
or
as
can
original conclusion,
obtained
from
conclusion original
be
by
some
imperfect mood
and the
is
moods perfect
that by Opposition,
of contradictory
:
"
5.
Ostensive processes
Reduction
to
be
are
employed
indicated
for
reducing
the
imperfect B, C, D, F
to
by
names
this method
by
The
are
moods.
indicate
that
be
reduced The
the
s
initial letters.
letter
that
the
to
be converted
before
it is
the propo
sition tation
before it is to be converted p
occurs
by limi
184
of
METHODS
OF
DETERMINING
[PART III.
vowel in its name, conclusion of the
an
the third
then
new
be applied to the
must
case
in
be converted
simply
of p in order to obtain
The letter m means that imperfectmood. the premissesof the imperfect syllogism are to be transposed. it was reduced by the that the mood containing The letter k means older logicians by the Indirect method. The other letters (namely
entirelymeaningless,and are introduced only for to make soundingwords. Thus C in phonetic purposes up clearly that it is to be reduced to Celarent;m that the Camestres means that is, the major premiss of this to be transposed, are premisses I,r,
n,
t) are
is to
become
of the
new
and syllogism,
the
major premiss ;
is to be converted third
premiss,that
after the
new
premiss
or
simply;
conclusion
the
vowel,that
the conclusion
of the
in syllogism
the mood
Celarent is to be converted
simply in
r t}
order to obtain
are
the
Camestres
are
All metals No No
elements,
are are
compounds compounds
elements;
metals.
the "By convertingsimply the minor premiss,and transposing in the syllogism premissesof this,we get the followingnew mood Celarent: perfect
"
(E)
No
is G is B
.'.
No
elements
are are
are
compounds,
elements
;
All A No
A is G
compounds.
new
converse
of the conclusion
of the
the
II.
Take
No
the mood
A is B C is B
(E)
(I)
Some
(0) .*.
Some
C is not A
Some
186
METHODS
OF
DETERMINING
[PART III.
"
(A)
(A)
All B
is G
All All
.".
All A is B All A is G
(A) .-.
This
verse
All
is
in syllogism
the
same
mood perfect
as
original
syllogism.
VI. Take
Some
All B Some
the mood
A is B is G C is A
Dimaris
of the 4th
men are
figure"
wise,
(I)
(A)
Some
All wise
.*.
(I).*.
Some
(A)
All B
is C A is B A is G
.".
All wise
Some Some
men men
wise ;
happy.
Darii. The
of the
converse
This is
in syllogism is the
the
same
mood perfect
as
of its conclusion
the conclusion
original
syllogism.
VII.
Take
No
A
the mood
is B B is C A
figure"
(E)
Some
Some
.-.
C is not
Some
is
premisseswe
(E)
(1)
No
B is A C is B C is not A
.*.
No Some Some
Some
beings are
perfect;
not
men.
(0).*.
This
Some is in
beings are
perfect mood Ferio. The conclusion is the the original conclusion. as same directions given above for reduction The not sufficient are for the two BaroJco and Bokardo. The older imperfect moods reduced them to be next described, logicians by the method They may be,however, reduced to namely, Indirect Eeduction.
the first figure, by the method of Direct
the
Eeduction,thus
"
CHAP.
IV.]
Baroko
All A is B Some C is not B C is not A
VALID
MOODS.
187
VIII.
of the 2nd
figure"
All
men are
(A) (0)
mortal,
not
not
Some
.'.
mortal;
men.
Some (0)'.*.
Some
and the major premiss, By contraposing : syllogism we get the following premiss,
"
ob vertingthe minor
(E)
(1) (0) .'.
This
No
not-B
is A
No
immortal
being is
are
man,
;
Some Some
C is not-B C is not A
.*.
Some Some
beings
immortal
not
men.
is
'
in syllogism the
the
mood perfect
Ferio,of
'
which
'A'
and
term.
'
are
major
and
minor
not-B
'
the middle
IX.
Bokardo
Some All B Some
B
(0) (A)
Some
All
men
men are
are
not
wise,
not
is C C is not A
.'.
rational ;
(0) .'. By
Some
rational
beings
and
are
wise.
transposingthe
(A) (1)
All B Some
is G not-A not-A is B is G
.'.
All
men
are
rational,
are
Some Some
not-wise not-wise
men;
are
rational.
in syllogism
are
the and
perfectmood
minor conclusion
Darii,of
(B'
new
which
'
'
and
term.
'not-A'
the
major
terms, and
of the
the middle
By convertingsimply the
then
syllogism
and
clusion The
obtain the con obverting the converse, we can easily of the original syllogism. will be sufficiently processes employed for reducing them
if BaroJco and Bokardo be called Facoko the and
indicated
DodamosJc
before
it is to
be
obverted, and
by the propositionsignified be contraposed, k that the proposition is as s usual, that the propositionis to be
simply converted.
per
deductionem
ad
188
I. method
METHODS
OF
DETEKMINING
[PARTIII.
by
this
BaroJco of the
:
"
second
figure may
A is B,
C is not is not
be thus reduced
(A)
All Some
.-.
(0)
(0)
The
true.
B ;
Some
A.
true
'
conclusion
If the
of this
'
is syllogism Some
'
if the be not
premissesbe
true,then its
conclusion
'
is not A
because contradictoryAll C is A must be true by Opposition, Then be true. of two must propositionsone contradictory combining this with the major premiss of the given syllogism, have the following new we syllogismin the perfect mood Barbara
:
"
All All
A C
is
B,
;
is A is B.
All 0
conclusion
is not B
'
of this
must
Some
be
propositionsone contradictory
is the minor
be
false.
But
the
latter
and is therefore premiss of the original syllogism, the conclusion its contradictory, true by supposition. Hence be false;and the falsity be must must of the new syllogism, either to the process of
due
premisses. The for the new not be due to the process of reasoning, can falsity therefore is in the perfect mood Barbara; it must syllogism not be due to the major premiss, be due to the premisses. It can reasoningor
which and syllogism, major premiss of the original it must be due to the : hence is therefore true by supposition this premiss must be false, minor premiss All C is A,3 that is, C is not A,' the conclusion of the and its contradictorySome is also the
' '
to the
therefore
true.
BoJcardo
:
"
of the
be thus
reduced
by
this
method
A,
A.
is C ;
/.
Some
is not
CHAP.
IV.]
conclusion
VALID
MOODS.
189
be is true,if the premisses syllogism 'All C be not true, its contradictory If the conclusion true. be true by Opposition. Then is A' must taking this as a major syllogismas a premiss,and the minor premiss of the original in the minor new syllogism premiss, we can form the following mood Barbara : perfect The of this
"
(A) (A)
All
is
A,
All B
/.
is C ; is A.
(A)
If the 'Some B conclusion is not
All
by Opposition; but this is not the latter is the major premiss of the original syllo as possible, the former gism, and therefore true by supposition. Hence not beingdue to the be false ; and the falsity 'All B is A' must
A' must
reasoning process
the minor
which
'
is in the B is C
'
premiss
minor
All
to
is
also the
and therefore syllogism, premiss of the original be due to the falsity of the major it must true by supposition, its contra being false, premiss 'All C is A.' This proposition C is not A,' the conclusion of the original syllo dictory Some gism, is true. that the moods initial letter B of these two The signifies
'
new
which syllogism
arises in the
process
of reduction
is in the
Barbara, and the letter Tc indicates reduced them by the Indirect method.
mood The other Indirect method of Eeduction
logicians
the
is also
to applicable
III.
figure
"
B,
(A) (E) /.
If this is A
'
All C
No C
is B ; is A.
conclusion
be
true
be
not
must
lowing new
form
the fol
Ferio
"
190
METHODS
OF
DETERMINING
[PART III.
(E) (I)
No Some
.-.
is
B,
is A
;
C C
(0)
If
must
Some
is not
B.
this
conclusion But
be this
be false.
'
'All C is B' true, its contradictory is not possible, the proposition All as
'
and there premiss of the original syllogism, fore true the conclusion of the new by supposition. Hence not being due to the syllogismis not true ; and its falsity reasoning process, nor to the major premiss of the syllogism, must be due to the falsity of the minor premiss Some C is A.' Hence this proposition is false, No C is A,' and its contradictory
* '
C is B
is the minor
the conclusion
of the
is original syllogism,
true.
IV.
Take
the mood
Darapti of
All B All B
/.
the 3rd
figure"
is
A,
is A.
is C ;
Some
be not this
as
C is A
minor form
"
'
major premiss, and the we can as a minor premiss of the original syllogism premiss, mood the following in the perfect Celarent new syllogism
a
"
No
All
/.
C
B B
is
A,
is C ;
is A. is A'
must
No
be
false
both
by Opposition,because
be
true, and
'
must
be
false. But
'All
is A' not
of the
can originalsyllogism
be
No
is
not
be true
and
must
of the
precedingcases, to the major premiss 'No C is A' being its contradictory 'Some false. This proposition G being false, must be true. is A,' the conclusion of the original syllogism,
the
"
1.
7.
Exercises.
is Reduction? Is it
necessary? Define Direct and In them from each other. direct Reduction, and distinguish
"What
CHAP.
IV.]
Reduce
VALID
MOODS.
191
moods:
2.
by
the
Direct
method
the
following
and
"
Cesare,
Disamis,
3.
Datisi, Ferison,
Reduce the
Bramantip,
moods
Camenes,
Fesapo.
method:" and method CamesDisamis. the
two
following
by
the
Indirect
Festino,
Direct and
Camenes,
Dimaris,
Indirect
both
and
by the
Bokardo.
by
the
by
are
the
Aristotelian
in the
that
the
moods
AAA,
EAA,
All, and
6.
invalid
same
figure.
conclusion,
if any,
"
Find
by the
method lead in
to
which
the
following
OA, AO,
7.
are
combinations and EL
imperfect figures:
AA,
AE,
EA,
Show
in
by
the
the
same
method
that
the
moods
AAA,
EAE,
AEE
invalid
8.
third
figure.
same
Determine
by
the
method
the
valid
moods
in
the
second
figure.
9. them Give both concrete
examples
and and
of
the the
following moods,
Indirect method:
"
and
reduce
by
the
Direct
by
Bramantip,
Disamis,
10. draw the
Baroko,
Reduce
Fesapo,
the
Bokardo.
following
if any, all Y
Z
pairs
which
of
premisses
from Y Y
to
the
first
figure and
conclusion,
X X is Y, is the
follows
each
pair:
"
(i)No
No (ii) 11. also Test the
is Z. is Y. inferences scholastic
; ;
(iii)All
is X, is
all Y
is Z. is Z. and
Y, all
(iv) No
by
the
X, all Y
of
following
and C
method
Diagrams
by
Aristotelian A A is B is B
; no
is not-B is not-B
all C
no
is not-A. C is A.
some
; all C
not-B but
a
is A
therefore air
is not-A. therefore
(iv) None
bodies
gravitate ;
gravitates :
air is
body.
flowers
;
(v) Plants
fore
alone
zoophytes have
no
flowers
there
they
not
plants.
CHAPTER
V.
THE
VARIOUS
KINDS
of
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
"
1.
A which
of
Syllogism consists
follows
a
two
premisses and
is evident that
the
the
con
clusion
from
them.
It
two
syllogism may differ in Quality,Quantity, Re or lation, Modality. The various kinds or divisions of syllogisms
premisses
are
founded
their
upon
the
modifications have
seen
of these in upon
a
general
difference
characters that
of the
premisses. We
into Moods the
previous chapter
the The upon into upon in of
division
is founded
two
Quan syllo
Quality of
Pure the
premisses.
is founded The division is founded The view
division
the
into of
and
Mixed
difference in
premisses.
(1) Necessary,
the difference
or
(3) Probable
premisses.
a
Modality
be shown
of the
various
:
"
kinds
divisions
thus in
tabular
SYLLOGISMS.
"
The the
two
classes of Pure
and
difference in Relation
of the
Mixed
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
'in
some
by
one
such
case
phrases as
at
'in
cases'
and
or
'in
the least,3
former
denoting universal
the latter
particular quantity; (3) that the quality of a hypothetical propositionis the qualityof its consequent ; (4)that the rules
for the distribution of terms
are
the
same
as
in
categorical propo
must
be
distributed in
the of the form A or E, and propositions "We shall give the E or 0. thetical propositions of the form and Syllogisms, examples of Pure Hypothetical followingtypical time into the correspondingCatechange them at the same
: goricals
"
FIRST
7.
"
FIGURE.
is is
...
Barbara
A. A. A.
.-.
"
In
if B if A if A
...
(major premiss),
(minor premiss);
In
In
is
...
(conclusion).
case case case
Changed
into the
case case case :"
: correspondingcategorical
Every Every
.".
is
a a a
of the existence of C,
of the existence
of A is of A is
of B of C.
Every
In In
.'.
of the existence
ll."Cdarent
E. A. E.
if B if A if A
In
is not
...
(major premiss),
(minor premiss);
is is not
...
...
(conclusion).
of
Changed
No
into the
correspondingcategorical:
is
a
case
of the existence
case
case
of the existence
case
C,
of B
;
Every
.-.
of the existence
of A
is
a
of the existence
No
case
of the existence
of A is
case
of the existence
of C.
III."Darii:" A.
I. In In
.*.
all cases,
some
some
if B if
cases, cases,
...
(major premiss),
(minor premiss);
is
...
I.
In
if A
is
...
(conclusion).
of the existence of the existence of
Changed
Some
.*.
into the
case cases cases
: correspondingcategorical
Every
Some
is
are
C,
of B ;
of A
are
of the existence of C.
CHAP.
V.]
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS. FIGURE.
195
SECOND IV.
"
Cesarc:
In In
/.
"
E. A. E.
all cases, if C
...
...
...
(conclusion).
of the existence of B,
Changed
No
case
of the existence of C is
case
Every
.".
of the existence of A is
a
case
of the existence of E
No
case
of the existence of A is
case
of the existence of C.
I". Camestres
"
"
A. E. E.
In In
.-. In
all cases,
if A
all cases, if
all cases, if
is is not is not
...
...
...
THIRD VI.
"
FIGURE.
Darapti :
In In
.*.
"
A.
A.
if B if B
I.
In
cases, if may
...
...
is
...
Similar
examples
of the
be
" 3.
We
II." Of Mixed
have
seen
Syllogisms.
there
are
that
at
least three
subdivisions,
"
namely, (1)Hypothetical-categorical, (2)Disjunctive-categorica We shall take these in order (3)Conjunctive-disjunctive. Hypothetical-categorical Syllogisms. A syllogism of this subdivision consists of a hypothetical minor major and a categorical premiss, the conclusion being The rules of inference are as follows : categorical. affirm the con (1) If you affirm the antecedent, you may that is, sequent of a hypothetical premiss,but not conversely, it is not allowed to affirm the antecedent on affirming the conse1.
"
Of
13"2
196
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
called
a
quent.
This
has
been
Constructive
may
deny
the
ante
hypotheticalpremiss, but
to
not
on
allowed This
deny
is for
the
consequent
has
denying
called
a
the
ante
rule
what
been
Destructive
Syllogism. Hypothetical
Both these rules follow
a
from
the
nature
of the
relation
of
dependence, expressedby
its antecedent follows other from and the fact that
as
consequent.
the
as
consequent may
upon that of the
depend
upon that
antecedents
well
or
antecedent,and
therefore
affirmation
necessarily imply
but of
in
some one
of that
one
of
them,
may
be the antecedent
question. The second part of the second rule follows from for the consequent depending,as it may, on other the same fact, antecedents antecedent as well,may exist while the particular
is absent ; and follow from the
"
therefore denial
a
the
denial
of the
of the be
true
"
antecedent. with
not
proposition
"
If
person be
attacked
it does
assuming
attacked
this to with
that,if
may does
he
be
not
cholera,he
have
will not
die of
it follow
with
diseases. that
if he
is
present, the
the
present,and
if the
consequent does
We shall
antecedent
not
have
occurred.
give some
examples of Hypotheticaltypical
time into and change them at the same syllogisms, categorical in order to show the corresponding that, when thus categoricals, changed,they conform to the fundamental rules and axioms of : categorical syllogisms I. Constructive Hypothetical-categorical Syllogisms.
"
CHAP.
V.]
1.
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
197
In A
.-.
all cases,
if A
is,B is,
is;
is.
an
This ponens,
"
mode
of
drawing
mode
ponendo
by affirming the antecedent affirms the consequent according to the first rule given above ; and the syllogism has been called a constructive hypothetical syllogism. be thus changed into a categorical It may :
i.e. the which
"
A. A. A.
/.
Every
This This
case
a a
of the existence
case case
of A
is
case
of the existence
of B,
is
is
of the existence
of A ; of B.
of the existence
The A
syllogismis in
the mood
Barbara.
syllogismmay be also changed Hypothetical-categorical into a pure hypothetical syllogism ; for the meaning of the minor that if this case A is.' By substituting 'A is is, is, proposition minor premiss for the categorical, this hypothetical we get a pure syllogismin the mood Barbara, thus : hypothetical
' '
"
In
all cases,
case case
if A
is,B is
...
(majorpremiss),
(minor premiss) ;
If this
.".
is,A is is,B is
when
...
If this
(conclusion).
conclusion
changed
into
the
form categorical
is
converse
"
of the
not
lead to
valid
syl
logism
In all cases, if A B is, is,
Bis;
.*.
A is.
be shown can invalidity when it will by changing it into the correspondingcategorical, that the latter violates some be seen of the syllogistic rules, valid ; and its thus
:
"
Every
This
case a
of the existence
case
of A is
case
of the existence of
B,
is
of the existence of B.
198
From
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[?ART III.
because follows,
'
these two
term
'
no premisses
conclusion of B
the
middle
either
case
of the
existence
is not
distributed in
premiss.
2.
In all cases, if A A
.*.
B is,
is
not,
is;
an
B is not.
This
tollens.
mode Both
of the
drawing
above
ponendo
modes
(1 " 2) are
are
and
modes
called modus
be thus
No This This
case
changed into
case
a
: categorical
of the existence
a
of A
is
case
of the existence
of B,
is
of the existence
case
of A ; of B.
is not
of the existence
This
is
in syllogism
It may thus
:
also be
changed
hypothetical syllogism,
(majorpremiss),
; (minor premiss)
E. A. E.
.\
In all cases, if A
If this If this
case case
is,B is
not
... ... ... ...
...
...
...
...
(conclusion).
corresponding hypothetical-categorical syllogisms Similarly, formed be easily to Darii and Ferio may by making the minor premissparticular.
II.
Destructive
3.
Syllogisms. Hypothetical-categorical
B is, is, B is not ;
In all cases, if A
.'.
is not. follows
to the second rule given according of drawing an inference is called modus above, and this mode mode which by denying the consequent tollendo tollens, %. e. the It may be thus changed into Camestres denies the antecedent.
Here
the conclusion
"
in the 2nd
: figure
Every
case
of the existence of A is
... ...
case
of the
...
existence of B
...
(major premiss),
CHAP.
V.]
is not is not
a a case case
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
199
This
.-.
of B
...
This
In
of A
...
all cases, if A
case case
is,B is
not is not
If this
.-.
B is is,
If this
is,A
(conclusion).
second
can
The
converse
of
no :
"
the
rule
does
not
lead
to
valid bs
inference
be drawn
conversely may
is,B is,
This
inference
not
be
the
drawn,
as
will be
when evident,
the
: categorical corresponding
Every
This
.".
case
of the existence
a a case case
of A is
case
of the existence
of
B,
is not is not
of A ; of B.
This
Here buted in
the
of the it is
existence
not
distributed
premiss.
4.
In all cases, if A
B is,
is
not,
Bis;
/.
is not. is drawn is
also the
this mode
conclusion
of inference
second
tollens.
foregoingmodes
(3 " 4) are
are
tollens ; and
in syllogisms
those modes
called Destructive
Hypothetical-
Cesare
a
"
of the existence
a case a
of A is
case
of the existence
of
B,
is
of the existence
case
of B; of A.
This
is not if A
of the existence
is,B is not
not
If this
is,B is is,A is
200
To the
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PAKT III.
be added the
may
following
modifications of them
5.
is
not, B is,
/.
B is.
It is
constructive
the 1st
to corresponds 6.
not, B is not,
/.
B is riot.
a
This and
is also
constructive
syllogism, hypothetical-categorical
is
to corresponds
the 2nd
7.
In all cases, if A
B is
not;
.'.
is.
This
is
to corresponds 8.
In all cases, if A
not,B
is
not,
Bis;
.*. A
is.
a
is also
destructive
the 4th
to corresponds
consequent,the
antecedent
Syllogisms. Disjunctive-categorical The next subdivision under Mixed Syllogismsis that of Dis Syllogisms. In the wider sense a syllogism junctive-categorical and a categorical of this subdivision consists of a disjunctive
" 4.
2.
Of
premiss,and
may
occur
in all
figures.
In the First M
Figure,Barbara:
or
is either A
B
...
C is M
.",
C is either A
or
B
...
In the Second A
Figure,Camestres:
or
is either M
...
(majorpremiss),
202
tive
as
KINDS
OF
[PART III.
two hypo following C,3and (2) If A is C,
"
equivalent to
as
one
'
or
thetical
A
well
:"
(1)
If A
is
B, A is not
acceptsall the forms. A be easily changed into a Disjunctive-categorical may Hypothetical-categorical syllogism;and we have seen that the latter may be changed into a pure hypotheticalor into a pure be obtained in the categorical.Thus the first may ultimately and rules applicable categorical form, and tested by the canons to that form, thus :
"
is not
B,'and
thus
A A A
is either B is not is C
...
or
C
...
