139

Paper No.498 CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS+
By DR . SATISH C HANDRA* CONTENTS

Page 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction Objectives of Research Background Literature Data Collection and Research Methodology Analysis of Data Method of Capacity Estimation
SYNOPSIS Data collected at more than 40 sections of two-lane roads in different parts of the country are analysed. The effect of influencing parameters like gradient, lane width, shoulder width, traffic composition, directional split, slow moving vehicles and pavement surface conditions, on capacity of two-lane roads under mixed traffic conditions is evaluated and adjustment factors for each of these conditions are proposed. Based on these adjustment factors, a systematic procedure to evaluate capacity of a two-lane road under mixed traffic conditions is presented in this paper. 1. INTRODUCTION

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

139 140 140 142 146 166

Two-lane highways compose the predominant portion of most National and State Highway system in the country. Two-third length of National Highways and more than 50 per cent length of State Highways is still two-lane wide. Traffic operation on a two-lane two-way highway is unique. Lane changing and overtaking are possible only in the face of on-coming traffic in the opposing lane. The overtaking demand increases rapidly as traffic volume increases, while passing opportunities in the opposing
+

Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 31st December, 2004 Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247 667

140

DR. CHANDRA ON

lane decline as volume increases. Therefore, flow in one direction influences flow in the other direction. The problem is more acute in case of mixed traffic flow when speed differential among different categories of vehicles is quite substantial. It increases the desired number of overtaking considerably with limited opportunities to overtake. Prediction and knowledge of capacity is fundamental in design, planning, operation and layout of road network sections. Roadway factors that influence capacity of a two-lane road include lane width, gradient, lateral clearance, width and type of shoulder. Lane and shoulder width can have a significant impact on traffic flow. Narrow lanes cause vehicles to travel closer to each other laterally by slowing down or by observing large longitudinal gaps for a given speed. This effectively reduces the capacity. Important traffic conditions that affect capacity of a two-lane road are composition of traffic stream, directional split and presence of slow moving vehicles in the stream. Environmental conditions such as wet pavement or snow and ice conditions, rain, darkness, fog, parking regulation affect the driver performance and hence capacity. There are indications that wet or icy pavement can reduce capacity by 5-15 per cent 25 .
2. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The present study was undertaken with the following objectives: (i) (ii) To analyze traffic flow data collected on two-lane roads varying in roadway and traffic conditions. To study the effect of influencing parameters like gradient, lane width, shoulder width, traffic composition, directional split and pavement surface roughness on capacity of two-lane roads under mixed traffic conditions. To estimate adjustment factors for each parameter analyzed in the present study. To evolve a systematic procedure to determine capacity of a two-lane road under mixed traffic conditions.
3. BACKGROUND LITERATURE

(iii) (iv)

Taragin and Eckhardt (1953) 23 studied the effect of shoulder on speed and lateral placement of motor vehicles and found that when twolane pavements on main highways are 6 m in width or less, shoulders should be constructed with at least 1.2 m of stabilized material, adjacent to pavement plus additional width of grass and gravel. Leong (1978)16 measured speeds and capacity at 31 sites on rural highways in New South Wales. The sites had varying lane and shoulder width and all sites