B
...
...
By change of Relation we obtain from the disjunctive major the followinghypothetical," If A is not B, A is C.J This with the other two propositions will give a hypotheticalwhich can be easily categorical syllogism changed into a pure one
"
in the mood
Barbara
C,
\
"-
Hypothetical.
If this
case
)
'
Every
This
.-.
case a a
is is
This
case
of A
being C,
"-
Categorical.
the other disjunctive-categorical forms also may Similarly forms. changed into the correspondingcategorical ultimately
be
"
The
5.
3.
Of
Conjunctive-disjunctive Syllogisms, ox
last subdivision
of
the
Dilemma.
next
and
mixed
syllogismsis
the
which consists of a con Conjunctive-disjunctive syllogism, premiss. A conjunctive proposition junctiveand a disjunctive has two forms (1) Eemotive, and (2)Copulative ; and in each it may of these forms be categorical Thus or hypothetical. there are the following forms of it :
" "
1.
Neither A
nor
B is C
Eemotive
categorical.
CHAP.
V.]
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
203
2.
If A is,neither
nor nor
C is if Bis, is C)
(orNeither
3. 4. A
as
if A is
as as
[ ^motive
)
hypothetical.
well
B is,
is C
as as
categorical. Copulative
C is if B
If A
well
hypothetical,
is,C is) )
(orIf
The
is,as well
is called the Dilemma Conjunctive-disjunctive syllogism the conjunctive in the wider sense, in which premissmay be cate i.e. any one remotive of or or copulative, gorical hypothetical, the four forms given above, and the disjunctive premiss may be It may in the otherwise. occur of any kind, hypothetical or first as The in the well
as
in the second
figure.
the Dilemma the
premiss is a reconjunctive and the disjunctive motive premiss a hypothetical. proposition, be called a Hypotheticalin the stricter sense The Dilemma may disjunctive Syllogism,as it has, indeed, been called by some It occurs only in the second figure. logicians.
sense, in which
There
nature
is and
to
great difference
forms of the the
logiciansas
The from In view
to
the
true
given
above I
be
best, and
and
give
forms.
Here
will be
the views
logicians.
or
In these inferences
conclusion
of the
different
case or
possible
forced to
he
same
may
the
himself mixed
in every inferences
syllogisms
of the 2nd figure, of a Con consisting especially or junctive(copulative remotive)and a Disjunctive premiss. "The in Dilemma, in the stricter and special sense, is an with a hypothetico-disjunctive ference of the second figure, premiss
1st
of the
(which
with
a
is sometimes
major
and
sometimes
minor
and premiss),
remotive
premiss."
1
455
"
57.
204
"
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
a
categorico disjunctive premiss, and inferences in the first figurewith a and a copulativeor remotive premiss, are also at disjunctive tributed like holds good of the Trilemma, Tetrato it. The
In the wider
sense
of the
DILEMMA Second
IN
THE
stricter
sense.
Figure.
(1)
".
If A
is,either B
B
nor
or
C is
Neither
.
C is
is not.
(2)
.
If A If D
is,neither B is,either B
nor or
C is
...
C is
(hypothetical-remotive), (hypothetical-disjunctive)
*.
If D If A If D If D
is,A
is not.
or
(3)
is,either B
C is
nor
C is
...
(hypothetical-disjunctive) (hypothetical-remotive) ;
The
The
1st may
analysed:
is,either B is,B is, is,Cis;
is to" equivalent
or
major premiss,If
or
to is,is equivalent
"
(1) If
(2)If
(1) B
and
the remotive
minor
is not, is not.
and
(2)C
Take
the
:
first alternative
of the
major premissand
the first
of the minor
If A B
.".
is,Bis,
Modus tollendo tollens.
is not ;
A is not.
Take
the
second
:
alternative
of the
the
second
of the minor
If A C is
.-.
is,C is,
not;
Modus
A is not.
tollendo tollens.
Thus be
whichever is,
same
of the two
alternatives the
(A
is
as required by not),
definition.
CHAP.
V.]
second may
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
205
The
be thus
: analysed
The
nor
and
is not, is not.
"
The
minor
"
(2)If
is,C is.
and
Take E. A. E.
(1)of
If D
.".
the
major
If A is,Bis
not
is,Bis is,A is
not
If D
(conclusion).
the mood
This
is
pure
in hypothetical syllogism
"
Cesare.
Take
If A If D
.".
(major premiss),
(minor premiss) ;
If D
(conclusion).
same
This
as
is also in the
mood.
The
conclusion
is the
same
requiredby
The
the definition.
third may
The
be thus
analysed:
is,B is,
(2) If
to
"
is,C
is ;
and
the minor
and
(1) If (2) If
both
D D
is,B is not,
is,C is not.
Taking (1)of
A. E. E.
.-.
the
premisses
"
If A If D
If D
(conclusion).
Taking (2)of
If A If D
.".
both
is,C is,C
is is not
(major premiss),
(minor premiss);
If D
A is not is,
(conclusion).
206
This
in either
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART in.
conclusion is the
of the
same
is also in the
case,
same
mood.
The member
that
is,whichever
is disjunction
the accepted,
same
FOKMS
OF
THE
DlLEMMA Second
IN
THE
Wider
SCllSB.
Figure.
A is either B D
.*.
or
C
nor
(Categorical-disjunctive),
C
is neither is not A.
A is neither D
/.
nor or
C
... ...
is either B is not A.
B
3.
If A
neither is,
B
or
nor
C is
...
Either
.".
C is
..
...
(Hypothetical-remotive), (Categorical-disjunctive);
A is not. First
Figure.
1.
A D
.-.
as
well
as
B
or
is-C B
(Copulative),
is either A
(Disjunctive) ;
is,C is
is
is C.
If A If D
.-.
is,as well
as
if B
or
(Hypothetical-copulative)
,
is,either
A
nor
; (Hypothetical-disjunctive
If D
is,C is.
B
0.
Neither D
.-.
is C
or
is either A is not C.
(Eemotive), (Categorical-disjunctive) ;
is is, is C
Neither If D
.-.
if A is nor
or
if B
B
is,either A is,C is
if A is nor
or
If D
not.
Neither Now
.".
is C if B is, B is
either A
C is not.
The
The
first form
be thus
; analysed
"
(2) B is
C ;
CHAP.
V.]
and
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
207
the minor
to either
"
(1) D is A,
or
From
(1)of both
the
(2)D is B. premisses
"
AisC,
D
.
is A; is C.
".
From
of (2)
both"
BisC, DisB;
.
".
is C.
case
The The
conclusion second
the
is in either
the same,
'
is C.'
form
be thus
analysed:"
From
major
and
get"
and
from
the minor
get
"
(1) If
or
D D
is,A is,
(2)If
the If A
If D
.-.
is,B is.
From
(1)of
both
premisses"
is, C is, is,A is is, C
;
If D
is.
This
is in the mood
Barbara. pure
from Similarly (2) of both, we get a mood and with the same gism in the same
hypothetical syllo
conclusion.
" 6.
Exercises.
Test the
followingarguments
sun sun
"
or
shines, it will be
will shine ;
brilliant
day
; if it is not
foggy
if it is not therefore,
foggy or cloudy,
it will be
brilliant the
day.
(2)
barometer
If
the barometer will fall; if the temperature rises, the weather will not be fine ; therefore, falls, if the tem will not be fine.
(3)
minishes if a gas
di subjectedto a higher pressure, its volume its densityincreases ; therefore, diminishes, ; if its volume is subjected to a higherpressure, its density increases.
a
If
gas
is
208
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART III.
be
no
(4)
and
alternation
of
day
night; (5)
day and
night ; therefore
the earth
no
animals
live without
lightand heat, no plantscould grow ; without plants could live ; man, being an animal, could not, therefore, lightand heat.
is either it is not
an
(6)
stance
An
organizedbeing
; therefore
a no
animal
or
plant: this
sub
is neither
an
organized being.
not
re
(7) If
it has sist,
no
substance inertia ;
has
if a therefore,
it has resist,
gravity. (8)
If
a
substance
it gravitates,
has
inertia
if
a
substance
has
the power
of
; therefore
if
substance
gravi
(9)
If
a a
solid is gas
:
heated,it becomes
if
a
it becomes
therefore
solid is
heated, it becomes
:
gas. if A
(10)
not
If A
is not, B
therefore
is
C is not.
(11)
of
An
igneousrock
therefore
is either volcanic
or
igneous rock:
plutonic;trap is or plutonic.
kind
(12) A material
not
body
organic:
therefore is
it is
(13)
ture
If water
; neither
changes is happen
ing
in this flask
are
therefore
it is not
or
heated.
(14)
(15)
either
a
All
existences
nor
either
mental
material; nothing is
neither mental
A gas If
(16)
is
nothing is not an existence. liquid as well as a gas is expanded by heat; a fluid is therefore a fluid is expanded by heat. or a liquid: the motion of a body is impeded,heat is produced; if heat
material: will either rise in
therefore
temperature
or
increase
of
a
in
body
in
impeded,
or
the
body
a
temperature, or
sensation But
or
increase
bulk,
notion
(17)
Therefore Hold's
notion
from
the reflection, be
or so
of extension
is also
derived.
it cannot
derived.
"
every notion
is not
derived from
sensation
reflection.
Inquiry.
210
a
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PARTIII.
'
institution which has been much and declared praised particular an simply say that every as perfect, opponent might, in reply, is imperfect,3 is liable to change that or everything thing human and decay' : here nothing but the major premiss is expressed, and it is of course implied that the institution in questionis and that it is, not perfect human therefore, (minor premiss), (conclusion).
' ' ' ' '
"
1.
8. To
Exercises.
Note premissof an Enthymeme. (1) supply the suppressed in the conclusion which are the minor the subjectand the predicate then see of the syllogism, and and the major term, respectively, is the major or the minor premiss. the premiss to be supplied whether with the major form such a proposition If it be the major premiss, (2)
and the middle
term
as
the conclusion
valid.
(3)If it be
and
"
premiss,form
as
the minor
the
term
are
will make
the conclusion
elements, because
"All Examples: (1) not be decomposed." In this 'all conclusion are respectively
are,
and
The givenpremiss contains the minor major term, respectively. the minor term 'metals,' and is,therefore, premiss. The premiss 'all is,therefore,the major premiss, and is the proposition suppressed elements.' not be decomposed are that can substances (2) "Small Here because phenomenon has a cause." every pox has a cause, is the minor term, 'has a cause' the major term, and 'small-pox' The premiss expressedcontaining 'phenomenon' the middle term. is the 'has the major term a cause,' major premiss. The premiss sup the minor and is the proposition small therefore, premiss, is, pressed
'
pox
is
2.
phenomenon.'
To
for
In finding premisses find premisses for a given conclusion. in the con and the predicate given conclusion,note the subject
must
clusion, which
of major term, respectively, find such a be negative, the requiredsyllogism. If the conclusion E proposition, and will form with the predicate middle term an as A or I proposition. If the conclusion be affirma with the subject an A an tive,find such a middle term as will form with the predicate A or I proposition. The three and with the subject an proposition, and
be the minor
the
CHAP.
V.]
are
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
211
in the first
terms
to
have
the
same
relative
positionas
figure.
Examples: (1) Find premissesfor the conclusion 'no prophet is will do as a middle 'man' here the term term; and the infallible'; is infallible' and 'all prophets are required premissesare 'no man
men.'
(2)Find
'
premissesfor
term
'
the
conclusion
'some
elements
are
conducting heat will do as a middle term ; and the premissesrequired and electricity 'all undecomposable substances are conducting heat and electricity and 'some elements are undecomposable substances con are metals,' ductingheat and electricity.'
3. To
undecomposable substances
draw
the
followsfrom
two
given
any
propositionsas premisses: See if the two premisses are in in any of the four figures. If so, draw particularvalid mood
conclusion If not,
processes
the
which
follows them
from
to
a
them
in accordance
with
that mood.
try to reduce
of immediate
valid mood If
by
verbal be
changes and by
transformed If
inference.
they can
thus
into
valid be
mood, draw
should
the inference
cannot
so
transformed,no
conclusion
It propositions.
be remembered
given,it is not known which term is major and which minor, that the the major premiss,and the pre premiss stated firstis not necessarily
miss stated second taken the minor order. that premiss, the two
premisses may
be
givenand
in any
Examples. (1)
All B is No Here the two
A,
C is not-B. in any
valid mood, and particular to involve the fallacy of four terms. But, by permuting the seem second premiss, obtain the following in Barbara: All B we syllogism
premissesare
not
"
is A ; all C is B ;
.-.
all C is A.
(2)
No
C is
not-B,
No B is not-A.
Here the two
premissesare
:"
and negative,
do not
we .-.
seem
conclusion
whatever.
A;
all C is
A, the first
the second
major premiss.
14"2
212
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART
III.
(3)
No No
A is not-B
B,
is C. of
"
Converting
second,
is
we
the
first the
.-. no
obtain
the
B
'No
A; allCisB;
(4)
No Gold
metal
is
a a
compound substance,
non-metal.'
is not
By permuting the first and the second premiss,we get the following syllogismin Barbara: "Every metal is an elementary (not-com pound) substance; gold is a metal; therefore gold is an elementary
"
substance."
the
following:
heat
not
"
(1) Iron is
metal noble
and
electricity.
Gold
is
it does
rust.
weight.
liquidor solid.
with the external
are
gas because
it is not
it agrees because
Material
they
the
thing. objectsof my
antecedent.
A A B
is the
must must
of B
a cause
it is its invariable it is
a
have be be
not
a a
mineral
it has
C must D
E
can
plant because
a
it has
root
no
be
it has
it
is the effect of D
can
not
be
an
nor
oxygen.
tions
can
of the
proposi following
(1) Some elements are not metals. (2) Gold is a metal. (3) Gravity is a force. (4) No metals are compounds. (5) Only material bodies gravitate. (6) Water is a compound body.
CHAP.
V.]
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
213
of matter.
an
element.
plants are
flowers animals the
organized.
not
no
is organized. crystal
are
have
each of the
(1)"(a)
(2)" (a) (3)" (a) (4)" (a)
Nonot-AisB. No
All B
(6) (6)
No No No No
not-B
is C.
1
)
is not-A. C is not-B.
No
No
\
\
is A. C is not
B not-B.
(6)
No
Some Some No
Some
G is not
not-B.
is C. is B. is C.
j (6)
}
)
not-A not-B
B
(5)"(a)
No
(6)
No No
not-C not-B
is B. is A.
No
is A. conduct
1
heat ; all metals
(6)
All metals
conduct
electricity.
is not feeling
a
fly.
; every
sensation.
reach the eye, a sensation is produced ; if a light sensation is produced,it is accompanied by a perception. (10) Every sensation is accompanied by a perception;a sensation external is sometimes produced internally without any
(9)
If the rays
of
object.
(11) Every
chemical
a
union
is
heat ;
chemical of
union
of the
evolution
light.
are
are
(12)
If two two
substances substances
rubbed struck
duced.
(13)
If this gas
in a dioxide,it will produce turbidity solution of lime-water; it does produce turbidity in that of lime-water.
is carbonic
solution
214
KINDS
OF
SYLLOGISMS.
[PART
III.
(14)
This
substance
non-metal.
is
an
element
an
element
is
either
metal
or
(15)
material
is
not
body
gaseous. animals
is
either
solid,
liquid,
or
gaseous;
this
body
(16)
None
but
are
sentient
beings;
all
plants
are
in
sentient
beings.
bodies
(17) (18)
Only
None
material
but elements
gravitate
are
light
does
not
gravitate.
are
non-
metals,
oxygen
and
chlorine
metals.
CHAPTER
VI.
OF
A
more
TRAINS
OF
SYLLOGISTIC
REASONING.
is combination another the
as
"
two
1.
or
Train
of
Reasoning Syllogistic
with each either
of
to
syllogisms so connected When establish a single conclusion. syllogismsis fully expressed,it has
forms
:
one
of
component
two
of these
typical
and last,
(1)
That
in which in
one
the
singleconclusion
is stated
the conclusion
a or
(2) That in syllogism forms premiss in one both premisses form conclusions
syllogismforms a premiss in the next. is stated first, and the single conclusion which
the in two conclusion in the
next,
distinct
Second
syllogisms.
Form.
(1)
In
"
the is E
example
"
first form
the
All A
a
stated in the
the conclusion
is
premiss
second, and
the conclusion
premiss in
the third.
216
In the
same
TRAINS
OF
REASONING.
[PART III.
the
conclusion is example of the second form, the single and the two premisses (AllA is E), but it is stated first, 1st syllogism form the conclusions in the 2nd and 3rd, proved by them. first syllogism in the first form
to
is called
Prosyllogism
in relation
2nd, and the 2nd in relation to the 1st is called an Episyllogism is a syllogism in a Prosyllogism ; that is, whose conclusion forms a premiss in another, a train of reasoning,
and
an
the
is Episyllogism the
syllogism which
of
has
for
two
one
of its
are re
premisses
conclusion
the and
same an
another. be
These
a
terms
syllogism may
in episyllogism
in prosyllogism
to another.
relation
For
to
example,the
3rd and
2nd
stands syllogism
in the twofold
relation
the
respectively. In the example of the second form, the 1st syllogismis an in relation to the 2nd and 3rd, and both these are episyllogism prosy Hog isms in relation to the 1st.
or Synthetic, EpisylloProgressive, because the advance in the reasoning is from a prosyllo gistic, from certain premissesto the conclusion gism to an episyllogism,
the 1st
The
first form
is called
which
follows from
them.
The
second
form
is called
Analytic,
because the advance in the reasoning or Prosyllogistic, Eegressive, to conclusion from is from an episyllogism to a prosyllogism, a the premisseswhich prove it. rise train of syllogistic reasoninggives " 2. The synthetical
to the
Method, Synthetical
and
the
train analytical
of
syllogistic
reasoningto the AnalyticalMethod in Deductive Logic. as Method start with certain principles In the Synthetical we premisses; and by comparing and combining them in various from follow necessarily which deduce the conclusions ways, we AnalyticalMethod, on the contrary,we start with from and proceed regressively to the principles the conclusions, that method which they follow deductively. It is by the former Euclid proves his propositions ; he starts with the axioms,postu
them. In the and definitions as premisses,and lates, which follow from them. propositions proves the progressively
218
TRAINS
OF
REASONING. of
[PART III.
"
: syllogistic reasoning
(1)
.-.
AllDisE
...
All C is D
...
All C is E
...
(conclusion),
(major premiss), (minor premiss),
(2)
.-.
AllCisE
...
All B
is C
... ...
AllBisE All B is E
...
(conclusion),
(majorpremiss), (minor premiss),
(3)
.-.
All A is B
...
All A is E
.,.
(conclusion),
and also
and therefore suppressingall the conclusions except the last, all the major premisses except the first, have the follow we of the
ing example
Goclenian
Sorites :
"
D, C, B,
is
All A is E.
Both trains of
the Goclenian
and
the Aristotelian
Sorites
are
abridged
and both are synthetic, reasoning, syllogistic progres advance in the the or reasoningbeing from a episyllogistic, sive, to an episyllogism. prosyllogism is a prosyllogistic, or An regressive analytical, EpicJieirema train of
reasoning with
a
some
of
reason
its
premisses suppressed.
or reasons
It
consists of of
"
for
one
or
both
For
example, the
all C
a reason
train of
:
reasoning
all
one
All A is B
"
C is B
is
is D is
"
therefore for
given
and premiss,
which
be thus
is B
: fully expressed
(1)
.".
All A
...
All C is A
...
AllCisB
...
For
the minor
premiss the
reason
givenis that
All C is D.'
CHAP.
VI.]
with that
TEAINS
OF
SEASONING.
219
This whose
an
enthymeme,
(2)
.-.
All D
is A
...
All C is D All C is A.
...
followingexample reasons premisses: All A is B, because all A all F is A; therefore all C is B."
"
In
the
are
given
for both
the
is G ; all C is When
"
A,
because
fully expressedit
consists of the
(1)
.*.
is B
...
...
(major premiss),
All C is A
All C is B
...
(minorpremiss), (conclusion).
an
enthymeme,
whose
major
(2)
.".
All G
is B
...
All A
is G
... ...
All A is B
(conclusion).
an
The minor
enthymeme,
whose
(3)
.".
All F is A
...
All C is F
...
All C is A
...
(conclusion).
The
Epicheirema is
the
thus
an
abridged train
of
syllogistic
an
in which reasoning,
we
have
given at the beginning of this chapter may give rise to any of the following different premisses : Epicheiremasby suppressing
"
(1)
All A
is D,
all A
AllDisE,
.-.
B, allCisE,
is
All A is E.
220
TKAIXS
OF
REASONING.
[PART III.
B,
(2)
All A is
D,
v v
all A is
AllDisE,
.-.
all DisC,
All A is E.
v v
(3)
All A is D,
all B is D,
AllDisE,
.-.
allCisE,
All A is E.
(4)
All A is
D,
v
v
allBisD,
all
AllDisE,
.
DisC,
".
All A is E.