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

141

had gravel shoulders. The data were analyzed using multiple regression and it was suggested that speed increased with increasing shoulder width. Prakash (1970) 18 also observed that the highway capacity is considerably influenced by the type and width of shoulder. Farouki and Nixon (1976) 8 studied the effect of carriageway width on speed of cars in the special case of free-flow conditions in sub-urban roads at Belfast. It was found that the mean free speed of cars in suburban area increases linearly with the carriageway width over a certain range of width (5.2 to 11.3 m). Turner et al. (1982) 24 found that the conversion of a shoulder to an additional travel lane could be expected to increase average-speed of a two-lane highway by about 5 per cent for volumes exceeding 150 veh/h. Yagar and Aerde (1983) 26 found that speed changes exponentially with change in lane width. Chandra and Kumar (1996)5 studied the effect of shoulder condition on speed of different types of vehicles and their placement on road during passing and overtaking maneuvers on single and two-lane highways. William and Reilly (1992) 25 provided a summary of operational techniques that can be used to improve level of service and capacity on two-lane highways. Ramanayya (1988) 19 observed that the capacity standards adopted in western countries do not take into account the mixed traffic characteristics prevalent in India. Sarna et al. (1989) 21 emphasized on the need of developing highway capacity norms for Indian highways. Kadiyali et al. (1991)13 observed that vehicle speeds on Indian roads have increased during the past ten years. Speed-flow relationships have also undergone changes. Pursula and Enberg (1991) reported from Finland that the highest flow rate measured on two-lane two-way road was 2500 veh/h with a directional split of 50/50. Fi (1994)9 reported that traffic characteristics were similar to HCM and expected traffic volume on two-lane highway was near 1500 pcu/h/l. Bang et al. (1995)1 developed speed-flow relationship and simulation model for twolane road in Indonesia and found that free flow speed for two-lane roads under ideal conditions is considerably lower in Indonesia than in developed countries. Sahoo et al. (1996) 20 found that increase in traffic volume decreases the speed of vehicles. Parker (1996)17 observed that knowledge of traffic composition plays an important role in determining capacity. Kumar and Rao (1998 ) 15 observed that speed density data could be reasonably represented by a linear relationship. Hossain and Iqbal (1999) 11 studied vehicular free speed characteristics on two-lane national highway of Bangladesh. Karan et al. (1978)14 developed relationship between average speed and pavement conditions for two-lane highways. Schofield (1986) studied effect of light and weather conditions on the speed and capacity of two-lane roads. Brilon and Ponzlet (1997) 2 studied influences of environmental factors on the speed-flow relationships on German autobahns.

142

DR. CHANDRA ON
4. DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The data for this study were collected at more than 40 sections of two-lane roads to determine the effect of gradient, lane width, directional split, shoulders condition and pavement roughness on capacity of twolane roads. The sections were so selected that the effect of each parameter could be studied individually. The details of these sections are given in Tables-1 to 4.
TABLE-1. DETAILS OF SECTIONS SELECTED FOR EFFECT OF GRADIENT Section Section Identification No Road Width (m) 7.0 m 7.0 m 7.0 m 7.0 m 7.0 Gradient Remarks

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

km-168 of NH-58 km-188 of NH-58 km-34 of NH-58 km-123 of NH-58 Level section

4% 3.03% 2.86% 2.63% 0%

+4% for up movement & -4% for down movement +3.03% for up movement & -3.03% for down movement +2.86 up movement +2.63% up movement & -2.63% for down movement Both side movement

TABLE-2. SECTIONS SELECTED FOR EFFECT OF LANE WIDTH Section No. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Road km-Stone Trap length Carriageway (m) width (m) 25 25 30 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 8.8 7.4 6.9 6.7 6.6 6.4 5.5 6.0 8.0 7.0

Ambala-Kalka (NH-22) Delhi-Nitipass (NH-58) Patna-Ranchi (NH-31) Jagadhari-Ambala (SH-5) Haryana Yamunagar-Kurukshetra (SH-6) Muzaffarnagar-Jansat (MDR-14) (U.P.) Roorkee-Panchkula (NH-73) PanipatKhatima (SH-12) Chandigarh-Shimla ( NH-38) Delhi-Nitipass ( NH58)

km60 km110 km60 km45 km6 km14 km35 km28 km20 km38

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
TABLE-3. SECTIONS SELECTED Section No. Section
FOR

143

DIRECTIONAL SPLIT

AND

PERCENT SMV % SMV

Width of carriageway (m) 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0

Directional Split

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

km12 of NH-30 km26 of NH-30 km65 of NH-31 km38 of NH-58 km135 of NH-58 km39 of NH-73 km2 of NH-77 km5 of NH-83 km5 of SH-26 (Punjab) TABLE-4. SECTIONS S ELECTED

55:45 62:38 57:43 100:0 53:47 59:41 62:38 54:46 51:49 S HOULDER CONDITION Shoulder

7.1 15.6 5.7 12.7 10.9 21.9 28.4 22.0 12.6

FOR

Section Name of the No. Road

Carriageway Width (m) Type

Physical condition of shoulder

Width (m) 1.6

25.

km3 of NH-19 (Hazipur-Chhapra Road) km15 of NH-19

7.0

Brick on edge

26.