In minor
and syllogism
the
suppressed. In (2)the major premissof the second and the majorpremiss of the third syllogism are suppressed. and the In (3) the minor premiss of the second syllogism minor of the third are suppressed. and the In (4) the minor premiss of the second syllogism major of the third are suppressed. different varieties of trains of syllogistic The reasoning are
shown in the
tabular following
OF
view
"
TEAINS
SYLLOGISTIC
REASONING.
CHAP.
VI.]
4.
TRAINS
OF
REASONING.
examples of Symbolical
FIRST
Aristotelian.
Sorites with
: analyses
"
(1)
(1)
222
In in the the
1st
TRAINS
OF
REASONING.
[PARTin.
be
: particular
one figure
premiss onlycan
last in the former
the 1st
Aristotelian
and the
; and
only one
is the
premiss negative:
latter.
same,
reverse
same
the
first in the
be
of
observed the
that,when
one
premissesin
; that
of that in
in the
other
is,the
the
Goclenian This
those
of the
Aristotelian
to
bottom
that
upwards.
the latter
the
mistaken is
former
also
noted.
In
the
Aristotelian
the
predicatein
premiss
the
becomes
the
one
in subject
subjectin the next, while in the Goclenian in the next. premiss becomes the predicate
SECOND Aristotelian.
Y. All A is All B is
FIGURE. Goclenian. Y. No
E
B, C, D, D,
is
D, D, C, B,
All C is No No
E
is
A is E.
A is E.
Analysisof V. (1)
All A is B AllBisC All A is C All A is C All C is D All A is D
AnalysisofV.
(1)
No E is D
..
(major),
All C is D
..
(conclusion),
(2)
NoCisE
,
..
(minor), (conclusion),
(major),
No
C is E
... ..
AllBisC No No B is E
,
..
(3)
All AisD No No
E A
B is E
..
is D is E
All A is B
, ..
No
A is E
...
(conclusion).
examplesonlyone
are
is in syllogism
the
in
the first
figure. In
the second
CHAP.
VI.]
in the
TRAINS
OF
REASONING.
223
mood Cesare of the
and
Goclenian
the
in the
be noted
premiss, while the major premiss,in the next in the Goclenian it becomes throughout the whole train of reasoning. We Episyllogism, shall conclude with an Aristotelian Sorites in the 3rd figure :
becomes Prosyllogism
"
VI.
All A is
B, D, E,
is E.
VI.
Analysisof
(1)All
.-.
A is is
B, C, C, C,
All B
All A is
A
(2)All
.-.
is
All C is D, All A is D, A is D,
(3)All
.'.
All A is E, Some D is E.
Here
the 3rd
is in Darapti in Syllogism
the 3rd
and figure,
" 5.
1.
Questionsand exercises.
test the
a
"
(1)
is
an
Bucephalus is
animal
is
substance:
therefore
Bucephalus is
substance."
he is intent on gain ; if intent on (2) "If Harpagon be avaricious, if discontented, he is unhappy; now Har gain, he is discontented; avaricious: he is is, therefore, unhappy." pagon (3) "Whatever promotes happiness is good; whatever perfects the soul promotes happiness the soul is : therefore whatever perfects either to discigood; misfortune which happens to the good,serves
1
See
Appendix G.
224
TRAINS
OF
REASONING.
[PART
which befalls the
III.
pline
is
or
to
improve
the
soul:
hence
misfortune
good
good."
(4)
tient
"
Sentient
men are
beings
finite
seek
happiness
;
all
a man
finite
:
beings
are
sen
; all
beings
Caius
is
therefore
he
seeks
happiness."
(5)
that
a
"
That has
which
thinks is
is active
a
; that
which soul
is active thinks
:
has
strength ;
it is
which
strength
substance
; the
therefore
substance."
(6)
to
is
equal
A
to
B;
B to B
is
equal to C;
is
equal toD;
is
equal
therefore A
is
equal
than
E
:
E.
; B
(7)
D
; D
is greater than
cause
is A
greater than
is greater
cause cause
C ; C E.
is
greater than
is greater
A
therefore
B
; B
than
(8)
D is the
is the
of
of
:
is the A is the
of C ; G of E. lies above
is the
cause
of D
cause
therefore B ; B
(9)
lies above
lies
above
lies above
C ; C
therefore
D. A A A
A If
(10)
therefore
co-exists co-exists is is
a a a
with with of
of
; B
co-exists
with
C ; C
co-exists
with
D.
B
; B
(11)
therefore
mark mark
is
is
mark
of
C ; C
is
mark
of
D. its
gas
heated,
temperature
;
temperature
the if
elastic
on
increases the
if its
increases,
:
the
containing
on
vessel of
increases the
therefore
gas
is
heated,
pressure
the
walls
containing
vessel
increases. 2. hunter's
3.
Analyse Euclid,
Prove
the
p.
demonstration
of
the
20th
Proposition
in
Tod-
23, into
the
syllogisms.
18th
both
synthetically
p.
analytically the
Proposition
of
Euclid, Book
4.
I, Todhunter,
into
Analyse
fully-expressed syllogisms
of the 32nd
both
the
construction
Book I.
and
the 5.
demonstration
Proposition
of Euclid,
Distinguish
as
between
the in
Analytical
Method
in Deductive
Logic
and
Analysis
employed
Geometry.
226
In
a
OF
[PART III.
any
wider
sense
Fallacyis
sense we
rule whatever.
Fallacies
or
In
this
have
Faults of
of Division
and
Definition ; and
in Inductive
Logic
Classification, Hypothesis,"c. The violation of the rules to which every logical division and definition ought to conform such as givesrise to the faults of division and definition, definition by accidental quali cross division, incompletedivision, ties,"c. To this class belong also the fallacies arisingfrom such as those of Ambiguous Middle, of ambiguity in language, of the are Division,Composition,"c. These transgressions rule that our thoughtsshould be expressedand reasonings logical conducted in clear and unambiguous language.
NON-INFEKENTIAL LOGICAL FALLACIES.
those
Those
!
Those arisingfrom the transgression of the rules of De finition and Di Those
from arising ambiguous langu
vision.
Division. Accident.
"c. "c.
,,
Faults
of Definition
"
Faults
of D
ivision
"
(1) PhysicalPartition
and
Me
taphysical Analysis.
(2) Cross Division. (3) Incomplete or Overcomplete too wide) or (too narrow
Division.
(2)
Too The
or
narrow
definition.
(3)
circle
(4) OverlappingDivision.
onyms.
CHAP.
VII.]
of any
OF
FALLACIES.
227
be taken to
mean
an
fallacy may
Observation, Perception, kind,whether of Intuition, it includes, "c. In this sense Inference, Division, Definition, besides those mentioned or above, the fallacies of Irrelevancy called Ignoratio Irrelevant Conclusion,technically Elenchi,of and also of False Premiss, Petitio Principii the question), (begging Mill calls Fallacies of Simple Inspection, of those which or
Erroneous
First and Principles
Axioms.
NON
-LOGICAL
OE
MATEKIAL
FALLACIES.
Irrelevant
ratio
or
conclusion
not
or
Igno
the
Elenchi
(the argument
to
conclusion
" 2.
II.
"
Fallacies in Deductive
Logic.
describe and
in explain
It is not
detail each
have been
should necessary that we of the fallacies mentioned made evident already In the following pages in
we
illustrate
15"2
228
OF
FALLACIES.
[PART III.
A.
"
LOGICAL
1.
FALLACIES.
Inferential.
Inference. is frequent fallacy
'
(1)
"
Fallacies of Immediate
the
most
simple con version of A : All A is B, .". All B is A,' If A is, B is, .-. If B A is.' The inference is, of course, fallacious, and violates the is, that no term should be distributed in the rule of conversion, viz.,
"
In
Conversion
the
converse
which
was
not
the
is.'
:
is
'
Some
A,'
'
In
some
cases
if B
same
is,A
reason
simpleconversion
A Some is not not-B
B,
.'.
conversion
of O
is A' is not
convertend the
in subject In
Obversion,^quepolence, or Permutation
"
the
are following
fallacious :
(1)All (2)All
.*.
A is
B;
.-.
are
is not-B.
;
metals
All not-metals is is
not-elements.
(3)Cold
.-.
agreeable; disagreeable.
;
Heat
(4) Virtue
.'.
will be rewarded
"Vice will be
punished.
fallacious
is A.
:
"
In
(1) No
(2) No
.*.
A is
man
B;
is
.-.
AU
not-B
perfect ;
men.
All
imperfect beingsare
A is B ; elements not-metals
.
".
are
Some
not-B
;
is A.
metals
Some
are
elements.
In
fallacious :
"
flowerless' flowerless
'
is
false;
is true.
CHAP.
VII.]
(2)
'
OF
FALLACIES.
229
'
are poets is false ; philosophers 'No philosophers are poets' is true. .". is true ; (3) Some plantscan move
All
'
.".
'Some
'
plants cannot
elements elements
men men are are are are
move'
is true.
'
(4)
.".
Some
metals
not
is true ; is true.
'Some
metals'
(5) 'Some
.'.
'
wise' is true;
not
Some
wise
'
is false.
" 3.
These
(2)
"
Fallacies of the
Inference. Syllogistic
of transgression of the
some
rules. syllogistic
one or
Everyone
of the
a breach ultimately
other
of
the fundamental
of Deductive principles Logic,and proximately of the specialrules for each or rules, generalsyllogistic
of the nine generalsyllogistic figure.Regarded as transgressions rules we have given in Part III. Chap. III. the fallacies are as follows
:
"
Four
the
trans
Fallacyof
rule.
Four
the
viola
Fallacy of
Undistributed
Middle, arisingfrom
the
the
Fallacy of
the 4th rule
:
trans term
is
of the and
Term, when this term is distributed in the conclusion in the premiss. (5) The Fallacy of Negative Premisses,arising from
Fallacies also arise from 9th and rules, the of transgression
one or
the
the
6th,7th,
fallacies
belong to
other
of the
mentioned
above.
most
important of
Middle
are
those shall
of Undistributed
and
"
we
230
1.
The The
.*.
OF
FALLACIES.
[PART III.
virtuous
are
The
happy, happy;
virtuous. the middle
term
Undistributed
dicate in the two
2.
Middle, because
affirmative
All material
being the
pre
extended,
bodies. Undistributed Middle.
Shadows
,*.
are are
extended;
material
Shadows
3.
Whatever Matter
exists,
think;
exist.
Illicit Process
.'.
Matter
in the affirmative major premiss, is being the predicate is distributed in the conclusion, but which being undistributed, in a negativeproposition. the predicate which
4. All material
All
.*.
bodies bodies
have
are
material
weight, extended;
weight. of the Minor
distributed
All extended
things have
Illicit Process
Term,
in the
which minor
is distributed in the
but conclusion,
not
premiss.
5.
All All
men men
are are
mortal,
rational ; mortal.
.*.
All rational
beings
are
Illicit Process
of the
Minor
Term.
6.
conduct
are
heat
and
elements;
conduct heat and Illicit Process
.*. All
elements
are are
Aryans,
not not
Persians Persians
Hindus
The
are
Illicit Process
Term.
CHAP.
VII.]
2.
OF
FALLACIES.
231
Non-
Inferential.
"4
These
If
term
is
am
biguous,it is reallyequivalentto two, and there is thus the of this kind, it is the middle In a fallacy of four terms. fallacy that is generally term ambiguous, giving rise to what is called
the middle In some fallacyof ambiguous middle. cases, in the major premiss, and collec is taken term distributively it is taken collectively in the major in the minor ; in some tively in the minor premiss. In the former,we have and distributively and in the latter the Fallacy of the Fallacy of Composition, We shall now Division. give a few examples of each of these the varieties
1.
:
"
An is
an
organized body
Here is
a
is either
a a
plant
nation
or
an
nation
or an
organized body :
the word
therefore
is
animal.
2.
Light
is
a
feather word
3.
mode
body is ambiguous. of motion ; feather is light mode : therefore of motion. Here the double meaning of the
is light "All
obvious. cold is to be
is
cold heat
disorder expelled by heat; this person's cold : therefore it is to be expelledby heat." Here the word is ambiguous : in the first premiss it means a low degree of the sensation of coldness, and in the second a particular or
bodilydisorder. unfit to be trusted ; this man 4. has formed are Projectors this man is unfit to be trusted." a project Here pro : therefore and formed a project do not mean the same jector thing. To be acquaintedwith the guiltyis a presumption of 5. is so acquainted: therefore we may presume that guilt ; this man he is guilty." Here the phrases 'presumptionof guilt' and 'pre that he is guilty have different significations. sume "All the anglesof a triangle 6. are equal to two rightangles, is an ABC is equal to two .'. ABC angle of a triangle; right term is a Fallacyof Division ; for the middle is taken angles," in the major and distributively in the minor premiss. collectively
" " '
232
7.
"
OF
FALLACIES.
[PART III.
and
a
Five
two
is
are
one one
number
; three
two
are
three and 8.
"
number,"
two
are
is also
of Fallacy
Three
and
two
numbers
is
a
; five is three
five is two
term
numbers,"
is taken
in the collectively
9.
minor.
two
a
less than are angles of a triangle all the anglesof are ABC, ACB, and BAG angles, less than two rightangles." .*. they are Here
'
"All
the
right triangle ;
ambiguous. In the major premiss the all the angles term is taken distributively to mean of a triangle premiss,it is doubtful whether it is any angle. In the minor taken collectively If it is taken or distributively. collectively, of Composition. If it is taken the argument involves the Fallacy the argument is valid. distributively, I can afford to buy "I can afford to buy these books. 10. afford to buy these statuettes. The books, these pictures. I can and the statuettes are all that I,at present, wish to the pictures, that I want to buy." purchase. I can, therefore, buy everything This is a Fallacyof Composition these books,' these pictures,' ; and 'these statuettes' are taken in or distributively separately in the second. the first premiss,and collectively or jointly The Fellows of the Royal Societyhave made the greatest 11. Fellows of the Eoyal discoveries in Science; A, B, and C are the greatestdis Society; therefore A, B, and C have made This is a Fallacy of Division. coveries in Science. under The next fallacy this head is the Fallacyof Accident, consists in taking a term which simplyor without any condition and as modified by certain accidents or as under in one premiss, in the other. For certain circumstances is example, "What bought in the market is eaten,raw meat is bought in the market ; is eaten." In the minor meat therefore raw premiss the middle while in the major term, boughtin the market, is taken simply, premissit must be understood as modified by certain accidents or two middle not present in the other. There qualities are, in fact, without anything understood bought in the market terms, one
all is
' ' ' ' '
the
word
234
the
OF
FALLACIES.
[PART III.
'Argument
in
and Circle/
; and
as
(3)the
it is sometimes
clusion.
"
is
6.
(I)" Of
the Petitio
This
when
this other is B
by
and
example,
the the
is, because
is
;
is ; and the
is,
because the
is.' Here
conclusion conclusion
proved by
the A is '
'
premiss,
"
premiss by
consists the same,
and
evident,and
same
in proving really
by
In
the
example, the major premiss of the 1st syllo following proved by the 2nd, and the major premiss of the 2nd
M
I.
1.
is
P,
2.
S is P,
Mis
.-.
S
.-.
isM;
is P.
S;
is P.
whose major premiss provedby a syllogism whose this premiss is proved by a syllogism is P,' and is M major premiss is 'S-is P.' Thus, 'S isP' is proved with the M is P is proved with the aid of S is P : M is P,'and aid of In this also the fallacy therefore S is P is proved by S is P.' here placed But if the two syllogisms is almost quite evident. the first and the last of a after the other were, respectively, one
Here
'
S is P'
is
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
long train of reasoning,it would not be so easy to detect the is still further increased partlyby fallacy. And this difficulty the same the difference of language in which proposition may and partly in different parts of the train, by the omission occur of many intervening syllogisms.For example
"
II. 1.
AisB, BisC;
.-.
3.
A is
D,
DisE;
.-.
A is C. A is
A is E. A is E
2.
C,
4.
E,
CisD;
.-.
isB;
A is D.
.-.
AisB.
CHAP.
VII.]
this train the of
same
OF
FALLACIES.
235
in the 4th
In
reasoning the
as
final conclusion
syllogismis
this
the the ?
minor 4th
premiss
a
of the
1st,that is,
how is this propo final
premiss is proved by
established
'
syllogism.But
By using as
premiss the
E,' which
A is B
3
has been
as a
itself proved by
taking the
conclusion the
premissin
final conclusion
a
is the
premiss in
In
as
part of
the
1st
'A syllogism,
proved by taking
'
is B'
premiss.
In the
2nd, 3rd,
'A
is D'
therefore 'A
proved by taking 'A by indirectly taking 'A is B' as proved by taking 'A A is B by taking indirectly
'
is
is C'
a
as
premiss.
as a
is E'
is
is D'
'
premiss, and
mate
therefore
as
an
ulti
premiss.
In the
4th,
That
A is B
'
is
provedby taking
' '
'
A is E
as
'
as an
premiss,
ultimate
and
therefore
premiss.
Or the
is B' A
is B.'
exposed thus : A is C, because A is B ; A is E (4th syllogism), and A is E, because and A is and A is D, because A is C (2nd syllo A is D (3rd syllogism), A is B is proved gism),therefore A is B, because A is C. Thus by A is C,' and 'A is C is proved by A is B.' Here the use fallacy may B, because
be
"
'
'
symbols
language
has
enabled last
us
to detect
the
fallacy easily ;
different from
but
of the
were syllogism
that
and if, of the intervening some first, syllogisms moreover, were suppressed,the train being much longerthan that repre sented above, it would not be so easy to detect the fallacy, and expose it by analysingthe whole train. The fined of
as
Petitio
a
the the
may,
or itself, premisses.
same
of the
it includes
also those
fallacies
in which
the
conclusion
follows
from, or
For
is
of premissindependently
the others.
236
III.
All
men
OF
FALLACIES.
[PARTIII.
not
are
mortal,
are
Those
.*.
who
mortal
are
immortal
No
man
In
No
man
is immortal,' two
premisses are
in the
advanced,and
a
follows syllogism ; but the conclusion really immediately from, or is presupposed by, the first or minor which obverted givesthe conclusion are premiss 'All men mortal,'
directly.
In the stricter in
a
sense,
the
Petitio
is Principii
called is the
the
same
Argument
as
Circle because
reasoningcoming back whence it started,completes a circle. In the wider sense, including all forms, it is called Begging the Question, because it begs or
takes surreptitiously in
to
for is
of Premiss. Falsity The of Premiss. under this head is the Falsity next fallacy of the premisses is false ; when when This fallacy one occurs is really of an event, which something is regarded as a cause
"
7.
(2) Of
the
not
the
cause,
which
is either
causa
merely
sign or
an
antecedent
of it.
cause
cause,
pro causa, the assuming as a and Post hoc ergo propter hoc,or
after
therefore
account
of,or
Whately
causa
thus
pro
causa:
caused
of the
the
in in
same
with
as
such
or
the
is or proved from it, Conclusion,or is actually to know, not likely persons you are addressingare
admit, except as an inference from the Conclusion ; as, should infer the authenticity of a certain for example, if any one the reality of from its recordingsuch and such facts, history, of that history. All other cases the evidence which rests on
to
in which
Premiss
or (whetherthe expressed
the
suppressed
CHAP.
VII.]
has
no
OF
FALLACIES.
237
one)
as
sufficient claim
to
Fallacy of undue assumptionof a Premiss1" as an example of the Argument Whately givesthe following mechanicians "Some in a Circle": attempt to prove (what they ought to have laid down as a probable,but doubtful,hy gravitatesequally: pothesis) that every particleof matter because those bodies which contain more ever particles why ?
the
"
'
'
'
more gravitate
stronglyor
are
are
heavier
not
'
; but
which
heaviest
more
are
they
' '
contain how do
closelycon
'
you
know it ?'
'
how
does
that prove
tatingequally,that
needs have the is
a more
mass
which
they are heavier ; all particles of matter gravi the heavier must specifically
space V
"
because
of them
in the
same
There
one or
smaller
circle in the
followinginstance
to the
"
If any
argues his
ought
to submit
guidance
maintained you
of
himself,
what is is
or leader,
party, "c.,because
that what is whom
these
so
maintain
right; and
because
then
argues
right,
it is maintained
are
by
causa
persons and
ought
to submit
himself
his
party3."
a
of fallacy for
a
Non
or
cause,
when occurs pro causa whenever the relation of cause the cause, is false. and For
sign is
effect
cause
and the
effect when
instance, proof of
of it ; and
great
deal of money in a country is a pretty sure often regarded as a cause ; and thence has been it is
an
in truth in
effect." "So
been and of
also exposure
a cause
to want
hardship
up
youth
has
men
regardedas
brutes
constitution in barren
of those
which
have
hardy brought
countries
uncongenial climate.
the most
experiencedcattle-breeders know that animals are, cceterispanbus,the more hardy for having been well fed and sheltered in all the tender, youth ; while earlyhardships, by destroying ensure
1 2
132.
Ibid. p. 133.
238
the hardiness
OF
FALLACIES.
[PART III.
which is the cause, not the effect, survivors, of their having lived through such a training.So, loadinga gunbarrel to the muzzle and firing it does not give it strength; though it proves, if it escape, that it was strong1."
of the
"
8.
(3) Of
the
Elenchi. Ignoratio
whenever
or
This
occurs fallacy
in any
debate
or
discussion
not
the
conclusion
arrived at,
wish to
the
argument advanced, is
establish
a
to the
point:
and
you
disproveor
you
certain which
proposition,
lead to hand.
a
advance
arguments
to the
conclusion which
quite irrelevant
that
a or
at subject
For
to prove
certain doctrine
adducingfacts
dilate
it,you
of its
so
upon
its
consequences,
upon
number
adherents, upon
forth.
The way
and gators,
is at the
presentday attacked by some, will furnish us with very apt illustrations of this fallacy. On the one hand, many popularspeakersand writers attempt to refute
it
by arguments
which of
have
reference
to its appearance
and to absurdity, ments of the people the other, ; and, on many attempt to prove it by arguments which are no
former,having reference only to the high authorityof the scien tific men who believe in it, to their numerical to the strength,
of the grandeurand beauty of the Theory,to the impossibility popular doctrine being true,and so forth. Both the opponents and the defenders of the Theory are equally guiltyof the fallacy of Ignoratio as Elenchi,inasmuch they do not address them selves to the facts and principles reallybearing upon the question. Whately describes and illustrates the more important forms of this
"
"
that
may op-
be
employed
1
as
well
for the
apparent
of your
CHAP.
VII.]
OF
FALLACIES.
239
for the apparent establishment of your as proposition, ponents' the same own thingto prove what was not ; for it is substantially what was not asserted. The latter practice denied,or to disprove is not less common because it frequently offensive, ; and it is more in attributing to a personalaffront, to a person opinions, amounts which he perhaps holds in abhorrence. "c., Thus, when in a dis cussion the ground of expediency, one on a party vindicates, of in a case particularinstance of resistance to Government the opponent may intolerable oppression, gravely maintain, that we a ought not to do evil that good may come proposition had never been denied; the point in dispute which of course case were doing evil being whether resistance in this particular not.' Or again, by way of disproving the assertion of the or hear a grave one rigidof privatejudgment in religion,' may argument to prove that it is impossiblethat every one could be In these examples,it is to be remarked rightin his judgment.'1 that the fallacy of Petitio Principii is combined with that of and often successful Elenchi; which is a very common Ignoratio the Sophist proves, or disproves, not the propo practice, viz., in question, but one which sition which is really is so dependent it as to proceed on the suppositionthat it is already on decided, admit and can of no doubt ; by this means his assumption of that it may the point in question'is so indirect and oblique, his easily escape notice; and he thus establishes, practically, he is withdrawing your attention at the very moment conclusion, will it to another from question. Tor example, an advocate of a certain act,and the prove, and dwell on the high criminality of proving) of severely punishingit ; assuming (instead propriety
' '
"
'
'
'
"
'
the commission.
"
There
are
certain
kinds
we
which
which very
when well
arguments recounted and named call should by no means universally used, and so far as theyare unfairly
of referred
to
fallacious, may
as
be
the
present head
; such
the
mentum
them
(or personalargument),ArguArgumentum ad hominem ad verecundiam, Argumentum ad populum, "c., all of from Argumentum ad rein regardedas contradistinguished
240
ad
OF
[PAKT III.
described
not
have
Argumentum ad hominem, they say, 'is avowed circumstances,character, opinions,or past conduct of the individual, and therefore has a reference to him only,and and absolutely does not bear directly the real question, on as the the Argumentum ad Argumentum ad rem does'; in like manner, verecundiam is described as an appeal to our for some reverence memorable some respectedauthority, "c.,and the institution, Argumentum ad populum"s an appealto the prejudices, passions, "c.,of the multitude;and so of the rest1." The fallacyof Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignoratio Elenchi)is
"
nowhere
when one protracted controversy, of the parties havingattemptedin vain to maintain his position, his ground as to another,instead of as shifts possible covertly attack in an honestlygivingup the point. An instance occurs
more
common
than
in
made
The universities. of our system pursued at one findingthemselves unable to maintain their charge of objectors in in the year 1810) of Mathematics the present neglect (viz., in the that
neglectthey attributed the late general shifted their ground, and contended studies),
'was
never
University
famous
for
mathematicians';
but absolutelyoverthrows, only does not establish, succeeded in these assertion ; for if it never their own original it would not have caused their late decline2" pursuits,
"
more,
9.
Besides
the fallacies
we
have
the
mentioned
above,
many
two
and namely, the Non sequitur also given under the class are tions, first occurs the when
Fallacyof
of material
the conclusion does not in any way follow from connection when, in fact, there is no logical premisses, the
between The
anything else.
second
assumptions
"In what
of
to
subjectsdid
fail?"
Whately'sElements,
pp. 141"142.
242
2.
on mere
OF
FALLACIES.
[PARTIII.
argument may
be detected
In many
cases
the
of invalidity
an
or inspection.For instance,when it contains two particular middle is not the term two negative or or when distributed, premisses, of the premissesis negative and the conclusion when affirmative, one and the conclusion is particular when of the premisses one or, lastly,
universal.
3.
The But
method there
are
described
of
course
above other
seems,
on
the
whole,
may
to
be the also be
best.
methods, which
to
applied to verifythe result obtained by it or and the independently. For example, the figure
may be at
once
test the
argument
mood
one
of the in the
found
; if the
mood
be Or
valid the
or
syllogism particular
of that Or the
to the
syllogismmay
:
be tested
by the method
follow in every
comparison of
diagrams
do not 4. of
a
if the conclusion
a
it will be valid ; if it
follow in If
an
single case,
it will be invalid1.
of
more
argument consists
than
one
train -of
reasoning,it
should
be
analysed into
should be tested as described above. If syllogisms ; and each of them of the premisses be understood or suppressed, they should be any and the constituent syllogisms supplied, expressed. In the case fully should of Eiithymemes, the suppressed premiss, whether true or false, of Dilemmatic and other mixed be supplied. In the case arguments, they should be tested by their rules, and reduced to the categorical
form.
In be the
the able
case
of
Extra-logicalor
them
to
Material
should where
to refer
their
classes respective
lies. fallacy
Examples.
Test the
1.
following arguments
conducts substance
are
"
Every metal
No
are
heat;
every
metal
conducts
therefore every
2.
that conducts
heat conducts
are
electricity: electricity.
therefore
no
minerals animals.
plants; no
plants
animals:
minerals
3.
are crystals
plants:therefore
no
Bead
given in
Part
III.
Chap. v.
CHAP. 4.
not
VII.]
All birds
are
OF
FALLACIES.
not
243
birds: therefore bats
are
feathered;bats
animals
are
are
birds ; bats
are
not
birds
therefore
bats
are
feathered
animals.
are
6.
Only animals
are
sentient
beings; fishes
are
animals:
there
beings.
Hindoos
None
:
worship Shiva;
all
Bengalees
is
a
are
therefore all
All metals
metal:
therefore it is solid. 9.
or
an
therefore matter
object
is
is either
a a
metal
metal
or
or
a a
non-metal non-metal.
hydrogen
an
Fishes
j whales
live in water:
therefore whales
are
fishes.
12.
"Water is Plato is
a
liquid;ice is
water:
therefore ice is
liquid.
:
13. fore
a
of communism
there
philosopher approves
Aristotle is the
ever
believes in
the
immortalityof
ever
the
rational
soul;
greatest intellect
believes in the
born:
therefore
the greatest
of the rational soul. immortality All poets are not imaginative, 15. some are philosophers poets: therefore some not imaginative. are philosophers 16. The Cretans are liars; A, B, C are Cretans: therefore A, B,
"
born
are
liars."
"
Hamilton, Vol.
in.
17. the
sun
Every planetmoves
:
round
a
the sun;
the earth
moves
round
planet.
therefore per
18.
Knowledge is power
Cognition is
:
"
is knowledge: perception
mental
ledgeis power
20.
mental
act. to
are
by nature is allowable ; devotedness the pursuit of pleasure in youth, and to that of gain in old age,
dictated
21.
Whatever
by
nature
"That
they are allowable." Whately. is independentof the capricesof fortune man happinessin moral and intellectualexcellence ; a
:
"
therefore
who true
16"2
244
OF
FALLACIES.
[PARTIII.
of fortune: therefore a true philosopheris independent of the caprices who philosopher is one places his chief happiness in moral and intellectual excellence." Whately. 22. unto Give thanks the Lord; for he is good; for his mercy
"
endureth
23.
"
for
ever.
Some
purpose
but of
and many
the
objectsof great beauty the sight to gratify ; many them accordingly answer no
is
answer
no
other
flowers
have
other purpose
sight."
24.
"
to be productive of evil ; therefore peace is likely of good." Whately. productive is not gold; tinsel glitters: "All that glitters therefore it is 25. not gold." Whately.
" "
War
26. sound
If the reach
rays
of
a
light reach
sensation have is
the
eye,
or
if the
a
vibrations
of
produced ;
rays the of
but
sensation
produced :
nor
neither
the
lightreached
have
the vibrations
of sound
reached
ear.
is neither a form of matter nor a form Electricity all material objectsare either forms of matter or forms is not a material object. therefore electricity If two 28. oppositelyelectrified bodies be brought
27.
of energy; of energy:
near,
are
they
not
attract
each
other ; these
two
bodies
repel:
be
therefore
they
bodies
not
other
not
; these
bodies other.
are
they do
30.
man
repeleach theory of
of the
name
The
evolution
must
be true because
every
worthy
31. A
material
body is
fluid;this body
element
is solid:
therefore it is not
32.
fluid.
is either solid is solid. takes
or
Every
If
a
element
fluid ; every
is not
evolved; if oxygen
which
they
exist in the
place, either heat or light is nitrogen are united in the proportionsin atmospheric air,neither heat nor lightis
and takes the
oxygen union
nitrogen place.
are
united
in
those
theory of
be originof species
not
true, every
CHAP.
VII.]
be should God have have
OF
FALLACIES.
245
; but
must species
as recognized
creation special
so
it is
impossible
he Darwin's
that could
created
many
different
a
species,when
therefore
theory of
35. Political of
few
Plato
Idealism; Plato
is the
founder
of
Philosophy: therefore the father Political Philosophy. The volume of a body diminishes 36.
"
of Idealism
is the founder
when
it is
cooled,because
then
become
closer."
"
Ganot's
and Impenetrability
extension
they suffice to
reaches ones."
"
Ganot. little
The
even
to
these
Ganot.
con
Since
in the universe
the
other
and
about
their
axis ; and
"
there
Ganot. parts composing them share this double motion." because its Whenever a body is heated, its volume increases,
are
molecules
42.
driven
apart."
"
Ganot. it is im impenetrable ; and it occupies a certain portion of space. therefore he who murders
a
Matter
is extended
every
because
it is
part of
man:
negro
is
negro
man." Meat
"
Whately.
drink
on are
and
revenues revenues
of
of
were were
spent spent
who
a
man
meat
the
on
the necessaries
a
of life."
Whately.
who
calls you
a
"He
calls you
:
man
speaks truly; he
calls you
a
fool,calls you
46.
"
fool
speaks truly.'
is
a warm
Warm
countries
produce wines
"
Spain
country
47.
we
therefore
we
Whately.
of bread
"
"What
:
are
what
eat
Whately.
; and
48. tended
occupy
because impenetrable
atom
it is
ex
because
some
"
every
of
it,however
dimensions, must
little space. We
are
49.
conscious
of
"
one
mental
Hamilton's
contra
i.
246
50.
"
OF
FALLACIES.
of external
"
[PART III.
world
We
as
are
conscious
an
only
i.
as
we
are
con
scious of it 51.
distinct from
others."
Hamilton, Vol.
love. Truly we we freely A judgment is a simple act of mind, 52. impliesjudgment." Hamilton, Vol. i.
serve, because
"
"
Every mental phenomenon is either an act of knowledge,or is a only possiblethrough an act of knowledge, for consciousness knowledge a phenomenon of cognition." Hamilton, Vol. i. 54. Certain thoughts are universal, inasmuch as they arise under the same conditions in all men; they are necessary, because their genesis under these conditions is invariable." Huxley's Hume, p. 86. those who 55. For bent on their minds are cultivating by honours is unnecessary diligent study,the incitement of Academical ;
"
53.
"
"
"
"
"
and
and idle,
such
as
are
improvement
56.
"
therefore
or
the
incitement
"
of
Academical
Whately.
insane should
not
who
the
be
punished
to admit also that they should not be threatened ought in consistency ; for it is clearly without threaten to unjust punish any one previously ing him." If he pleadsthat he did not steal the goods,why, I ask, did 57.
"
he hide 58.
them,
"'No
as
no
thief
can
ever
fails to do ? that
"
one
maintain that
all
Eepublics
secure
good
government who
with
to
a
bears in mind
good government
is inconsistent
licentious the
express
press.' "What premisses must be suppliedin order above reasoning in Ferio, Festino, and Ferison,
have attained
If all
but, none
CO. "As
would some capable of perfection, are capableof it." having done so, none
were
contains
no
element
of
thought must
61. "Since
everything that
is
an
is
innocent, and
Timon
being miserable
can
as happinesssprings evil-doer,
well-doing."
"
63.
You
not
you
are
stand
not
still either
advancing in the
the
other
or
be
back." falling
CHAP. 64.
VII.]
OF
247
as are
are
Theft
is
crime
laws
theft
was
of
of
Whately.
been
countenanced
we
know
by public opinion in several countries ; all the crimes "c. : there are Eevenge, Eobbery, Adultery, Infanticide,
crimes
we
know
"
of have
been
countenanced
by public
a
opinionin
67.
"
several countries."
Whately.
an
Every
hen
comes
comes
from
egg ;
"
every
egg
from
hen
egg
from is be
a
an
egg."
Whately.
will
any
Switzerland
is not to
stable Power
more
grant,
more
political society
settled
can
"
than
no
the
United
France
be in If
a
danger of revolution."
is
more
69.
conclusion
from
certain
are
be
wrong
where
not
the
reasoning is
unattainable
70. "No not
correct
premisses that
false,will
the best
is perfectcertainty
should
be
punished
if he
is
innocent; this
rule, and
that have
man
be
"Every
has
exceptions; this
there
are some
is
therefore
no
: exceptions
therefore
rules
excep
tions." 72.
my
"
If I
or
am
to pass
; and
this examination
am
I shall pass
I shall not
whether
pass
or
I do
papers
not
or
if I
not
to
pass,
no
whether
not I do
I do my
papers
not
therefore
it is
matter
whether
my
papers."
73. "A
necessary
cause
; for if
that
of its
cause
and
would
Whatever
is conditioned
must
depend
by time
external
on
some
cause :
ex
is conditioned
some cause
and
space
there
depends upon
we
to itself."
75.
we
"
Position describe
"
must
cannot
the
be
which
express relation."
Maxwell's
Motion, true,
man
p. 84.
76.
If the
theory of
evolution
be
is descended
from
248
the lower
OF
FALLACIES.
[PART III.
be
animals
:
; if the
theory of
if
man
evolution is not
a
true,
man
is not
specialcreation
descended 77. is
a
"
therefore
specialcreation,he
man :
is
from The
animals.
pedants ;
you
or
is
learned
therefore
pedant."
78.
"
If it be fated that
recover
from
your
recover
present disease,
;
whether
you
call in do not
or
doctor
recover
again,if
or
it be you
from
present disease,whether
; but
a
doctor
not, you
:
will not
recover
one
other of the is of
no con
contradictories
is fated
therefore
to call in
in.
doctor
sequence."
"
Vide
Hamilton, Vol.
pp.
462, 464.
79.
an
"
is a cognition or Perception
act of mind
; but
act of
knowledge;
act
is cognition
any
immanent
to suppose to
a
the
an
cognition of
of the action
thing
external
out
to the
mind
would
be
suppose
mind
going
of
of
in other itself,
words,
transeunt
act ; but
:
supposes
nothing can
of
act where
it is not
therefore
to act out
exist out
self,which
it is
is absurd."
"
Hamilton's
Lectures,
p. 118.
"
80.
Mind
and
matter,
most
said, are
opposite natures
the be of whole
a
diameter
being ; but
what
to
nature
correspondent,analogous
or
known;
mind
im
as
is
so
to disproportioned
n.
its
essence
Hamilton's
"
Lectures,Vol.
can
p. 120. to which
The
mind
only
as
know
immediately that
objects can
out to go
it is
external
neither
themselves presence is
into
nor
the mind
them, such
: impossible
external
objectscan
"
through
p. 122. 82. farther suffers
was
some
"
The
we
see,
seems
diminish, as
we
remove
from
no
it; but
the real
alteration : it was,
the mind."
"
table which
exists
presentto
83.
"
Hume.
man.
Here
we
can
call up
or
no
notion,
This
is
no
term.
manifestlyimpossible.
involves
contradictory
CHAPTER
VIII.
FUNCTIONS
AND
OF
THE
SYLLOGISM.
is not the syllogistic process All inference," we reason. process according to which says he, is from are : particularsto particulars general propositions merely registersof such inferences already made, and short formulae for making more. The major premiss of a syllogism is a formula of this description consequently ; and the conclusion is not an from the formula, but an inference inference drawn drawn according to the formula ; the real,logicalantecedent or premiss being the particularfacts from which the general collected by Induction1." The value, was proposition therefore, of the syllogistic and rules for it does of using form, correctly, and the _rules not consist in their being the form according to which or even our usually, made ; reasonings are necessarily, but in their furnishingus with a mode in which these reasonings always be represented,and which is admirably calculated, may to bring their inconclusiveness if they are to light. inconclusive, induction from followed to generals, An particulars by a syllo those generalsto other particulars, is a form gistic process from in which we always state our reasoningsif we please. It may
"
1.
ACCORDING
to
"
"
"
is not
we
form
in which and
we
must
reason,
but
it is
form
in which
to throw our indispensable : though when reasoning,when there is any doubt of its validity and there is no siisthe case is -familiar and little complicated,
may
reason,
into which
it is
Logic,Vol.
i.
p. 221.
CHAP.
FUNCTIONS VIII.]
AND
VALUE
OF
SYLLOGISM.
251
the known
picionof
The
error,
we
may,
and
do, reason
cases
at
once
from
cases particular
to unknown
universal
as
type
:
"
"
of
the
reasoning process,
have
a
Mill,is
an
follows
or
Certain
individuals
individual
individuals
resemble
the former
attributes
; therefore
tribute2."
This the
they resemble them also in the given at type is not, however, conclusive like the syllo
form of the
canons
gism
case,
from be
mere
expression ;
and
but
must, in every
For have
re men
examined
'
by
now
the
example,
heretofore semblance blance
must
all died in
men
'
living resemble
attributes
we
in
certain
; whether
from
their
resem
these
attributes
may
a
infer
also
their
is 'mortality' its
canons.
by
men
If
may
of
'
all
men
now
we living,'
may who
that This
resemble process
the
in the
same
attributes.
two
of inference
admits
division
into
steps :
of
what attributes are of ascertaining mor (1) "That all circumstances, and (2)whether under tality, universally, i.e., any given individuals possess those marks." Conformably to usage, the first step or process, namely, that of establishing the generalproposition, is called Induction,* is and the second step in "the reasoning operation,which the general propositions," that of interpreting is ?.'j substantially ** called Deduction by Mill. Every process by which any thing marks
-
is inferred of the
an
respecting an
followed
unobserved
case,
consists
similarly
to
Induction
by
a a
Deduction. process
According
Mill,
or
syllogism is thus
merely
by
which
the
real
complete meaning of a general propositionestablished by In and by which is made the validity of a reason duction explicit, in other words, an interpreter of the general ing is tested. It is, and are test of reasoning. Its rules and a canons proposition merely cautions against false reasoning. They merely help us in interpreting correctlythe true meaning of general propo1
Logic, Vol.
i.
pp. 227"8.
Ibid. p. 232.
252
and sitions, in
FUNCTIONS
AND
VALUE
[PARTIII.
In
applying
them is
to
cases. particular
ordinary
in the its about
discourse
the
nor
stated
doubt
we validity,
may,
or
rather of
we
must, throw
it into the
syllogistic
expressed,we may be per of its being valid. The is not,therefore, syllogistic the process according to which The uni we usually reason. versal process of reasoning is, accordingto Mill,from some and the syllogistic to other particulars; particulars process is
if it admits
being so
merely a " 2.
test of the
of validity
this process.
is the syllogistic mode of arguing Nor, accordingto Mill, sound one. a For," says he, it must be granted that in every considered as an syllogism, argument to prove the conclusion, there is a petitio are mortal, principii.When we say, all men it is unanswer Socrates is a man ; therefore Socrates is mortal,'
" " '
ably urged by
the adversaries
of the
syllogistic theory,that
'
the
proposition 'Socrates is mortal' is presupposed in the more be mortal cannot are general assumption All men ; that we assured unless we of the mortality of all men, are cer already tain of the mortalityof every individual man, "c.,"c. ; that,in such can as short, no reasonings from generalsto particulars not infer we can prove anything ; since from a generalprinciple
'
any
but particulars
those
which
the
as
known1." of Probation, the syllogisminvolves, Regarded as a mode that is,the_ of petitio principii, according to Mill, the fallacy conclusion is presupposedby the major premiss. The propo sition
' '
all
men
are
mortal
'
'
can
not
Socrates
is mortal the
is true.
The
of the
supposed by
latter is. taken for
former,or
you have the
not be true
When
the
major,you
have
already
is not
granted
conclusion.
Thus
the conclusion
reallyproved by
the on premissesof the syllogism.It is, of observation which cases contrary,proved by those particular the
i
Logic, Vol.
i.
p. 210.
CHAP.
VIII.]
the
OF
SYLLOGISM.