7.0

Earthen

1.6

27.

km8 of NH-19

7.0

Earthen

1.5

28.

km155 of NH-30 (Patna-Bihta-Ara Road)

7.0

Earthen

1.2

29.

km134 of NH-30

7.0

Earthen

1.6

Drop at pavement edge was 5.0 cm. No depression on shoulder was present. Drop at pavement edge was 9.0 cm. Potholes up to 5.0 cm were present on shoulder. Drop at pavement edge was 12.5 cm. Depressions on shoulder were up to 10-15 cm. Drop at pavement edge was 5.0 cm. Depressions on shoulder were up to 5.0 cm. Drop at pavement edge was 8.0 cm. Depressions in shoulder were up to 3.0 cm.

144

DR. CHANDRA ON
TABLE-4. S ECTIONS S ELECTED
FOR

S HOULDER C ONDITION ( CONTD .) Shoulder Type Width (m) 1.8 Physical condition of shoulder

Section Name of the No. Road

Carriageway Width (m)

30.

km142 of NH-30

7.0

Earthen

31.

32.

km17 of NH-31 (Barhi-BakhtiarpurBarauni-Khagariya Road) km24 of NH-31

7.0

Soil Gravel mix Soil Gravel mix

1.8

7.0

1.8

33.

km28 of NH-31

7.0

Soil Gravel mix

1.3

Drop at pavement edge was 12.0 cm. Depressions on shoulder were up to 5.0 cm. Drop at pavement edge was 5.0 cm. No Depression in shoulder area. Drop at pavement edge was 9.0 cm. Depressions on shoulder were up to 5.0 cm. Drop at pavement edge was 15.0 cm. Depressions on shoulder were up to 10.0 cm.

The data were collected by video filming technique except at sections given in Table-4 where manual method was adopted. A longitudinal trap of 25-30 m was made on the road and recording was done for 3-4 hours during morning/evening hours of a typical weekday. To study the effect of shoulder condition on placement of vehicles, the data on speed, placement and volume of vehicles was collected manually at each section. The pavement width was divided in sections of 10 cm using white selfadhesive cloth tape. These sections were marked seriatim in white color. Movement of all categories of vehicles was observed and position of left wheels of a vehicle passing though the section was recorded. The small size vehicles like two wheelers or bicycles do not require much use of shoulder and therefore these vehicles were not included in data collection for placement. In order not to influence the driver, the recording was done by an observer standing at an obscure place such as the shadow of a roadside tree at a little distance away from the pavement. For the same reason of not disturbing the general pattern of traffic, observations were restricted to a typical weekday and clear sky. The following vehicles were considered for placement of vehicles from the edge of the pavement: (i) (ii) Car and jeep Heavy vehicle (HV like bus and truck)

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

145

(iii) (iv) (v)

Car-car passing or overtaking and placement was observed for car left to the observer. Car-HV passing or overtaking and placement was observed for vehicle left to the observer. HV-HV passing or overtaking and placement was observed for HV (Heavy Vehicle) left to the observer.