253
are
general or
of the
evidence
of
syllogism. is thus,according to Mill,neither the process The syllogism according to which we reason, nor an argument which is sound useless ? No, says and free from fallacy. Is it, then,altogether and a generalproposition Mill,its proper function is to interpret apply it to particular cases, and its real value consists in being of the true process of reasoning. infallible test of the validity an from particulars to particulars This process is, accordingto Mill,
in accordance
an
with
canons some
of Induction.
But
some
when other
inference
is drawn
can
particularsto
we particulars,
not
valid
unless
it admits
'
some
quite certain that the reasoningis into the syllogistic of being thrown form. infer a generalpropo can we particulars,'
'
be
general as a major premiss,and with form a valid syllo other particulars as a minor, we can some not be gism, then the reasoning is valid. If the general can not be formed, then the reasoning and the syllogismcan inferred, For is invalid. example, the reasoning that "all things now in past ages have died," is livingare mortal, because all men completed according to inductive methods ; but it will not be be { mortal can are valid,unless a generalproposition all men who have died in past I of men inferred from the particular cases all kings now referable to the living are really ages, and unless
if with this
" " ' J
is reasoning which actuallyand reallyconducted from particularsto particulars be tested by of Induction,may with the canons in accordance are mortal,all syllogism: all men reducing it to the following are men are living kings now living ; therefore all kings now class
'man,3
that
is, the
of validity
the
"
mortal."
This
view
of the functions
first syllogism,
Herschel, Whewell, Mr Bailey, Professor Bain, and others. It has, the other hand, been strongly opposed by Mansel, Professor
been
adopted by
Sir John
De
Morgan, Dr
James
and Martineau,
others.
254
FUNCTIONS
AND
VALUE
[PART III.
Mill's view
of of the
two
essential
points
in
it is not
the usual
process
reasoning,(2)
of petitio fallacy priiicipii. On the first point Mill maintains, that the universal process the of reasoning is from on particularsto particulars ; and is not the second point,that the real proof of the conclusion but the facts of observation and testi of the syllogism, premisses which the major premiss itself is founded. On these on mony be made : two pointsthe followingobservations may It is true that the syllogismis not the process by which 1. usual reason But it is equally true that our we usuallyreason. unless and therefore not deserve the name, ings will not be valid, Mill form. they are capableof being reduced to the syllogistic confusion to make between the business of Psychology a seems and that of Logic. It is not the business of the latter to give of the various processes by which cor account an people reason but to give an account of the processes by or rectly incorrectly, if they wish to which reason they ought to reason, and must reason correctly. The former is the business of the Psychology of the Logic of the latter is the business ". of Reasoning,while both the I Reasoning. Mill confuses these two, and makes jbusiness of Logic. Recognizing the distinction here drawn, it be said that the syllogism is the type of all valid reasoning; may unless it can for no reasoningwill be valid,as Mill also allows, of fact, in be thrown into the form of a syllogism. As a matter draw different ways, but only inferences in many men dailylife, them will be valid, and properlydeserving of the those among which are capable of being ultimately reduced to the name, of as form, the rest being nothing but suggestions syllogistic "c.,wrongly called inferences1. imagination, sociation, fancy, that
"
it involves
the
involve the fallacy " 4. 2. Secondly, Does the syllogism ? On this most of petitio important subjectthe fol principii is well Martineau by Dr James lowing noteworthy remark deservingof beingquoted ; and as the book in which it is con"
Vide
Appendix
D.
CHAP.
VIII.]
is not
OF
SYLLOGISM.
255
tained full
"
usuallyaccessible
to
students, I
will
give
it in
:"
extricate we objection may ourselves at once by simply remembering that, in the nature of whose in the sight of a perfectintellect, or things, processes are of succession or delay, all reasoningmust unconscious involve a the conclusion being already discerned on the principii) petitio of the premiss. Ratiocination first announcement itself becomes seeing by intuition what others nugatory in presence of a mind descend reach by sequence. As soon to a more as we tardyand limited intelligence, there will be some beliefs that are mediately reached : the same truths which to one being are contained within their arche (dpxn) are seen by another lying at some distance from it. The petitio relative principiiis thus entirely to the state and range of the individual understanding, and can fault against an not be established as a argument by merely showing that the inference might be thought already in the be. If Mr Bailey assumption,but only by showing that it must convince us that it is impossibleto conceive the proposition can without birds are warm-blooded' simultaneouslycontemplating will grant that the con the particular of the swallow,we case From the embarrassment of this
'
clusion
'swallows But if
are
warm-blooded5
"
is
new can
inference be
of idem
per idem.
as
formed, and,
allows,rationally formed, without the mind having ever encountered this special instance, it is vain to pretend that the conclusion only repeats in part the thought contained in the premiss. This is, no doubt, true of the reasoner, who, to bring invents the syllogism in question : he selects his conviction, because he foresees what it contains ; but general rule precisely, he assumes in using it, in his learners a different state of mind, in which the law has been apprehended and the example has Whenever been missed. learner are teacher and a a engaged the arguments comprehended in the, didactic process together, involve a petitio principiito the former,but not to the latter. the consciousness in one the un Upon this difference, man, consciousness in another, of what, according to the laws of
he
" "
256
FUNCTIONS
AND
VALUE
[PART III.
imply, depends persuasion. doctrine with no and respect, account for sanctioningit. 'When contends Mr Mill, 'you you admitted the major premiss,' iasserted the conclusion; but, says Archbishop Whately, you asserted it by implication merely : this,however, can here only I that you asserted it unconsciously mean ; that you did not know j I you were revives in this assertingit; but if so, the difficulty shape, Ought you not to have known 1 Were you warranted in the general without having satisfied yourself asserting proposition which it fairly of the truth of everything includes ? And if not, then is the syllogistic what for catching art but a contrivance Mill's Logic, Vol. I. you in a trap and holdingyou fast in it V This is a clever scolding, doubt ; but, as it seems to no p. 212. phraseologyitself is highlyobjection us, indifferent logic. The able. In order to make out that the conclusion is anticipated in the premisses,though not foreseen by the reasoner, Mr Mill
"
"
thought, a given propositionmay Mr Mill, we are aware, treats this calls Archbishop "Whately to severe
resorts
to
doctrine
with the
of
'
unconscious
sense
assertion' of
which
we
can
only compare
prophecy imagined by divines. 'Assertion' not being an automatic articulation by the of a certain but a mental act, the intentional predication lips, attribute present in thought respecting a certain subject also present in thought can not be unconscious' ; and the epithet
'
hidden
does
but
evade
the
fact
that
the
assertion
in
question is
not
mind at mind, indeed,and to the same which a future time, the proposition suggestthe application may but these are uttered did not contemplate : the sentence as and not act of predication, to the immediate phenomena foreign to Mr as entitled to be imported into its description.And shall be uttered till that no Mill's demand generalproposition it may to which the speaker holds in his thought all instances more know of nothing more or we be applied, simplyimpossible there at all. To another The fore whatever. destructive of all scientific method entirely included' in the is not cases 'fairly sight of its particular meaning or in the evidence of a generalrule ; and a person may assent to the law of refraction without any suspicion reasonably
258
FUNCTIONS
AND
VALUE
[PART III.
"The the
whole
j
!
know
Plato to be
know
him
to
reviewer says that if the major premiss included the conclusion, we should be able to affirm the conclusion with
"
be Plato1." The
out
the
intervention
of the minor
that
to
come
a
that is
new
impossible." No
a
case, unless
minor
premiss; but every one sees be applied can generalproposition to affirms the new case proposition
the marks
the
generalor to possess of the general. subject In reply to the first point Mill
conclusion
no one
under
the
characteristic of
would
of
course
say
that
though the
been, that
he
is not
to
ought
it ought to have presentin thought, admit the major without seeing that
'
therebyalso admits the conclusion. Martineau admits that but that it is not seen all this is actually seen by by the teacher, be a petitio what may to the former principii j the learner. Hence
Jis
the what
we
can
not
so
latter. mind
The
value
of
an
argument depends
To the
on
state
to which
it is addressed. involve
a
omni
scient mind is
So
reasoningmust
actually_thin^it is applicable, to which all the particulars mg of,or observing, not reasonablybe said to be guiltyof the then the syllogism can are," says Martineau, principii."There charge of a petitio grounds, whatever account we may give of them, for ascrib without going kinds of being, or ing attributes to certain natures included under them or having any prescience through the objects This is the question of questions. of their actual contents."
"
" "
Can
we
ascribe
to
certain
natures
or
kinds of
being,
of
a
/without having
A
all the
particularobjectsincluded
we
under
them
In
words, can
the truth
establish the
cases
truth
universal
from proposition
of certain ?
included in
is the of
Iit, without
examining
all the
cases possible
This
great
problem
of Inductive
Logic.
Formal
It is the
business
Inductive
Logic, p. 259.
CHAP.
VIII.]
OF
SYLLOGISM. to which
259
we
Logic to laydown
in order that
we
rules and
canons,
must
conform,
from generalor universal propositions ones. particular Logic takes for grantedthat there be given of universal propositions, whatever account are may their origin, of different nature, and grounds by philosophers not schools. the syllogism If there are such propositions, can be regardedas a petitio the reasonably principii ; it becomes, on a contrary, very useful and sound process of reasoning. If it be quitesatisfactorily for example, by the rules can established, may infer Deductive and
canons
of Induction B is
a
from of
the observation
of
some
cases, that
the attribute if in
a new case
mark
A,
"
that wherever
A is,
is ; and
infer C, I find the attribute B, I can reasonably the attribute A, of which the former an is, by supposition, mark. This reasoning, when fully unfailing expressed, givesrise to the following "All B is A, C is B, therefore C is A." syllogism It may be also thus stated, "A co-exists with B, B co-exists with the C, therefore A co-exists with C1." Here, in establishing in question was not in any way case major premiss,the new concerned. It had in fact no existence at all, real or imaginary, and therefore could not be known, or thought of, when the major
was
established.
or major premiss, questionhas the attribute B ; but granting both the premisses to be true, not you can doubt the conclusion, you must regardit as certain. And this brings us to the question of the proper nature of Deductive
"
You
doubt
the
truth
of the
Inference.
" 5.
ference.
Hypothetically necessary
In
character
of all Deductive
In
syllogistic reasoningwe draw conclu sions from given propositions data. Given the premisses, as we infer the conclusion that follows necessarily from them. We are not in any way concerned to prove our con premisses ; but our clusion must be true, if the premissesbe true. Hence it is evident that the truth we arrive at by deductive or syllogistic is entirely of a hypothetical reasoning character, dependingfor
or
1
deductive
Vide
Appendix A,
pp. 282"284.
17"2
260
FUNCTIONS
AND
VALUE
OF
SYLLOGISM.
[PART
III.
its
If
trustworthiness
the latter be
entirely
true,
the former
on
the
must
of
the
data.
of
so.
premisses
conclusions
syllogism,
prior vation, be,
though
are
they
may
be
immediately
the but
to
of Obser
syllogisms,
Perception,
ultimately
or
results whatever
Induction,
their it. All
Intuition
has
origin
that conclusions its
may it is
Deductive
with drawn
Logic
is,
the
nothing
do
the
with conclusion
concerned that
legitimacy
the the in
of
or
are
from offers
premiss following
my of
or
premisses.
wholesome
To advice Laws.
to
student
"
Logic
live
If If
"
happily
the peace laid
domain, certitude,
I take
obey
conform
account
my
enjoy
I have
the of
rules
conditions
down.
no
your
preju
and
any
or
dices,
passions,
which
instincts,
may induce
habits,
you all desire
reason
associations,
to
interests, thing
from
tendencies, thing
-"^
else:
infer
any
you
must,
my
some
under if
circumstances,
to
implicitly
your my
explicitly
you
reason
obey
from
Laws,
to
attain
object.
express
If
all,
against
some
cases
Law,
and
though
the
means
your
conclusions
in
be
are
accidentally
none
true,
unlawful. this down less
you If you
own
employ
reason
attain
your
end to The
the
less
from
particulars
particulars,
Law the which
you I
do
at
your is that
and
the
responsibility. particular
general,
and
from
not
lay
the
you from
general,
or
general
more
conversely."
CHAPTER
IX.
PROBABLE
SEASONING
AND
PROBABILITY.
"
1.
If both
the
premissesof
syllogismare
necessary,
or
or or probable,the conclusion is necessary, assertory, assertory, probable. If the modality of one premiss be different from that
of the
other,the
'B
:
conclusion be is
has C
the
:
less certain
/.
modality.
; "B
For
example,
of the From
must
.*.
A,
is B
is A' what
is
probably B
the
is the is
A, C is meaning
is pro
and
'C
probablyA'?
'B
premisses
may infer
'A is
is
probably;_JB' and
bably C,' we
'A
? Is the always legitimate in the conclusion in either of the same as degree of probability, conditions is the conclusion valid ? the premisses ? TJnder what first of all state the In order to answer must we questions, ^hese
meaning
of
Proposition. Proba(ble
of Meaninjg
a
Proposition. 'It will probably He will probablydie,' ^^LQ. to-morrow,'or that- my belief in the event in question is subjectively, means, full or complete, is of a degree less than the highest; and not that the, ^evidence for the happening of the event objectively, in question is not of such a nature to make it a certainty. as
2.
*
"
The
Probable
That if
*
this
is the the
'
meaning meaning
sun
of in
the the
'
propositionwill
'
be
'
evident It
we
consider
is my
He
dead,'
The
rains,'
of
in each
these
belief is of the
the event
in ques-
262
tion is
PROBABLE
REASONING
[PART III.
there is no trace of doubt, and quitecertain : subjectively, there is not the least uncertaintyabout the event. objectively, When the word probablyis added to the copula, the proposition that the state of my mind in regardto the subjectively, means, is a mixture of belief and doubt, partial event belief caused by certain evidence for,and partialdoubt caused by certain evi dence caused
against,the
event, that
is,a
state
of
incomplete belief
;
event
and
some
it means,
for,and
against,
is not He will
are :
*
event,
as
or
at
any the
rate event
attainable
to
make
'
probablydie
symptoms
that that may there
means
certain appearances
are
that
are
of
are
death, and
certain
there marks
others from
are
which
we
not
death
infer
will the
which
may which
infer
we
there
others
from
contrary ;
a
that
of mind mixture
'
is be
doubt.
' '
probability probably,'probable,' and any evidence mean any degreeof belief less than the highest, full belief and for the event less than certainty.If we represent by 1, we may represent different degrees of highestcertainty by fractions such as f ",|,",J,"c. In ordinary probability 'more likelythan not,' language the word 'probable'means and in this sense by probability would always be represented in which fractions greater than \. But, in the widest sense be represented it is used here, it may by any fraction however and correspondsexactlyto the mathematical small or large,
the words
' ' , ' '
word
'
chance.3
of probability But
a
The
proposition may,
is the The
exact
by
and
fraction.
how do
we
what
get it?
to-morrow'
probably rain
of its sition
of the say,
raining to-morrow
'
is
or
the
'
meaning
is that
He
will
probably die
this year
probability
CHAP.
IX.]
AND
PROBABILITY.
263
dying is ", or J,or any other fraction. Now, how is this We is its real meaning ? cannot fraction obtained,and what shall adopt the view held by We discuss this question here. Dr Venn, which appears to be the best and most reasonable. I consider," chance) (probability, says he, that these terms class the indefinitely series ; within numerous a presuppose smaller class is distinguished which a a by the series, composes
of his
" "
presence
or
absence
of
some
attribute classes
'
or
attributes.
are commonly respectively and of its happening in a spoken of as instances of the event,' given particular which, with wray.' Adopting this phraseology, define the explanations,is suitable enough, we proper may probabilityor chance (the terms are here regarded as synony mous) of the event happening in that particularway as the numerical fraction which represents the proportionbetween the two different classes in the long run. Thus, for example, let the be that of a given infant living to be 80 years of age. probability The all men, the smaller all who live largerseries will compose to 80. Let the proportionof the former to the latter be 9 to 1 ; that 1 infant in 10 lives to 80. Then in other words, suppose the chance that any given infant will live to 80 or probability is the numerical fraction ^V Conversely,if the probability that in every 10 per of a man livingto 80 be ^y, this implies if the probability one sons only lives to that age. Similarly, be " this implies that in every three of its raining to-morrow like the present,rain happens in two cases the following on cases of a man's dying of a certain disease day. If the probability dies. be ", it means that in every three cases of that disease one the propor The two one classes, largerand the other smaller, which tions between constitute the probability are, in the last had who have that disease, example, (1) the class of persons class within who have and (2) the special the other of persons died of it ; and the proportionof the second to the first is repre sented by the fraction ".
' ,
These
larger and
smaller
Venn's
ed., p. 145.
264
PROBABLE
REASONING
[PARTIII.
" 3. The Eules of Immediate Inference. is thus connected with what Every probableproposition Venn m aptlycalls a Proportional propositionof the form
'
Dr A's
in
11
are
B.'
It
can
be
shown
a
that
every
probable proposition
proportional propositionof that we form, and that,without tracingit to such a proposition, can is give no rational account of its meaning, when the probability represented by a fraction. A proportionalpropositionis to be from universal of the form All A is B.' From a distinguished
'
must
be ultimately
traced to
the From
latter the
we
may
we
infer that
'Any
or
sub-class A is
of A
is B.'
former
may
'Any
probably B,'the
Given
.
fraction
^
may
that
in 10
of any
assigned age
a man men
live to
40, we
age
we
of probability
of that
that 3 in 4
in India
a
are man
Hindus,
in India
immediately
of probability in 4 candidates
candidate's a immediately infer that we passing is ^. Thus, from every proportionalproposition, of which is represented infer a probable one, the probability may from a probable proposition we by a fraction. Conversely, may Given the probableproposition A is infer a proportional one. of which is representedby the frac probablyB,'the probability infer the proportional tion ",we proposition 2 in 3 A's are may under certain circum of a man that the probability B.' Given
' *
stances
man
becoming
under
rich is the
same an
^y, we
event
can
immediatelyinfer
becomes
,
that Given
in 10
circumstances
rich.
can
that the
3 events
of probability
in 5 of that nature
do
infer that
Examples.
'Most any A A's
are
B':
from
this
we
can
infer that
the
of probability
being B is greaterthan
A
are
".
in 4
are
'" of
the
B'
or
'3 A's
B':
.
from
this
we
can
infer that
of any probability
being B is f
206
are
PROBABLE
REASONING
[PART III.
the
respectively if
sum or are
and
TRF. Therefore
=
chance
drawn
of
drawing
is certain
The
ono
either is the
to be events
a
of
a
1^ + ^
1 ; that
can
be
happens
drawn,
course
one a
other
not; when
not
red
is ball,for instance,
same
blue ball
two
be drawn
after and is
a
at the
time.
I may
of
draw
balls
be
one
ball must
drawn,
are now
blue.
Suppose
the and
bag ;
the
red one, and is not replaced in 9 red and 6 blue balls in the bag,
chances
are respectively
^
;
and
now
T65. Suppose
there
are
at
the
5
second
drawing a
on
9 red and
Suppose
there
are
in the
red
and T54. are respectively T9j red ball comes a out; now blue balls, and the chances
are respectively
and ^. ^3sort of
one
or
The
"
is a following of of
to corollary
the above
"
other
of two
events incompatible
be
"
and
one
alone be
the chance
,
of the remaining
one
will be
"
"
For
.
example, if
the
chance
of any
year is ^, and his chance of dying of some par ticular disease is T^, his chance of dying of any other disease is Y^Q1." In the example given above, the chance of drawing a red
one a or a
dying in
blue
ball is
1, and
of
the
chance
of
drawing
"
blue
=
ball is
y.
T6g,
ences
drawing a -fy {$= We also make can (ii) Kules of DependentEvents. division. Suppose that the two or by multiplication
"
"
red ball is 1
infer
events
instead
being incompatibleare connected togetherin the sense Let us of the other. that one is contingent upon the occurrence of the class or be told that a given proportion of the members and a given proportionagain of series possess a certain property,
of these possess then another property, the of proportion the whole
Venn's
Logic of Chance,
p. 152.
CHAP.
IX.]
possess
two
AND
PROBABILITY.
267
be
which
both
will properties
found
by multiplying
two
a
togetherthe
tions. Of
fractions which of
the inhabitants
propor
thousand,
of the year ; we suppose it to be known say, will die in the course should then infer death in five is due to fever ; we also that one that
one
in 200 year.
a
of the inhabitants It
course
of the
to make
would, of
converse
course,
equallysimple by
Given the total
division
sort of
inference.
mortality
inferred, by dividingone total mortality per cent, from all cases. "The expressed in the rule,as given above, is variously and best statement Perhaps the simplest languageof probability. is that it gives us the rule of dependent events,that is,if the
chance of
one
and the proportionof fever fever, of mortality, cases we might have fraction by the other, what the was
event
is
"
and
,
the
chance
that
if it
happens
happen
is
then
,
the chance
of the latter is
"
In
.
this
case
it is assumed
that
the
latter is
so
entirely
mn
dependent upon the former that, though it does not always will not happen without it; the happen with it,it certainly of this assumption,however, may be obviated by saying necessity
that what
speaking of in the latter case is the jointevent, both togetherif they are simultaneous viz., events, or the latter in consequence of the former,if they are successive1."
we
are
the chance
age
of
boy
is
of 10 years of his
livingto
20
is
f and
,
if the
the chance
being educated
f
.
is
", then
being educated
live to 20 and
"
That
of 10 years
become
educated. is
of there
of the crops
1
event
happens;
Venn's
4.