Speed data of car, LCV (Light Commercial Vehicle) and HV during free moving and passing or overtaking maneuvers are given in Table-5. The placements of vehicles from pavement edge during free movement of car and heavy vehicles (HV) and during passing/overtaking of car-car, car-HV and HV-HV are given in Table-6.
TABLE-5. SPEED OF VEHICLES DURING PASSING/OVERTAKING Section No. Speed (km/h) of car during crossing a Car 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 62.0 53.4 48.0 58.9 55.4 52.6 60.1 57.1 51.1 LCV 61.1 52.0 47.8 57.8 54.1 49.8 59.0 55.6 50.6 HV 58.5 50.1 45.3 55.4 51.2 47.6 56.2 52.8 48.2 Speed (km/h) of LCV during crossing a Car 50.1 45.2 40.5 49.5 48.2 42.5 54.2 46.2 43.9 LCV 49.5 44.0 39.9 48.2 47.1 41.6 53.1 45.0 42.2 HV 47.6 41.7 38.7 45.3 43.3 39.3 50.6 42.1 39.1 Speed (km/h) of during crossing a Car 45.2 41.5 40.2 44.2 42.1 37.7 46.3 41.8 39.7 LCV 44.3 41.1 38.3 41.5 41.0 36.0 44.2 40.2 37.5 HV 42.5 38.3 34.0 40.3 38.2 32.1 41.9 37.6 33.2

TABLE-6. PLACEMENT OF VEHICLES FROM PAVEMENT EDGE Section Weidth Placement (cm of single of Pavevehicle from pavePlacement (cm) of vehicle

No.

ment (m)
Car 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 157 169 181 161 173 180 158 171 183

ment edge
HV 135 142 154 132 139 153 126 135 149

during crossing/overtaking from pavement edge

Car-Car 93 108 117 96 110 120 89 114 124 Car-HV 73 84 88 75 82 91 72 85 93 HV-HV 65 71 79 63 73 80 66 75 83

146

DR. CHANDRA ON
5. ANALYSIS OF DATA

The data were analyzed to study the effect of influencing parameters on capacity of two-lane roads. All vehicles were divided into 10 categories as shown in Table-7.
TABLE-7. VEHICLE CATEGORIES No. Category Vehicles included
AND

T HEIR S IZES Projected Rectangular Area (m2 ) 5.36 24.54 17.48 12.81 4.48 1.20 0.86 2.56 16.28 9.63

Average Dimensions (m)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Car Bus Truck LCV Thee Wheelers Two Wheelers Cycle Rickshaw Tractor Animal driven vehicle (ADV)

Car, Jeep, Van 3.72 x 1.44 Bus 10.1 x 2.43 Truck 7.5 x 2.35 Mini bus, large vans, 6.1 x 2.1 tractors Thee Wheelers 3.2 x 1.4 Scooter, Motorbike 1.87 x 0.64 Mopeds Bicycles 1.9 x 0.45 Pedal rickshaw, carts 2.7 x 0.95 Tractor trailer 7.4 x 2.2 Bullock-cart, Horse cart 5.5 x 1.75

5.1.

Estimation of Equivalency Factors

The main problem in developing the analytical speed-flow relationship is heterogeneity of traffic. The vehicles in the mix produce different impedance due to their varied static and dynamic characteristics. Hence simply adding the number of vehicles does not give the authentic speed flow relationship. For this reason, the vehicles are normally presented in terms of standard type of vehicle using certain conversion factors. Generally, passenger car is adopted as standard vehicle and therefore the factor is known as passenger car unit (PCU). Many researchers have developed methods to estimate PCU for a vehicle type. The interesting point to note is that each of these studies has resulted into different PCU values for the same type of vehicle. There exists large variation in PCU values being adopted in different parts of the world. In the present study, the PCUs are calculated as follows. The basic concept used to estimate the PCU is that it is directly proportional to the ratio of clearing speed, and inversely proportional to the space occupancy ratio with respect to the standard design vehicle, a car, i.e. Speed ratio of the car to the ith vehicle PCU i = Where, PCU i
_______________________________________________________

Space ratio of the car to the ith vehicle = passenger car unit value of ith type vehicle

(Eqn. 1)

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

147

Speed ratio of the car to the ith vehicle = Vc/Vi Space ratio of the car to the ith vehicle = Ac/A i Vc = speed of car (km/h) Vi = speed of ith type vehicle (km/h) = static (projected rectangular) area of a car (m 2) Ac Ai = static (projected rectangular) area of ith type of vehicle (m 2) Therefore, PCU i =
c i __________