268
then the the chance
PROBABLE
REASONING
[PART III.
growing,i. e.,
of the of
of there
being rain
This
and
of the crops
last
event, which
in consequence
Suppose
circumstances
of
certain
-f and
,
if he
of
of his
happens
of the
events
in
of the
first event, is
cases
x| -f
event
one are
upon
the
happening
two
the
happening
other, the
Dependent or Contingent events, and should be distinguished, the one hand, from incompatibleevents, and, on the other, from
events.
independent
the chance That
if Similarly, of B
A
the
chance
of A
being B
is
of A
being C
is f
"= J.
is,1
Here
in 4 is C.
we
may
take up
state
we are
the
example given at
condition under
"
the
beginningof
the inference
this
chapter,and
so
the
which
is valid
far
as
able to do at present:
A is
probably B (probability
="
is
probablyC
f
,,
=-
.".
A is probably C
(
V
mn
Here the in
of the conclusion will be the product of probability of the premisses, if they are probabilities dependent events
sense
the
the
explained above.
of
That
as
be
valid if it admits
being stated
follows
"
The of B
chance
of A is
being B
then
,
is
"
chance
being C
as
the chance in A
m
being C is
this
"
"
"
; or
follows
n
"
mn
One
A
one
is in
B, and,
is
happening, one
or
B "A
in
is
C, there
fore
mxn
C";
as
follows:
is
probably B
CHAP.
IX.]
=
"
AND
PROBABILITY.
269
(probability
therefore A
statements
whatever
C A isB is probably
(probability
=
; j
is
probably C (probability
=
"
j."
samo
These
three of
express
in
different
ways
the
matter
fact.
"
6.
(2) The
rules
ExperimentalEules
"stand
of Mediate upon
a
Inference. different
The
of this class
somewhat
footingfrom the above in respect of their, cogency and freedom from appeal to experienceor to hypothesis. In the first class, the data were considered in which we cases supposed to be given which the under the condition that the propositions distinguish different kinds of events, whose were discussed, frequency was
known respectively nected.
to
us.
to
be
disconnected that
no
and such
known conditions
to
be
are
con
Let
us man
now
suppose
given
of
One
in
1 in 12 to the
is short chance
conclusion
then
draw
as
having
? It is
be inconsistent in the
same
with
one
another, so
or
as
never
to
combined black
person,
all the be
short-eyed
allotted in
might
almost
have
restricted
by
points,it would
about the in warranted
seem
that
no
could
drawn
are
If,on
hand,
sub in the
assumption
that
by
distinctions
by
the
the other
distinction the
ratio in which
whole," then
p and
p
following
of
are
respectively
q
"
and
"
the chance
and
is
"
the
, '
mn
Venn's
Logic of Chance,
pp.
154
"
5.
270
PROBABLE
REASONING
[PART III.
and
,
chance
of its
being p
not
sum
and
not
is
the chance
of its
beingnot
pendent. ought
to
p and The
q is
^n~
"
' ,
where
p and
are
inde
it
of these
one or
chances
is
obviously unity,as
four alternatives must
be,
since
other
of the
exist." necessarily
This of the
so-called
independencebeingdenned
"
above, let us take a batch of Taking the instance mentioned Now, from the data which were 1,200 as a sample of the whole. be seen that in every such originally given to us, it will easily
and hair, therefore 1,080 who have not. And here in strict rightwe ought have appealed again to experience but to stop, at least until we ; From data which do not stop here. that we we assume," is, from the data which follow from granting the assumption stated above to be true, "we go on to infer that of the 120, 10 (i.e. ^ and of 120) will be short-sighted, 110 (theremainder) will not.
on
the
average
120 who
have black
we Similarly
infer that
of the
1,080
90
are
990
are
not.
On
the
divided
:
"
10 Black-haired, short-sighted,
hair,90
who
are
; black- haired
men
who
black
"
men
nor short-sighted
990." black-haired,
should of the
not
If that
assumption in drawing
black-haired
120
not
been
true,we
have
been
justified
be 120 of the and suf
and
black of
might short-sighted
so
who
had
hair,and
our
forth.
The
necessary
inferences
must
hair,10
the the
be
proportionof
taking likewise
10 sighted, must
1,080 who
black
not
have
black the
as
that short
100
have
are
well
the
proportion
1,100 who
is assumed
short-sighted.That
true
is,the condition
each of
to
be
is,that
the
by
each
of the
givendistinctions
should subdivide
CHAP.
IX.]
AND
PROBABILITY.
271
same
by
the
other
distinctions in the
This condition
ratio in
the
whole.
is
rule of inference
given above
leads
to
objection. In
and objection, the
events
the form
quite correct and free from all in which it is usuallygiven it is open to inferences which not formallyvalid, are
to
being
the
assumed
be
independentwhere
properties. But
possess
some can
nothing
we
is
known
seen
about that
distribution that
of the
we
have
it is necessary
should
we
positive
knowledge of
We which
can now
before
the in
condition the
case
the
:
"
inference
is valid
ample
A is
probably B
probability
=
"
is
probably C ( probably CM
,,
"
.".
is
"
,,
of the conclusion will be the product of the probability of the two premisses,if the subdivision of A created probabilities ratio in which the whole of B is by B be subdivided in the same subdivided to be by C. For example, suppose the probabilities The and | and J respectively, then, according to the according to the second A
to be
representedby
sample
of 36
premiss, 24 A's in 36 are B, and premiss, and the condition assumed, C : therefore, 8 B's in these 24 are 8 A's in 36 are C," that is, the probability of A being C is ^, or f which is equal to the of the two premisses. product of the probabilities In certain cases, however, it is possibleto draw valid in
,
first
ferences in which
events
without the
sum
any
assumption
whatever
"
mean
those
cases
of the
of the probabilities
two
independent
as
exceeds
the third is
as
unity,and in which the two premisses are syllogistic figure. The rule of inference in such
"
in
cases
follows:
"
if the
chances
then
,
of
thing being
of its
and
are, q
respectively, and
the chance
being both
p and
272
is
m
PROBABLE
REASONING
[PART III.
p
--\
n
1. and
the chance
of its
being
and
not-q is
m
n'
if
"
be
greater than
3 A's
-,
where
and
are
independent. For
1 A
example,
12 must
,
in 4 B
are
B, and C,
"
1 A
in 3 is C ; therefore
in
the probability of A being B is, of A being C is ", therefore the proba is f and the probability according to the given rule,of A being both B and C is bility,
4
be both
and
that
"
3-
1) or
-is*
ket
be is
24
men,
are
of whom
f,
that
is
18,
are
rich,C, then f + "-1, or T^, and rich, be both educated and f that is 2, must that i, or T52, if f of A are B is 10, both educated and not rich. Similarly, of A must and if f of A are C, then |be both B and C, and \ of educated,B,
8,
-
and
J, that
C.
some
From
the
are
first conclusion
it follows
that
some
C,
and
C's
B.
"
1. draw
7.
Exercises.
of the and propositions, following
:
"
from
them
(a)
(c)
(b) B is probablya
D
metal.
probably pass at the F. A. Examination. (d) E will probablylive to the age of eighty. (e) The sun will most probably rise to-morrow. are probablyhappy. (/) All virtuous men
will
(g) (h)
2.
fossil is
probably carboniferous.
ether
luminiferous
probablygravitates.
is ^; and if it is of a fossil being mesozoic probability is f ; and of its being cretaceous if it is mesozoic, the probability in the English chalk of its being found cretaceous, the probability Calculate the probability is fformation of the fossil being found in the English chalk.
.
3. years
The is
of probability
new-born
child
living to the
age
of 25
of its being well" ; and if it lives to that age, the probability of its being a educated is " ; and if it is well-educated, the probability of the new-born distinguishedperson is ""$. Calculate the probability child
APPENDIX.
A.
"
CANONS
OR
AXIOMS
TO
OF
THE
SYLLOGISM
ACCORDING
LOGICIANS.
" 1. Lambert's Canons for the so-called Imperfect Figures. to the view that all the figures In opposition except the first are of their own like the imperfect,because they have no canons de Omni for the first or perfect Dictum and that, et Nullo figure, be reduced to the therefore, syllogisms in those figuresmust Lambert (in his Neues Organon, Leipzig, first, 1764) enunciates a for each and thus places them distinct canon all on an figure, equality. For the first figure Lambert recognizesthe 'dictum de omni usual. For the second figure he lays down et nullo as called de Diverso,' which is as follows : If Dictum a canon be contained term one in, and another excluded from, a third is as self-evident This dictum term, they are mutually excluded." de omni dictum et nullo.' On applying it to the sixteen the as that the of premisses it will be found possiblecombinations
"
'
"
"
same
valid
moods in the
term
are
obtained Cesar e,
'
as
on
any
other
method.
It
holds In
good
moods
'
Baroko.
(takingA, B, and C as standing for the in 'BJ is included major, middle, and minor terms respectively) in the minor premiss,and in the major premiss the term 'AJ is de excluded from 'B'; therefore,according to the 'dictum the diverse,3 C; and 'A' are excluded from each other, that is,
Cesare the C
'
conclusion
is
'
No
is A.'
In Baroko
the term
'
A;
is included
CANONS
OF
SYLLOGISM,
ETC.
'
275
and the term C is excluded some major premiss, B in the minor from according to the premiss ; therefore, excluded from each other, A are same dictum, Some C and C is not A.' The dictum de that is,the conclusion is Some and thus to Camestres and Festino, diverse is similarly applicable the valid from the invalid moods in the second distinguishes figure. Lambert enunciates the following For the third figure canon, in
*
'
in the
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
which contain
a
is called
a
common
'
Dictum
Exemplo': part,partlyagree, or
"
de
"Two if
one
terms term
which contains
part which the other does not, they partlydiffer." This is also
be easilyapplied to syllogismsin the may * the valid mood B ' is a Darapti of this figure also
a
C have a common premiss,that is, A and part B ; therefore they partlyagree, that is,'Some C is A,' according de exemplo.3 In the mood to the first part of the 'dictum the term C contains B in the figure Felapton of the same minor to premiss,while B is not contained in A,'according the major premiss; therefore 'C' and 'A' partly that is, differ, C is not A,' according to the second part of the same Some dictum de exemplo is similarly The first part of the dictum. to the other affirmative moods, and the second part applicable moods to the other negative the valid ; and thus it distinguishes in the third figure. from the invalid moods Lambert For the fourth figure called 'Dictum givesa canon de Reciprocal which is stated as follows1 : If no M is B, no B is this or that M ; if C is or is not this or that B, there are B's
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
"
"
are
or a
are
not
C."
But in
a
If
term
be included the in
it may second
be
more
term
which the
third,then
included in
a
third
is excluded
from second
be
(or excluded
a
from) a
term
is
included
then third,
Vide
Hansel's
Aldrich
p. 441 ; and
Ueberweg'sLogic,p.
18"2
276
excluded mood
CANONS
OF
SYLLOGISM
from)
the
first. The
first
are
figure. expla
canon
only
gives a
of the so-called
independenceof
that each
by showing
for and than
attract
a
but he also establishes imperfectfigures, the first figure and their equality with it, figureis by its nature especially adapted
kind of argument, and that we naturally think particular in one thoughts in certain cases figurerather express our in another. "For Some example, the proposition,
stones
a
iron,everyone
iron. of
will
admit, because
The
magnet
is
stone
and
attracts
This
one
is in syllogism
the third
figure. In
run
the
:
"
thus
magnets
iron
...
(I) .*.
"
attract
...
Here
unaccustomed
we
to the
it appears order to
if out
must
have from
stone
pick
the
magnets
a
them.
hand,
like
that
magnet is
A circle is This
which proposition
no -for
demands square;
"
consideration.
In
"
no
the square
not.
follows,
when
cast
in the first :
What A
is not
round
is
no
circle,
square
is not
round,
Consequently,"c.
of a major propositionis converted by means terminus injinitus and its truth is manifested (i.e. contraposed), to us only through the consciousness that all circles are round. should we not hesitate, of this proposition, For, independently there being innumerable things which are not round, whether "Here the
"
"
the
circle
were
one
of those which
belongedto
this
category?
ACCORDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
We
use
we
are
aware.
It is thus the
familiar and more The current. figurerequiresthem, are more difference of the figures not only on their form, rests,therefore, but extends itself, by relation to their employment, also to
things themselves,so
more
that
we
use
each
figurewhere
its
use
is
forfindingout or proving the Attributes ; the Second for finding out or proving the Difference of a thing proving Examples and of things ; the Third for finding out and Species of Exceptions ; the Fourth for finding out and excluding
natural: The First
a
Lambert
and
his work
"A
philosopher, Lambert, whose Neues Organon (published other things one in the year 1764) contains among of the most which have ever elaborate and complete expositions been made of has expressly the syllogistic examined which sorts of doctrine,
German into each of the four arguments fall most naturallyand suitably is characterized by great ingenuity figures ; and his investigation and clearness of thought. His conclusions are : The first figure of a thing; is suited to the discoveryor proof of the properties the second to the discoveryand proof of the distinction between
*
or proof of instances and excep things; the third to the discovery exclusion of the different or tions; the fourth to the discovery of a genus.' The reference of syllogismin the last three species de omni et nullo is, dictum in Lambert's opinion, to the figures
' '
strained
to
and
a
unnatural
; to
each
of the
three
belongs, according
him,
with of equalauthority,
of 'dictum de gives the names de exemplo for the 3rd,and for the 2nd figure,dictum diverse de reciproco for the 4th Mr Bailey dictum 74) takes a similar (Theory of Reasoning, 2nd edition, pp. 70
that
dictum,
'
which
he
'
'
'
"
view
similar
view
is also taken
by
Arch
Martineau.
1 2
Hamilton's Mill's
Lectures, Vol.
i.
iv.
p. 439.
Logic, Vol.
pp. 194"5.
CANONS
OF
SYLLOGISM
law regardsthe following inference depends : as upon which all mediate The agreement or disagreement of one conceptionwith another inasmuch is ascertained by a third conception, this whollyor as by the same part agrees with both,or with only one, of the con
"
Canons.
Thomson
"
"
to ceptions
be
compared1."
modifies it thus
:
"
"
The
agreement
or
by
the
third
this
wholly or by
the he figure
of only, the
conceptionsto
latter; both,or
For of two
second
modifies
"
The
agreement
the
conceptionsis ascertained by
as
third
as
which conception,
stands
same
to predicate with
this
whollyor by
the
part agrees
For the third
both, or
of only,
conceptions
agreement of
the
to be
compared2."
he figure modifies it thus
:
"
"
The
two
conceptionsis
as
ascertained
by
third
as
conception,which
stands
same
this
wholly or by
the
only,of
conceptions
to be
compared2."
the and dismisses the recognizesonly three figures, what ground that,in the conclusion in that figure,
Thomson
on fourth, was
the the
was
the subject, and what in a premiss becomes predicate leading subjectin a premiss becomes the predicate.
This, he
order,but
seen
that
order
wholly
in the
in
the
somewhat first,
distorted in the
second
and
third,and
wholly inverted
fourth,against which the mind rebels3. These specialcanons, well as the general law, are and do not as quite self-evident, applicableto the requireany explanation. They are directly and make Reduction in each figure, and syllogism unnecessary
^
superfluous.
1 2
Thomson's
Laws
of Thought (1864), p.
3
163.
Ibid. p. 175.
ACCORDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
279
TVhately regards the 'dictum de Whatcly's Canons. omni the ultimately of all Rule or Maxim et nullo as supreme to all syllogisms, applicable reasoning ; but as this is not directly for all pure categorical two he gives the following canons syl third, logisms: (1) "If two terms agree with one and the same they agree with each other; (2)if one term agrees and another and the same with these two with one third, disagree disagrees and the first is for affirmative conclusions, each other1." The built the syl On these two canons second for negative. are
"
3.
"
'
"
"
rules logistic
to
or
cautions the
which purpose
are
to
be
observed
with
respect
whether those ascertaining observed or not2." been strictly Canons have By these rules and then in each figure, Whately determines the valid syllogisms further confirms those in the 2nd, 3rd,and 4th figures by Reduc the 'dictum de omni et nullo' is directly to which tion to the 1st, for syllogisms, of
applicable. Hamilton divides all categorical Canons. " 4. Hamilton's into Deductive and Inductive. The former are divided syllogisms again into Intensive or Extensive according as the reasoning is All extensive in the quantity of comprehension or of extension. "What are belongs to the* regulated by the canon syllogisms belongs to the speciesand individual ; what is repugnant genus and individual, or more to the genus is repugnant to the species what pertains to the higher class pertainsalso to the briefly,
"
lower3."
givesthe followingthree proximate rules by which a and fullyexpressed extensive categorical syllogismis regularly governed: (1) "It must have three and only three terms con three and only three propositions stituting ; (2)of the premisses, in quantity be definite, that the sumption or major premiss must and the subsumption or minor universal, premiss in quantity is, affirmative ; (3)the conclusion must correspondin quantitywith with the sumption4." the subsumption, and in quality
He then
"
1 3
54.
2 4
Ibid.
p. 54.
Lectures,Vol.
in.
p. 303.
Ibid. p. 305.
280
CANONS
OF
SYLLOGISM
in the first figure Accordingto Hamilton syllogisms only are and regularly while all syllogisms in the 2nd,3rd, expressed, fully and 4th figures and are imperfectlyexpressed. To irregularly the former the three rules are, therefore, applicable, directly while the latter must be regularly and fully expressed,or, in other
words, reduced
them.
to applicable
before the rules will be figure, rules for the 2nd, He, however, givesspecial first rules
are
to the
the
same
as
those
we
have
"What are regulated by the canon syllogisms belongs to the predicate belongs also to the subject;what is repugnant to the subject1." repugnant to the predicate In his later
is
writings Hamilton
adopts
the
doctrine
of the
divides abolishes the fourth figure, of the predicate, quantification and (2)figured, and the categorical into (1)unfigured syllogisms
canons givesthe following :
"
I.
"
For
the
or unfigured syllogism,
that in which
the terms
relation of compared do not stand to each other in the reciprocal either both subjectand predicate, being in the same proposition, both predicates, the canon is : In so far as or subjects (possibly) either both agree, or two notions (notions proper, or individuals), the other does not, with a common third notion ; one agreeing, in so far, these two notions do or do not agree with each other." II.
are
"
For
the
in syllogism, figured
which
the terms
compared
to
subjectand severally
each
other,containingand contained Intension and Extension,the canon subsists between subjectand predicate
common
wholes
relation terms and
of of
a
either of two
third
themselves2."
examplesof
1
for each of the three figures. gives a canon : unfiguredsyllogismhe givesthe following
"
Hamilton's
Ibid.
Lectures, p. 303.
iv.
Vol.
p.
282
CANONS
OF
SYLLOGISM
two canons gives the following or fundamental of Syllogism or Eatiocination : principles (1) "A thing which co-exists with another thing, which other co-exists with a third thing, also co-exists with that third thing1."
s
"
" 6.
Mitt
Canons.
Mill
"
(2)
other third
"
"
co-exists with
not
another
not
thing,with
with
which that
is co-exist,
co-existent
thing2."
The
meant
"
that of of
attributes without
subject.
attribute
and teeth,
the attribute
having thirtyteeth
attributes
same man
though
The
ex
vi termini
never
at the
time3."
and the principleof affirmative syllogisms, second of negativesyllogisms. Mill thus analyses affirmative an "All men are : /. all kings mortal,all kings are men; syllogism
"
first is the
are
mortal.
The
minor
premiss
in
asserts
that
the
attributes those
denoted fied
by kingshiponly exist
the word
are man.
conjunctionwith
asserts
signi
by
The
major
attributes The
never
found
without
the
mortality.
the attributes of kingshipare that wherever is, found, that of mortalityis found also4." "If the major premiss," continues Mill, "were negative,as No men it would assert not that the attributes are omnipotent,' but that they never exist without, exist connoted by man never with those connoted by omnipotent : from which, togetherwith that the same the minor premiss,it is concluded, incompatibility conclusion
* ' ' ' '
exists between
a
the
attribute
king4."
That
is,the
be
as
would fullystated,
No
men
are
omnipotent, all
kings are
with those
men;
.*. no
kings are
of
asserts that
the attributes
signified by
Logic, Vol.
I.
'man.'
major
asserts
that
the last-
Mill's
p. 203.
4
Ibid, p. 204.
Ibid. p. 205.
Ibid. p. 203.
ACCORDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
283
named
tent.'
attributes
The
never
exist with
those
connoted
by
omnipo
the
conclusion those
connoted
by
are
'
omnipotent/or
not
that wherever
found.
two
canons
Mill founded
gives the
upon
quoted
of
in
different form
the
of a the meaning of a proposition. The expressing mortal' is that the attribute con like 'All men are proposition noted by 'man5 exists only in conjunction with the attribute connoted by 'mortal'; that wherever humanity is found, mor talityis also found, that is, the presence of the attribute humanity is a sign or mark of the presence of the. attribute affirmative the meaning of an proposition 'mortality.'Hence the attri that purposes, be taken to be this, may, for practical
"
'
'
'
bute
connoted the
negative proposition, that 'the attribute connoted by the subject is a mark of the For example, absence of the attribute connoted by the predicate.' that the attribute the proposition No are men perfect means In accord humanity is a mark of the absence of perfection.' of expressingthe meaning of propositions, with this mode ance axioms Mill gives the following two for practical or canons
by
of the attribute of
a
connoted
'
'
'
'
'
purposes
:
"
has
any
mark is
a
has, that
which
it is
mark
a
for its
premiss subject.
is
a
singularpropositionwith
mark is
a
(2)
which the
mark
of any
mark
of that well
as
mark
when of,"
the minor
premiss as
major is universal.