V /V

(Eqn. 2)

Ac /Ai

The first variable of speed ratio in Equation (2) will be the function of composition of traffic stream as the speed of any vehicle type depends upon its own proportion and type and proportions of other vehicles. Hence speed of any vehicle type will be true representation of overall interaction of a vehicle type due to presence of other vehicle of its own category and of other types. The second variable represents the pavement occupancy with respect to car. The PCU values for different categories of vehicles were computed at various sections and these are given in subsequent sections. 5.2. Effect of Grade

The PCU values for different types of vehicles with grade at different sections are given in Table-8. Further discussion on these values is given elsewhere (Chandra and Goyal, 2001) 4. The PCU values given in Table-8 were used to convert all vehicles into equivalent number of passenger cars and speedvolume relationships were plotted. The capacity values
TABLE-8. PCU S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. +4% +3.03% +2.86% +2.63% 0% -2.63% -3.03% -4% Gradient Bus 3.7 3.5 3.443 3.413 3.1 2.9 2.75 2.65 2W 0.22 0.215 0.213 0.21 0.205 0.195 0.19 0.185 LCV 1.99 1.85 1.8 1.7 1.55 1.4 1.35 1.25
FOR

D IFFERENT TYPES

OF

VEHICLES

AT

D IFFERENT G RADIENT

PCU for Cycle 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.409 0.4 0.38 0.37 0.355 CR 1.744 1.608 * 1.52 1.45 1.297 1.287 1.2 ADV 4.335 4.167 4.016 3.9 3.7 3.4 3.2 3

*CR was absent during data collection

148

DR. CHANDRA ON

with grade at different sections are given in Table-9. It indicates that each per cent of upgrade decreases the capacity by 2.61 per cent and each per cent of downgrade increases the capacity by 3.09 per cent.
TABLE-9. CAPACITY OF SECTIONS WITH GRADE S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Gradient +4% +3.03% +2.86% +2.63% 0% -2.63% -3.03% -4% Capacity/lane (pcu/h) 1175 1210 1062 1214 1310 1397 1438 1486 % Change in capacity w.r.t level 10.30 7.63 18.93 7.33 0 6.64 9.77 13.43

5.3. Effect of Lane Width The purpose of this part of study was to estimate capacity of twolane roads with varying carriageway width. Data collected at sections given in Table-2 were analyzed to determine the effect of lane width. Table-10 presents the PCU values as derived at these sections using Equation (2). Figs. 1 to 3 show the variation in PCU for different types of vehicles with varying lane width at different sections.
TABLE-10. PCU FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEHICLES ON VARYING CARRIAGEWAY-WIDTH
Section No. Name of Road Carriageway width (m) Bus 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. NH-22 NH-58 NH-31 SH-5 SH-6 MDR-14 NH-73 SH-12 NH-38 NH-58 8.8 7.4 6.9 6.7 6.6 6.4 5.5 6.0 8.0 7.0 5.64 5.51 5.45 5.40 5.37 5.31 5.17 5.25 5.56 5.46 Truck LCV 4.04 3.90 3.86 3.83 3.82 3.8 3.71 3.66 3.96 3.87 2.83 2.68 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.58 2.49 2.54 2.74 2.64 PCU for

Tractor 3-WH 5.87 5.71 5.67 5.64 5.63 5.61 5.51 5.56 5.77 5.68 1.76 1.65 1.49 1.44 1.42 1.39 1.24 1.32 1.69 1.52

2-WH 0.310 0.284 0.276 0.270 0.268 0.266 0.250 0.259 0.293 0.278

Cycle Rickshaw 0.52 0.417 0.461 0.451 0.447 0.44 0.410 0.427 0.504 0.465 1.61 1.54 1.52 1.50 1.49 1.48 1.42 1.45 1.56 1.52

The typical speed-volume relationship drawn to estimate capacity is shown in Fig. 4. Similar curves were drawn at other sections also. The capacity values estimated from these curves are given in Table-11.

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

149

Fig. 1. Effect of carriageway width on PCU for large vehicles

Fig. 2. Effect of carriageway width on PCU for cycle & 2-wheeler

150

DR. CHANDRA ON

Fig. 3. Effect of carriageway width on PCU for 3-wheeler & rickshaw

Fig. 4. Speed-volume relation at Section-11

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
TABLE-11. CAPACITY OF TWO-LANE ROAD WITH DIFFERENT CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH Name of the Road NH-22 NH-58 NH-31 SH-5 SH-6 MDR-14 NH-73 SH-12 NH-38 NH-58 Carriageway width (m) 8.8 7.4 6.9 6.7 6.6 6.4 5.5 6.0 8.0 7.0

151

Capacity (pcu/h) 3590 3002 2656 2549 2507 2290 1905 2095 3220 2707

Fig. 5 shows a plot between capacity and the carriageway width. It follows a second-degree curve relationship of the form given in Equation (3).

Fig. 5. Capacity as related to carriageway width

C = -22.6w2 + 875.4w - 2184 R2 = 0.99 (2.92) (3.54) (54.25) Where, C w = = Capacity of road (pcu/h) Total width of the carriageway (m)

(Eqn. 3)

152

DR. CHANDRA ON

The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are significant at 5 per cent level. Thus the capacity of a 7.2 m wide carriageway is 2818 pcu/h, which is quite close to the value suggested in HCM (1994) at equal directional split. Adjustment factors for other lane widths are given in Table-12.
TABLE-12. COMPARISON BETWEEN LANE WIDTH ADJUSTMENT FACTORS Serial No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Lane-width (m) 3.6 3.3 3.0 2.7 (11 ft) (10 ft) (9 ft) (8 ft) HCM, 1994 1.00 0.93 0.84 0.70 Swedish, 1977 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.83 Present study 1.00 0.88 0.76 0.63

(Lane width = Carriageway width/2)

5.4.

Effect of Directional Split and Slow Moving Vehicles

The nine sections given in Table-3 were analysed to study the effect of directional split and slow moving vehicles (SMA) on capacity of two-lane roads. All the sections had 7.0 m wide carriageway. The details of directional split and percent slow moving vehicles at each of these sections are also given in Table-3. The PCU values as estimated using equation (2) at different sections are given in Table-13. The wide variation in PCU factors at different sections is attributed to the change in traffic conditions. These values were used to develop speed-volume relationships. The typical curve is shown in Fig. 6. The capacity values as estimated at different sections are given in Table-14.
TABLE-13. PCU FACTORS AS ESTIMATED AT DIFFERENT SECTIONS
Section Car/ Truck Jeep 1.0 4.1 Bus LCV 3wheeler 1.0 2wheeler 0.26 Tractor Cycle Rick- Horse- Bullockshaw cart cart 1.5 6.4 *

NH-30 (km-12) NH-30 (km-26) NH-31 (km-65)

5.0

2.7

6.5

0.5

1.0

4.1

5.2

2.9

1.0

0.26

4.5

0.4

1.6

5.8

8.8

1.0

3.3

4.1

2.1

1.0

0.26

5.7

0.3

1.7

8.3

NH-58 1.0 (km-135) NH-58 (km-38) 1.0

4.2

5.0

2.6

1.7

0.26

7.7

0.6

2.5

12.2

4.3

5.1

2.5

1.9

0.27

6.5

0.6

2.2

5.2

12.5

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
TABLE-13. PCU FACTORS AS ESTIMATED AT DIFFERENT SECTIONS (CONTD.)
Section Car/ Truck Jeep 1.0 4.0 Bus LCV 3wheeler 1.2 2wheeler 0.3 Tractor Cycle

153

Rick- Horse- Bullockshaw cart cart 2.3 5.8 12.0

NH-73 (km-38) NH-77 (km-39) NH-83 (km-5) SH-26 (km-5)