For
"
example : If the attribute A is a mark of the attribute B, and if an objecthas the attribute A, it has also the attribute (A) has that (B) of B, that is,an object that has the mark Thus the meaning of the first syllogism, which it (A) is a mark. given above,would be as follows: The objects'kings'have the which is a mark therefore the of mortality,' mark humanity,' taking the term objects(kings)have the mark mortality ; or
" "
'
'
'
'
284
'
CANONS
OF
SYLLOGISM,
ETC.
the attributes of a king which are connotation, of humanity which is a mark of of mortalityare a mark a mark the last (mortality).The meaning of the second syllogism given
kings
'
also in its
above
are a
would mark
be thus of the of
expressed:
"
The
attributes which
of
king,which
a
attributes
of
humanity,
a
are
mark
of
the
absence
omnipotence, are
the
mark
of the
last
of (absence
omnipotence).
On this view
"
general formula
a a a
of
is syllogism
as
fol
lows
Attribute B is
Attribute
.
A,
B ; A.
C is C is
'. Attribute
Here
two
correspondsto
be
true
the
middle the
C to the
first state
or
minor the
The
ment
second in all
all
or
in
some
cases, and
the conclusion
in accordingly thus
a
in
some
cases.
Barbara
1.
and
Darii
cases
are
: expressed
In all In all
B is
mark
of A, C is C is
a a
".
In all
mark mark
of B ; of A.
Celarent and
2.
In In
.
Ferio,thus
cases cases
all all
is
mark
some
of the absence
of
A,
of B ; of A.
(orin
(orin
cases)C is
mark
".
In all cases
some
C is a mark cases)
of the absence
Mill givescanons
can
the other
figures
and be reduced to that, easily the of the first figureas forms the one ratiocination, and the affirmative,
"
the two
elementary
proved is though
types
to
of all correct
when other
the when
conclusion it is
be
negative,even
certain
arguments may have a tendencyto clothe themselves in the form of the 2nd, 3rd,and 4th figures ; which, however,cannot happen with the only class of arguments which are of possibly
first-rate sal
importance,those in which the conclusion is an univer of proofin the such conclusions beingsusceptible affirmative,
firstfigure alone."
DILEMMA
ACCORDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
285
B.
"
THE
DILEMMA the
ACCORDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
"a
Wkately1 defines
logism with
minor." Mansel2 ditional defines several
true
Dilemma in the
as
conditional
and
a
syl
antecedents
major
disjunctive
a con
the Dilemma
more
as
"a
having syllogism,
one
than
antecedent
and
Whately
Simple
But
.-.
and
Mansel
:
"
Constructive
If A is B, C is D ; and either A is B,
or
if E
is
F, C is D,
is F ;
C is D.
II.
Complex
If A is
But
.-.
Constructive
D
; and
or
"
B, C is
C is
if E
is
F, G is H,
either A is B,
is F ;
Either
D,
or
is H.
III.
Destructive
If A But
complex) (always
"
if E
or
is
F, G
F.
is H
;
H,
D,
or
is not
.".
Either
B,
is not
forms among others on the Whately excludes the following ground that they hardly differ from simple conditional (thatis : Syllogisms" Hypothetical-categorical)
"
"
(1)
.".
If A
is B, C is neither B.
D,
is
nor
F, and G is H,
E
But
A
C is
D,
is
F,
nor
is
H,
is not
(2)
If A
is B, C is D,
If A is But
.*. A
E,
is H,
C is B
nor
neither
D,
nor
is
H,
is neither
E.
2
Elements, p. 72.
Mansel's
Aldrich,1849, p. 93.
286
DILEMMA
ACCORDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
(3)
If A is But
B, C is D and also D,
or
E E
is
F, F,
either C is not B.
is not
.*. A
is not
Dilemma form
as a
is sometimes conditional
is
exhibited," says
which the whole E is
Mansel, "in
consequent
in the denied G is A
in syllogism
the
major premiss
*
"
and disjunctive, is
minor,
neither This
e.g. C is is
If A
is
B,
E
either C is
D,
or
F,
or
H;
but B.'
D,
nor
F, nor
is H ; therefore
is not
given by Wallis1 as well as by Wolf and Kant. But it is a perversion of the Dilemma proper, and introduces no distinction whatever, being merely a common disjunctive syl logism,as is shown by Wallis himself."
form
ProfessorFowler*
defines
the
Dilemma
as
"a
complex syl
logismof
the other Mansel
which
a
and
namely, that
as single
and (hypothetical), premiss is a conjunctive proposition." He follows in the main disjunctive them from Whately, differing only in one point, the antecedent of the conjunctivepremiss may be
one as
well
If A But
double.
Thus
and
E
or
"
is B, C is D
is E
F,
is not F ;
either C is not B.
D,
.*.
A is not
Here Three
is
single.
as
given by Professor Fowler are the same and Whately. those given by Mansel Jevons follows Whately and Mansel, and adopts Professor
their forms.
all
Thomson3
defines
the
Dilemma
as
"
with syllogism
or
con
consequent is
of it :
(1)
.-.
If A But
is B
or
is
F, then C is D,
or
either A is B
is F ;
C is D.
1
2 3
Wallis's
Deductive
Lib.,in.
Laws
cap. 19.
Thomson's
DILEMMA
ACCOKDING
TO
LOGICIANS.
287
(2)
.".
If A
is
B, then C is D
C is D
nor
or
is
F,
But
neither B.
is F ;
A is not If
some
(3)
A is
are
are
A,
or
the N
that
are
A,
But
.".
B,
the M
are
neither B.
A, nor
the N
that
are
A,
are
B ;
A is not
Hamilton^-.
"
"If
once
syllogismbe
at
the major premiss) of a sumption (i.e. and disjunctive, and if in the hypothetical
the
as a conse subsumption (minor premiss) the whole disjunction, in order to sublate the antece e. denied), quent, be sublated (i. dent in the conclusion ; such a reasoningis called an Hypotketicoor syllogism, disjunctive is the following :
"
Dilemma.
The
form
of this
syllogism
"
If A But
or
C exists ;
C exists ;
/.
A does not
exist."
a
"
In
the be
of sifting
proposed dilemma,
"
the
a
following points
veritable
conse
should quence
(1) Whether
and
subsists
antecedent
consequent of the
the opposition in the consequent is sumption; (2) whether thorough-going and valid; and (3) whether in the subsumption the disjunctivemembers sublated. For the are legitimately
example of : following
"
dilemma
which
violates
these
take conditions,
the
If virtue
or
were
habit worth
or
it must acquiring,
wealth, or honour
But
pleasure;
of these ;
a
virtue insures
none
Therefore,virtue is
Here:" may
not
habit worth
attaining.
a
(1) The
inference
in
general is invalid;for
it does
not
secure
thing
be worth
acquiring though
(2) The
which
any
of those
Hamilton's
Vol. Lectures,
p. 350.
288
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
obtained for its possessors the frequently Vol. III. pp. 352"3. advantageshere denied.*" Hamilton,
C.
"
NOTE
ON
MIXED
AS
SYLLOGISMS IMMEDIATE
REGARDED
BY
SOME
LOGICIANS
INFERENCES.
Hamilton
in his later
and Hypothetical
Immediate
He whether and
ence.
Inferences.
:
"
"
says the
It has been
matter
class which
I call
of
of Mediate
Immediate
Infer
hold them to be mediate; a small majority of Kant minority,of which I recollect only the names [Fisher, hold them to be immediate. The Weiss, Bouterwek, Herbart], inference is dispute is solved by a distinction. Categorical
immense
mediate,the
cal and clusion
medium
of conclusion
Disjunctive Syllogismsare
"
that which I call the Explication. being a proposition, So far they both agree in being mediate,but they differ in four that the medium of the Comparativesyllogism points. The first, is
a a term; of the Explicative, proposition. The
second,that
of the The
Comparativeis one
; of the
more Explicative,
is third,that in the Comparative the medium it varies according to the always the same; in the Explicative, various The conclusion. fourth,that in the Comparative the medium enters the conclusion ; whereas,in the Explicative, never conclusion1/'' medium the same is reciprocally or proposition and Disjunctive Syllogisms) Again, (1) They (Hypothetical but more not composite by contrast to the regularsyllogism, are simple; (2) if inferences at all,they are immediate and not
"
Lectures,Vol.
iv.
p. 378.
290
"The forms
:
"
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
DisjunctiveProposition may
"
appear
in the
following
I.
II.
is either
B
or
or
C.
Either Either
a
a
exists.
or
HI.
" '
is
or
B,
a
is D.
c
He
is either
if not
a
fool
means rogue,' a
If not
a
'
he fool, Not
is
rogue, he is
*
fool.'
Otherwise,
a
beinga
is
and rogue,'
not
beinga
rogue, he is
fool.' These
equivalentforms ; and the supposed reasoning consists one according to the facts of the alternative, merely in electing the alternative The datum we use case. being, he is not a fool,' 'he is a rogue,' and so on1."
'
all
"The
Dilemma
conditional
a
and
disjunctive
disjunc
of
conditional
is made
Jf either A
C is."
usual "The
"
type :
Whately calls a simple Constructive B is,C is; now, either A or B is; or gives consequent being made disjunctive, If A is, either B or C is. If the barometer
wind the
or or
rain.
Various
suppositions
Thus
:
"
alternatives. possible
(1) (2)
A is ;
then, B
C is.
C is not ;
(3) (4)
(5)
C is ; then, if A
B
is,B is
not.
is ; then, if A
is,C is not.
is.
B is not ; B is not
then, if A is,C
C is not ;
(6)
"
and
then, A is not.
which is :
"
This
last
(6)is
form
of
simpledilemma
or
Now,
Mixed
either B
C is.
Whence
is2."
and
not
:
"
That
Syllogismsare
from the
mediate
inferences
imme
be evident
a
considerations following
are
In
mixed
premisses and
does not
conclusion, as
one
in
pure
syllogism.
but from
conclusion
1
follow from
premissalone
2
Bain's
Ibid. p. 121.
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
291
syllogism, together. In a hypothetical-categorical the for example,the major premiss is a hypothetical proposition, minor premiss a categorical one, and the conclusion also a cate B is; A is; therefore B is;" here the major "If A is, gorical: the of the existence of B on premiss expresses the dependence, of two propositions existence of A, and is not a combination as maintained by some logicians.The minor premiss erroneously that A exists. It is 'A is' is a categorical affirming proposition, of the major premiss,which the antecedent not the same as idea, thought,or simple apprehensionof the expresses the mere with a subjectand a predi It is a proposition existence of A. of the major premiss is merely a cate, while the antecedent The two can not be regardedas identical, term. many- worded unless a term and a proposition identical. The conclusion are *B is; is likewise not the same the consequent of the major as that B exists, proposition affirming premiss. It is a categorical while the consequent is a many-worded term, expressingthe mere idea,thought, or simple apprehension of the existence
the two taken of B. The exists.
not
affirm that A
are
exists
two
or
that B
consequent
not
categorical
but two many-worded terms. It expresses propositions, only the relation of dependence of the consequent on the antecedent, and says nothing as to the real existence of either. It laysdown A is, the generalrule that wherever B is, that the existence of of the existence of A. B accompanies every case The minor premiss A is asserts that this is a case of the existence of A.
"
'
Whence
it is inferred that
there is
case
of the existence
accompanying this case of the existence of A, or, in other that B is (conclusion). The minor premiss may be taken as a hypothetical proposi with 'this case3 for its understood tion, antecedent;thus, "if A is." From this case is, this and the original hypothetical major follows the that "if this B case premiss conclusion, is, is," or, in other words, that 'B is' (conclusion), taken as a hypothetical understood with this case for its antecedent. proposition
' ' * '
B, words,
of
19"2
292
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
"
If A
B is ; is,
is not ; therefore A
minor in the
are
and the not,"the major premiss is hypothetical, and the conclusion are categorical as propositions
tive form. the minor The
premiss
construc
differences between
the
two
forms
(1) that
premiss and the conclusion are affirmative in the con structive form, and negative in the destructive, and (2)that the minor premiss of the one and the conclusion of the other have the same but differ in quality. Thus subjectand predicate, (1)
'A is' and 'B is' are the minor propositions in the constructive premiss and the conclusion, respectively, 'B is not' and 'A is form, and the two negative propositions not the minor in are premiss and the conclusion, respectively, the destructive form. (2) 'A is' is the minor premiss in the constructive form, and A is not is the conclusion in the destruc tive form; in the former 'B is' is the conclusion, and in the latter 'B is not' is the minor premiss. The conclusion of the has the same and predicate the minor premiss of one as subject the other. From this fact has probably arisen the mistaken notion that in these syllogisms the minor premiss and the con clusion indifferently Hamilton V The change places says : that in the Comparative the medium the enters never fourth, in the Explicative conclusion; whereas (i.e. syl hypothetical medium or "c.) the same propositionis reciprocally logisms, is not the same. conclusion." Its subject Now, the proposition and predicate only are the same, but its quality is different. The minor premiss of the one, and the conclusion of the other, not be regarded as the same, unless an affirmative and a can negativeproposition, are having the same subjectand predicate, unless A and E, A and O, E and I, I and 0, are the same, identical. With equal justicemight the conclusion in one, and the minor premiss in the other, of the two forms,namely, affirtwo
' ' ' ' "
"
the
affirmative
This
point
it to be from
a
is
differently interpretedby Professor Eobertson 264) and Mr Keynes (Formal Logic, p. 234). They
which, I think, Hamilton
him and
is
blunder, from
free,as
book
the
examples given by
quoted in this
page
289.
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
293
mative
and
of negative, identical
1.
:
"
the
be syllogisms, followingcategorical
regarded as
: Categoricals Affirmative
"
(1)
.V
All
All
men
mortal,
men,
(2)
.'.
All
men
are
mortal,
are
kings kings
Some Some
kings
men,
All
mortal. 2.
kings are
"
mortal.
: Negative Categoricals
(1) All
All
.*.
men
are
are
mortal,
not not
(2)
All No
men
are are
mortal,
mortal,
men.
kings kings
mortal,
men.
kings
All
are
.'. No
kings are
1.
CorrespondingConstructive
If all
: Hypothetical-categoricals
"
(1)
kings
are
are
men,
all
(2)
If
some
kings are
are
men,
some
kings
All
.*. All
mortal;
men;
kings
Some
.*.
mortal;
men;
kings are
kings are
kings
are
kings are
mortal.
Destructive men,
Some
mortal.
2.
Corresponding
If
all
Hypothetical-categoricals:
"
(1)
kings
are
are
all
(2)
If
some
kingsare
are
men,
some
kings
All
.*. All
kings kings
mortal,
men.
No
are
The the
minor
premiss in
one
and
the
conclusion
in the
other of
and negative Categoricals have the same subject affirmative and stand to each other in the same relation in and predicate, which the minor premiss in one and the conclusion in the other of the constructive and destructive hypothetical-categoricals stand But who would maintain that in those categorical to each other. "the minor and the conclusion syllogisms, change indifferently that the is medium or same places," or proposition reciprocally
"
conclusion"?
II. In
a
mixed In the
syllogismthere
are
three terms
as
in
pure
a
syllogism.
many-
worded
example taken above, the consequent as term, is the major term, the antecedent as a many*
worded
this case'
or
the
case
in
294
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
This form
will be
:
"
if evident,
Every
case
case
of the existence of A is
case
of the existence
of B ; the
in
case
the
is a case of the existence of A: therefore question (orthis case) in question (orthis case)is a case of the existence of B.
Here
the
three
terms
are
"
(1)
case
of of A
the
existence
of
of the existence
case
in
term
that
question or this case to which (1) and (3),the two is, a relation between (1) and
of them
to
a
(3) is
established
as
from
relation of each
case
third
in the
of
categorical syllogism.
: (ii) Hypothetical
If A
case
case
is,B is.
Here the in Barbara. hypothetical syllogism middle is the antecedent and con term in the major premiss, sequent in the minor, as it should be in that mood. From this it is evident,that the objection that a mixed syl logism has no middle term, and consists of two terms only,is unfounded. It has arisen from a entirely misunderstanding of pure
This
the true
been
of the
of two term
term.
many-
worded
terms.
It is also evident
a
that the
a
is not, as
Hamilton
says,
but proposition,
many-
III.
.-.
If A
AisB,
CisD;
C is D.
being B,
a
regardedas an syllogism immediate inference is stated ; and it is argued that the con clusion follows immediately from tha-t no the premiss, and minor that a be shown premiss is necessary. Now, it can likewise be stated in the above form ; categorical syllogism may
This
is the form
in which
mixed
NOTE
ON
MIXED
SYLLOGISMS.
295
and
ence
should
?
it, therefore, be
regarded
as
an
immediate
infer
All
.-.
men
are
mortal,
men,
are
All
kings, being
mortal.
Here is evident
ment
are
also that
the the
conclusion conclusion
from
a
the
or
premiss.
abridged
*
But
state
it
short minor
of two
propositions, namely,
and the
premiss,
are
all
kings
Some
men,'
conclusion,
'all
kings
that
even
mortal.' in the
actually
minor
maintained
categorical
conclusion
cate
con
premiss
is unnecessary, Thus
that would
the
the
major
as
premiss.
and
they
regard
But follow from of A
consisting
not
of two
as
immediate 257
"
mediate
we
(pp.
8)
that
nor
the from
from the
alone, but
this is true
'
major
C
minor well
as
taken of
a
jointly.
mixed
syllogisms
is
categoricals.
short minor
or
conclusion
statement
being B,
two
D,'
is
merely
abridged premiss
'A
of and
pro
con
positions, namely,
clusion Here He he the
sees no
'
the
is
B,J
the
is D.3 be noticed
an
may real
a
by
Professor
Bain.
inference
By
or
real inference
means
proposition
or
in,
implied by,
on a
premiss
premisses.
of the
to
a
objection
of
is founded
mis It is
understanding
true
deductive
equally applicable
conclusion contained is
not
or
categorical syllogisms.
real
the is dis
inference, but
the said
two
proposition
in,
about in
implied by,
it may be
premisses.
the
Without
puting
and
words,
mixed
that
inference and
is mediate real in
cate
real
syllogisms,if
it is mediate
goricals.
296
NOTE
ON
REDUCTION
OF
INDUCTIVE
D."
NOTE
ON
THE TO THE
REDUCTION
OF
INDUCTIVE FORM.
REASONING
SYLLOGISTIC
of Inductive principles Reasoning (what and nature) are be their origin the two Laws of Causation ever The first law includes the two and Uniformity of Nature. propositions (1) every phenomenon has a cause, and (2) the of a phenomenon is the invariable, cause or, as Mill says, the invariable antecedent of the phenomenon. The unconditionally second law means that (3) the same antecedent cause or will, under the same effect. All circumstances,produce the same inductive in accordance reasoningsare conducted either directly
"
The
fundamental
with them.
one
or
other
of these
laws the
or
with
laws
that
follow
from
propositionof the first law follow such laws as the following given by Professor Bain1 : to the (4) whatever antecedent can be left out,without prejudice be no can (5) when an antecedent effect, part of the cause ; be left the consequent disappearing, such not out without can antecedent be 'the cause must or a part of the cause;3 (6) 'an antecedent and a consequent rising and fallingtogether in
' ' *
For
-example,from
second
concomitance
*
are
to
be
held
as
cause
and
if two or more instances of : (7) following under investigation have only one circumstance in common, non of the phenomenon ; is the cause that circumstance (or effect) (8) if an instance where a phenomenon occurs, and an instance
'
'
where
it does
not
one
occur,
have
every
circumstance
in
common
that the
occurringonly in
absent
in the
second,is the
cause,
or
cause,
given phenomenon'2.
ed.,pp. 47, 48, 57.
and (4),(5),(6), (7), be shown of
as
Induction, 2nd
the
from
(8) follow
then
follows
"
(4) is the
convert
of the the
cause
"
obverse
of
a
(2). Obvert
is not of
and (2),
phenomenon
antecedent
phenomenon
[E, obverse
That (2)].(4)
298
.'.
NOTE
ON
REDUCTION
OF
INDUCTIVE
That
circumstance
is the
cause
of the
phenomenon
of
a
be stated
in the form
categorical
of
follows The
"
invariable antecedent
of
phenomenon
of the
is the
cause
the
phenomenon
(minor
premiss).
.'.
is the
cause
of the
phenomenon
ABC BC
(theconclusion).
b
c
(2)
The
antecedents
produce a
"
be,
.'.
The
antecedent
is the
cause
the
phenomenon a according to the marked one (8)above, and called the Canon be Difference. This inductive reasoningmay
"
of the
Method
of
to
likewise reduced
the
form syllogistic If
an
as
follows
a
"
instance
not
where
occur,
one
phenomenon
have every
occurs,
and
an
instance
common
where
it does
one,
circumstance in the
in
except
stance
or a
that
occurring only
absent of the
a
first ; the
circum
presentin
instance instance in A B
part of the
An
an
cause,
and
C
common
be,
every
oc
circumstance
curringonly in
in the second
the
Therefore,the circumstance
is the cause,
a
absent
given
phenomenon
Or, as
When
(conclusion).