5.2

2.8

6.2

0.6

1.0

4.0

5.2

2.8

1.2

0.3

6.2

0.6

2.3

5.8

12.0

1.0

3.5

4.7

2.4

1.2

0.26

6.5

0.5

2.2

7.7

10.0

1.0

4.2

5.0

2.6

1.2

0.26

6.7

0.6

2.5

5.2

12.2

This category of vehicle was not present at the time of observation / data collection

Fig. 6. Speed-volume relationship at Section-16

The results given in Table-14 show an increase in capacity with the decrease in percentage of slow moving vehicles in traffic stream. Further, the capacity decreases as the directional split moves away from an even split of 50:50. For understanding the effect of slow moving vehicles (SMV) and directional split separately, it is essential to keep one of them

154

DR. CHANDRA ON
TABLE-14 . CAPACITY VALUES AT DIFFERENT DIRECTIONAL SPLIT AND PERCENT SMV

Section Identification

Directional Split 55:45 62:38 57:43 100:0 53:47 59:41 62:38 54:46 51:49

Percent Show Moving Vehicles 7.1 15.6 5.7 12.7 10.9 21.9 28.4 22.0 12.6

Capacity (pcu/h) 2858 2647 2322 2283 2803 2132 2144 2270 2743

km km km km km km km km km

12 of NH-30 26 of NH-30 65 of NH-31 38 of NH-58 135 of NH-58 39 of NH-73 2 of NH-77 5 of NH-83 5 of SH-26

constant and study the effect of other one. For practical reasons, the percentage slow moving vehicle (% SMV) from 10.9 per cent to 15.6 per cent is taken constant while studying the effect of directional split. Similarly, directional split of 51:49 to 55:45 is considered constant for studying the effect of SMV on capacity of two-lane roads. The results are plotted in Fig. 7. The effect of directional split is linear. It is given by equation (4)

Fig. 7. Effect of directional split on capacity

C = 3398 9.53 QP (79.76) (8.91)

(Eqn. 4)

where, C is the capacity in pcu/h and Q P is the per cent traffic in main direction.

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

155

The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are significant at 5 per cent level. It gives he capacity of a twolane road at 50:50 split as 2790 pcu/h, which is similar to the value given in HCM (1994). The adjustment factors for different splits are given in Table-15.
TABLE-15. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS Split 50:50 60:40 70:30 80:20 90:10 100:0
FOR

DIRECTIONAL SPLIT Adjustment factor 1.0 0.967 0.935 0.902 0.869 0.836

Capacity from Equation (4) 2922 2826 2731 2636 2540 2445

The effect of slow moving vehicles on capacity of two-lane roads is shown in Fig. 8. The trend is expressed by the following equation.

Fig. 8. Effect of SMV on capacity

C = 2920 + 24.5 S 2.2 S 2 (327.35) (14.16) (13.36)

(Eqn. 5)

Where S is the percentage slow moving vehicles in the traffic stream. The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are significant at 5 per cent level. The adjustment factors for SMV are given in Table-16.

156

DR. CHANDRA ON
TABLE-16. ADJUSTMENT F ACTORS
FOR

SMV Adjustment factor

SMV (%)

Capacity as per equation (6), pcu/h 2920 2945 2793 2530 2158 1675

0 10 15 20 25 30

1.0 1.0 0.956 0.866 0.739 0.574

5.5.

Effect of Shoulder Condition

It is assumed that vehicles will make use of full width of pavement if good types of shoulders are provided on either side of the road. Although, the data were collected at locations where shoulders were damaged, some data were collected at locations having good condition of shoulders also. The 9 sections as given in Table-4 were selected for data collection. The pavement riding quality was almost same at all the sections but they were varying in shoulder conditions. 5.5.1. Classification of shoulders

In order to have better appreciation of results, the shoulders were divided into different categories depending upon their physical condition at time of data collection. The method suggested by Chandra and Dev Raj (1999) 6 was adopted for objective assessment of shoulders. The criteria of this classification is given below: (i) Good : The shoulders on either side are properly maintained and minor or no settlement of gravel or earthen shoulders (less than 25 mm in depth) with the pavement edge. Shoulders can be used at reasonably high speed. Average: Drop at pavement edge is 25-50 mm. Broken portion of the shoulders is less than 25 per cent. Shallow potholes are present but the shoulder can be used at low speed. Poor: Drop at pavement edge is 50-100 mm. 25-50 per cent shoulders are either broken or removed. Deep potholes are formed in the surface. The shoulder can be used at considerably low speed only. Bad: Drop at pavement edge is greater than 100 mm and more than 50 per cent shoulders are broken. Deep potholes in the shoulder surface are present. It cannot be used by vehicle even at low speed due to danger of overturning of vehicles.