:
"
follows
an
antecedent
can
not
be
the
con or a
be the cause, must such antecedent sequent disappearing, part of the cause, of the consequent (majorpremiss). The
a
antecedent
can
not
the
consequent
REASONING
TO
SYLLOGISTIC must
FORM.
299
or a
Therefore
the
antecedent. A
be the
cause,
part of
to
the cause,
of the
consequent
inductive
a.
reasoningsmay example
the
be
reduced
the
take
as
concrete
first of
one
we
have
"givenin 123):"
the
chapter on
Air
the
Different
Kinds
Reasoning (page
expands by heat, "Water expands by heat, Mercury expands by heat, Copper expands by heat,
"c.
.'.
"c.
All material
bodies
expand by heat1.
are
Here
the
antecedent
circumstances
the
material
bodies
bodies plus heat, and the consequents or effects are the same plus the phenomenon of expansion. All the antecedents agree of being heated material bodies ; and, there in the circumstance
fore, according to
circumstance in is, of the
the
cause
Canon
of the
Method
of
is the
of the
phenomenon
being the
invariable
expansionis
and is
a
the. cause
the
of this
phenomenon.
accurately,
"
the different
steps of
(1) Air
bodies the
other bodies
phenomenon;
of this
cause,
according to
invariable
principle 'everyphenomenon
cause;' (2)the
antecedent shown
by the namely, 'the invariable antecedent of a phenomenon is the ciple, of the phenomenon,' the application cause of heat to material bodies is the cause of the expansion in the given instances ; and antecedent (3) according to the principle, or namely, 'the same under 'the same cause will, circumstances, produce the same it may be inferred that the application of heat to other effect,'
1
phenomenon is the applicationof heat, as given instances ; therefore, accordingto the prin
This 75.
is proposition But
not
page
300
material
NOTE
ON
EEDUCTION
OF
INDUCTIVE
as bodies,
well other
as
to
the
same
expansion ;
heat. The
or, in
words,
has
a
all
in
different
steps may
a
be thus
stated
: syllogistically
"
cause, the
expansion of
it has
a
air and
cause. cause
by
heat is
phenomenon
of
; therefore
a
(2)
of the
The
invariable antecedent
phenomenon
is the in
is the
invariable
the
cause
given
in
phenomenon
(3)
The
of
same
the
of the
under the same cir will, effect or consequent, that is, if a cumstances, produce the same certain antecedent under certain circumstances, a certain produces, under the same consequent, then it will, circumstances, produce the same of consequent; the antecedent, namely, the application heat to material under the circumstances of there being bodies, no counteractingagencies, produces the consequent,namely, the expansion of those bodies ; therefore the same namely, antecedent, the application of heat to material cir under the same bodies, of there being no counteracting cumstances will produce agencies, the same consequent, namely, the expansion of those material
"
bodies. like mathematical reasonings, (seep. 123), be reduced to the syllogistic form : usuallytheir conformity may to an axiom, principle, law, canon, or rule recognizedas true is consti even as regarded as a sufficient proof of their validity, itself ; but in all cases where they are valid, tuting their validity form. In they are capable of being reduced to the syllogistic of causation Physics, for example, conformity to the principles and rules derived and of uniformityof nature, or to the canons of the reason the validity from them, is regarded as constituting Thus
or ings; but we have seen that,taking the principles and the data as minor, we as major premisses, can,
all inductive
the
canons
in all cases,
as
construct
which syllogisms
have
the
same
conclusions of the
the the
test
of validity
reduction
to the
syllogistic
REASONING
TO
SYLLOGISTIC
FORM.
301
form
this
any
weakness
in
the
argument
is
sure
to
come
to
light by
process.
To data
"
see
clearly
what
premisses
and facts
a
"
have
the
been
assumed,
or,
on
what
both
principles
to
conclusion
or a
ultimately
of of
rests,
to
it the
is
necessary
reduce In
reasoning
form every should be
or
train
reasoning
the
syllogistic
be
every
step
argument
to
will the
clearly
proposition
there
to
required
any
error
prove in the
conclusion of
or
bare,
it
be
reasoning,
rules any of
will
brought
light by
the Of data
axioms,
course,
"
Deductive
or
Syllogistic Logic.
in the fact
if any
be
falsity
or
fallacy
ultimate
has been
if
principle
"
any be
particular
unwarrantedly
canons or
it it be
can
not
detected
by
canons
axioms,
rules the
rules
as
detected British
must
by
the
of
any
Logic,
understood ultimate
by
appeal
and for
Logicians.
be made
to
particular fact,
external is made
or
the in
to
observation,
the
ternal;
the and
the
universal
principle
that
or
appeal
(1)
Experience
Generalisation
to
of the
Individual,
Experience Theory);
the Eeason of Ex Ex be
;
or
(the Empirical
that
(2) (the
the
Intuition,
is, to
;
or
Immediate
or
Intuitional Mind of
Theory)
(3)
Kantian
to
the
Forms
Categories (4)
to
(the A-priori
the
Theory)
Inherited The
to
the and
can
perience perience
decided and and the
Race,
that
is,
to
Tendencies first
(the Evolutional
Theory).
science science and
question
the fact
only by
second of
the
special
belongs
question
universal the
by
the
treats has
of the been
origin
nature
principles,
Science "c.
of
variously
Science
called of the
Metaphysics,
most
First
Principles, the
General
Laws,
302
THE
NATURE
AND
PROVINCE
E.
"
THE
NATURE
AND
PROVINCE
OF
OBJECTIVE
LOGIC.
and the thingsignified are ObjectiveLogic,' by it, I intend,therefore, to give here extracts comparatively new. from the writingsof Logicianswith a view to indicate the nature
The
name
and
of province
the
thingas
View,
conceived
by
them.
"
1.
Hamilton's
doctrine...which
procedureshould
of
laws
so
by
as
which
our
far
these lie in
thought, or in the conditions of the mind itself, which is the subjectin which knowledge inheres, this Science be called formal, or Subjective, or or Pure Abstract, Logic. may which The Science,again, expounds the laws by which our scientific procedureshould be governed,in so far as these lie in the contents, materials, about which or Knowledge is objects, or or conversant, this Science may be called Material, Objective,
" "
" 2.
In
occurs
writingsthe
the
name
if Logic'rarely, 'objective
ever,
He defines thingis to be found in abundance. in his Examination and treats of the thing of Hamilton's Philo and expounds and criticises sophy and also in his System ofLogic, There is, doctrines from that point of view. however, a logical
; but
difference between
and the
the
thing as
of in
conceived the
in the In
Examination,
the former he
thing as
treated
Logic.
speaks of concepts, judgments, and reasonings,and requires be right or true, that is,that they should that they should fact or reality. In the latter he treats of phe agree with
nomena
instance,stand for for relations of things; and arguments are things; propositions about the relations of those relations. In the Logiche givesup
or
facts
themselves:
names,
for
Hamilton's
Lectures, Vol.
iv.
p. 231.
OF
OBJECTIVE
LOGIC.
303
theories of
not
condemns ideas of
the
founded
upon
and things,
phenomena
themselves.
The
things
he
and
it is from the
this
point
of view
that
guiltyof Syllogism
as no
Immediate
inference
at all.
thus
two
phases :
"
(1) (2)
or
In
judgments,and cepts,
In the second
phase Logic is conceived to treat of with things. reasoningsas agreeing phase,Logic is conceived
to treat of
con
things
and of their relations and correlations. phenomena themselves, to occupy an seems Among English Logicians Mill,in fact, such intermediate Subjective Logicians as position between Hamilton and and
Mansel, and
such
Lewes1.
" 3.
"A abstract
Spencers View.
distinction exists
not
nature, is
Logic and an account of that Logic formulates in brief, tion is, this,
of its
highly
of distinc
generallaws existences considered as objective; while an of correlation among the most of the process of Eeasoning,formulates account general correspondingto those exist The certain con ences. one contemplates in its propositions, involved with certain nexions predicated, which are necessarily other connexions exist as given ; regardingall these connexions ing in the nonego not, it may be, under the form in which wre
laws of correlation
among
the ideas
"
On
the difference
between
Formal
Material
Logic
Logic (the first phase of Mill's view of Logic), see of some of Chance, 2nd ed. chapter x., "Discussion
as
Views Principal
to
the Nature
and
Province
of
Logic,Material
Conceptualist." On
dicated distinction of
the two
in phases, briefly
compare
Ueberweg's
304
know
cess
THE
NATURE
AND
PROVINCE
them,
but in
some
form.
these
The
other
the contemplates
of connexion
come
pro
to
in the ego
by
which
necessities
be
recognised. "Why
this
see.
distinction
the with
has
one
eluded
it observation, the
is not
difficultto
ing
terms to
so
on
the are,
some as
hand, and
from
theoryof
Reason
relations
which
all concrete
use
terms
they may the relations dealt or even attribute, action, relation) ; otherwise with can not be expressed, from one another. or distinguished
But
that
expelled.They are severally obliged possible, (which,however, are by preference symbolic, indifferently express any kind of existence,
the
natures
of
the
terms, and
occupy most
most
of terms
or
world
the one relations, belonging and the other to the inner world,become to the outer world in there arises this confusion between Logic, Hence distinguishable. division of the science of objective which is as much existence a as Mathematics, and the theoryof Reasoning,which is a division
two
to the inner
world,the
sets of
of
Science. subjective
"
To
show
of
Logicrefer to
our
the connexions
among and of
not
things considered
to the correlative
consciousness,
connexions but
to take
correlative states of
we consciousness, as
need
tions I
the
system of
statement
are so
Prof,
encumbered
one
details and
once
that is at
brief
and adequate.
"'From it may
two
the
premises
with
most
B's
are
C's,most
B's
are
A's,
be concluded
portionsof the class in part consist of the same individuals. half,must necessarily out this line of thought,it is equallyevident that if we Following what proportion the knew exactly most' in each of the premises
'
A's are C's, that some since certainty than B, each of them comprising more
306
of the necessary
THE
NATURE
AND
PROVINCE
correlations are statical, while all the objective correlations are dynamical; and only in so necessary subjective be so arranged as to symbolize far as dynamicalcorrelations may statical correlations, the necessary dependencies of Reason be can the necessary dependenciesof Logic1". made to parallel
See,then,the inevitable implication.No one questions the fact that while I was arith using these marbles to exemplify metical truths and geometrical and truths,I was contemplating, ective correlations. Can it be that when was teaching, necessary obj
"
I used among I
these groups
same
marbles
and
necessities to the region of passedfrom the regionof objective I think,have the hardihood necessities? No one will, subjective
to assert
as
much.
There
is
no
choice
most
of correlation of numerical
which
laws
outside along Logic formulates, correlation and geometricalcorre into the mind laws
as
lation ;
rjo
else, bringingthem
them
sense,
laws laws
of of
to bringwith
these
mathematical
other
as
thought, thought
in ^ j|
; to
the
merge
same
and, by
steps equallyunavoidable,
thus
I the
facts: facts in subjective objective and object2 ". distinction between subject
all
Mr Carveth
abolishing
/
v
view of Logic, with these adoptsSpencer's that Logic "may the two first, qualifications, very well consider and second, that Logic deals correlation of ideas among themselves," Vol. On See n. some Mind, Principles only with laws of phenomena." Mr Critical of Bead's Notice For 336. a of Logic," p. "Theory of Dr Vol. 539. See also see in. Mind, Venn, p. Logic : an Essay,"by " 'Matter-of-fact' on Logic,"by Mr J. N. Keynes, hi Mind, Vol. a note For a criticism of Spencer'sview of Logic, by Dr Venn, iv. p. 120. Dr Difficulties of Material Logic,"p. 35. Mind, Vol. rv., "The see to correspond to UeberVenn suggestsa view of Logic which seems weg's view and to the first phase of Mill's conceptionof Logic (see of regardingLogic as a Mill's View). "Instead purely objective Note.
Bead
"
"
J 2
n. u.
OF
OBJECTIVE
LOGIC.
307
more
science," says
a
Dr
Venn,
"we
might with
science which
it the
(Mind, objective"
p.
46). Compare
of
Ueberweg's definition,
know
of the
the
Mill's view
Logic
as
"the and
science
which
reasonings de
ed. p.
464).
"
4.
L"wes's
us
View.
for
a
"Let
pause
moment
to
consider It
the
very
different for
:
meanings assignedto
the word
Logic.
commonly
stands
(1)
(2)
reasoning ;
theory of reasoning ;
(3) Seasoningitself;
of (4) the laws of mental operation, irrespective operatedon (Formal Logic); the
symbols
(5)
"The
art of
There
is
no
more
an
Reasoning than
little is this found how
art
of
But
so
understood
we
that
must
will be
we
that declaring
to fence
or
learn
how
to
reason,
as
learn
to swim.
In consequence
of this mis
certain studies, conception, notably Mathematics, are popularly believed 'to strengthen the Faculty,'to develop the logical to 'invigorate the judgment.' The psychological notions powers, which lie at the basis of such declarations are sadly defective. "The secdnd and third meanings of the word are objectionable because when restricting Logic to the process of Ratiocination the ratios and
are
abstract.
This
restriction
is
got rid
of
in the
meanings, which may be accepted as compre hensive. The fourth designates the universal Logic,it includes all Laws of Grouping (Xe'yeti/ to bind together, to group), means and is therefore applicable to Feeling and Thought (in the sub and to Cause (inthe objective jective world), world).
fourth
fifth
308
"The
THE
NATURE
AND
PROVINCE
fifth has
the
technical
and In
Codification of
Logic be
a
the rules
of Proof.
of Grammar of various
or
speech of
men
exhibits words
treat
as separately
Speech, Hules
certain them
treat
"
detach and
Logicians may in like manner intellect, general procedures of the investigating apart as
the Rules of Rational
of Grammar.
Having fixed on the meaning Logic may for a SpecialDiscipline, namely, the codification of the rules of Proof, we complete it by assigningto Metaphysics the may of a codification of the laws of Cause. It will thus position parallel the place assigned to it by Hegel, namely, occupy very much that of ObjectiveLogic. The Object and the Subject would have one viewed as the Logic of Intelli generalLogic,separately
gence, In the Cosmos, viewed Logic of the Cosmos. things influence each other and events succeed each objectively, laws. other according to invariant When these or tendencies, phenomena are reproduced in consciousness they are also repro duced according to invariant tendencies ; and thus it is that a law of Cause becomes a rule of Proof. Logic in its widest sense the generaltendencies is Grouping. The laws of Grouping are the and
Things and the generaltendencies of Thought. The common of Thought from the thingsthought of,is an artifice ; separation but it is one so deeply inwoven Math our philosophyand practice, and untutored in such researches, is astonished that the mind between of the identity distressed at the statement Thing and this Thought, Object and Subject. With what qualifications
of statement I
am
has
to be
received
to
we
discuss.
Here
only concerned
"
define
positionof Metaphysics as
the
no
ObjectiveLogic the codification of The Cause. SubjectiveLogic takes and processes by which instruments
it is with occupiedsolely
most account
abstract of the
laws
of
each
science reaches
special Proof,
In
processes.
OF
OBJECTIVE
LOGIC.
309
like
manner
the of
processes abstract
details in the special ObjectiveLogic disregards Causation,solelyoccupied with codifyingthe most whatever lies beyond SubjectiveLogic rejects and thus demarcates from Pos verification, Reality whatever from Fiction. lies ObjectiveLogic rejects world the of sensibles range of and extra-sensibles and which
can
results. of
the range
within
Experience;
the
two
thus
demarcates
Metaphysics from
"
Metempirics.
between
This the
distinction distinction
sents
between
one identityunderlyingthis find the laws of Investigation; the abstract conditions to we all knowledge is subject. In the other we which find the laws the abstract conditions to which of the Investigated, the know
of ledgeis subject. Only on the assumption of the invariability relations objective and subjective is Philosophy possible. In the
most
abstract No
of the
that sciences,
of
Number,
be
this valid
is identity
were
manifest.
not
arithmetical between
an
operation would
internal
runs
there the
this accord
the accord
and
assumption
the axioms and
convex
of such of
throughout Science.
of Science
are
Indeed
concave
Logic and
to
the axioms
same
the
aspects of the
footnote written the Mr
curve1."
: a
"
"
In view
a was
Since view
this of
new
Logic. Startingfrom the propositionthat the Syllogismrefers to the dependencies of Things and not of Thoughts, he comes to
the conclusion that
Logic
must
be carried
over
entirelyto
Mathematics that
'
"
the
as
therefore
placesit
beside
latest scheme.
He
holds
it formu
considered
existences
Spencer's
here add
I seq.),
will
merely
my
it arises
from
to inability
Lowes's
Problems
of Life
and
Mind,
3rd
ed.
Vol.
i.
pp.
72"75.
310
THE
NATURE
AND
PROVINCE
there and
between
the
inner
is real1." correspondence
" 5.
Summary.
Logic is the science of the Accordingto Hamilton, Objective forms of the objects Logic the science of known, and Subjective the forms of the Knowing subject. Accordingto Spencer,Logic
is the
general laws of correlation among existences considered as objective," and the Theory of Reasoning the the science of the most general laws of correlation among ideas corresponding to these existences." Spencer'sLogic and to correspond to Hamilton's Objective Theory of Reasoning seem According to Spencer, Logic and Subjective Logic,respectively. and treats of the Logic,like Mathematics, is an objective science, It is as laws of objects in the outer world. most existing general Mathematics. Its mental little dependent upon as processes by the processes and laws of processes and laws are determined and not of thoughts. objects
science of "the
most
"
Logic as identical with Metaphysics. regardsObjective The Object and the Subject would have one generalLogic, and the Logic of viewed the Logic of Intelligence as separately the Cosmos." This generalLogic is Objective Logic applicable alike to the Subject and to the Object,to both thoughts and
Lewes
"
is
and Objective Logic with the ing, laws of Cause, of the processes
tween
abstract
Logics. According to Lewes, Thought and Things, Knowledge and and convex aspects of the same Being are, like the concave and objective existence; aspectsof the same curve, the subjective and the Logic of the one really correspondsto, or is identical
of these two
1
distinction be
correspondto
Problems
of Life
and
i.
p. 75.
OF
OBJECTIVE
LOGIC.
311
with, the Logic of the other. While, according to Spencer,the the Ego and the Non-ego are two separate Subjectand the Object, and the Logic of the one has only a certain symbolic realities; to the Logic of the other. or parallelism correspondence
two
classes of verbal
names,
: propositions (1)those
"
that agree
explain
with which
which
may
or
may
not
that
of names, the
with
facts.
text, I have
in view
propositions.
examples
in the
in which 3rd
all the
constituent
the
220.
figurere
See spectively.
his Formal
Logic,pp.
It is worth
noting that,by merely transposingthe premisses,his examples His first example be reduced to the forms can given above. C is B, all D is C, all E is D, all F is E, All A is B, no is :"
"
is F." is
Write
C is
it
as
follows
:"
"
All
is
E,
in
the
B is
as
C, all C
:"
follows
B, all A is B, therefore no A is F." last syllogismis in the 2nd figure, the others first. His second example is : "All B is A, all Write is D, all D is E, therefore, E is A." it some All B is C, all C is D, all D is E, all B is A, C, no
"
"
some therefore,
E is A."
In
this also
only the
last
is syllogism
in the 3rd
the figure,
CAMI'.RIDGK:
PRINTED
BY
C.
J. CI.AY,
M.A.
AND
SONS,
AT
THR
UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
TEXT-BOOK
OF
DEDUCTIVE
BY
PROFESSOR
OF
LOGIC
D.Sc.
IN
P.
K.
RAY,
AND
(Lond." Edin.),
THE
LOGIC
PHILOSOPHY CALCUTTA.
PRESIDENCY
COLLEGE,
Fourth
Edition.
MACMILLAN
Globe 8vo.
AND CO.
4s. Gd.
Extracts
"It science
from
Press
Notices
of
the Second
in
Edition.
this age of positive for books Formal so on great a It is no less sur Logic, or, at least,so great a supply of them. few should fulfilthe conditions such a number that among so prising
phenomenon
that demand
a single exclusively more impartial, Another, forms an unorganised congeriesof opinionscollected from all sides. becomes eccentric. Many presuppose to be original, A third, aspiring few of the are a previousknowledge completein themselves. subject ;
of
good authority
a
"
text-book.
it may
One be Mill
or
too
If
these chance
offered for the text-book which clear of kept most prize were Mr with think that a good Bay might compete defects,we A student who read nothing but this book would of success. and would be well equipped for have a fair knowledge of the subject, of the im touches most further. The author pursuing his studies of them." and adorns some Academy. portant topics "It contains all the necessary information,references to various valuable for the number and will be specially systems and opinions,
a
"
of well-chosen
"
examples and
exercises.""
Saturday Review.
...It speaks well for logical study in India that it should have of such a high degree of merit as the one called forth a text-book Professor before us undoubtedly possesses Eay's discussion of Inference is more Immediate complete than that of most text-books I am with which acquainted,and his views of obversion, contra The value,not indeed of this clear and consistent. are "c., position, the whole of it,is enhanced by the large part of the book only but of of the chapters con most of useful examples with which number clude.""
"
J. N.
KEYNES, Mind,
1884.
Logic of an His book is a text-book of Elementary Deductive The subjectis Jevons. order similar to that of the late Professor well adapted is It with b ut treated uncontroversially great grasp Westminster Review. for use by students."
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