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

157

Based on the above classification, the categories of various sections selected for study are given in Table 17.
TABLE-17. CATEGORIES
OF

SHOULDER

AT

V ARIOUS SECTIONS Sections 25, 28, 31 26, 29, 32 27, 30, 33

Category of Shoulder Average Poor Bad

5.5.2. Loss in width of carriageway Physical condition of shoulders plays an important role for the development of full traffic capacity of a highway. The lateral placement of vehicles and thus utilisation of full carriageway width depends upon the width of carriageway and type and condition of shoulder. The field data given in Tables-5 and 6 indicate that the vehicles preferred to lower down their speed rather than coming on to the shoulders, which are poorly maintained. The loss in width of carriageway for different conditions is given in Table-18. As may be seen, the per cent loss in the width of the carriageway varies from 36.0 to 52.3 per cent for single moving vehicle depending upon the type of vehicle involved. During passing/overtaking, the percent loss in width of carriageway varies 18.0 to 35.4 per cent depending upon the type of vehicle involved in passing/overtaking manoeuvres and condition of shoulder. At all sections, the loss in width of carriageway for movement of a single car is greater than that for the movement of a HV and the loss in width of the carriageway during carcar passing/overtaking manoeuvres is more than that during HV-HV passing/ overtaking manoeuvres. Table-18 indicates that the loss in the carriageway width increases progressively as the condition of shoulder deteriorates, which directly affect the capacity of the road. Figs. 9 & 10 show the placement of a single vehicle for different conditions of shoulders. With average condition of shoulder about 50 per cent of cars and 50 per cent of HVs had their placement within 115 cm and 65 cm respectively, from pavement edge while for bad condition of shoulder, only 29 per cent cars and 10 per cent HVs had their placement within these limits.

158

DR. CHANDRA ON
TABLE-18. LOSS IN WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY RELATED TO CONDITION OF SHOULDER

Section Per cent loss in No. effective width of carriageway of single vehicle Car 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 44.8 48.3 51.7 46.0 49.4 51.4 45.1 48.8 52.3 HV 38.6 40.6 44.0 37.7 39.7 43.8 36.0 38.6 42.6

Per cent loss in effective with of carriageway during passing/ overtaking

Shoulder Condition

Car-Car 26.6 30.8 33.4 27.4 31.4 34.3 25.4 32.6 35.4

Car-HV 20.8 24.0 25.1 21.4 23.2 26.0 20.6 24.3 26.6

HV-HV 18.6 20.3 22.6 18.0 20.9 22.8 18.9 21.4 23.7 Average Poor Bad Average Poor Bad Average Poor Bad

Fig. 9. Placement of car on two-lane road

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

159

Fig. 10. Placement of heavy vehicle on two-lane road

5.5.3. Reduction in speed during passing/overtaking manoeuvres Spot speeds of vehicles were measured during passing/overtaking manoeuvres and during single free moving vehicle to estimate the average speed of each type of vehicle on a section. The percent reductions in speed of individual vehicle during above condition are given in Table-19. Two wheeler and bicycles were found to be unaffected by crossing vehicles due to their small size but other vehicles were forced to reduce their speed due to poor maintenance of shoulders. The maximum reduction in speed of a car while crossing another car is 10.7 per cent. Similarly, for the same condition of shoulder, maximum reduction in speed of a HV while crossing another HV is 28.4 per cent. It indicates that the vehicles reduce their speed considerably while crossing another vehicle. For good condition of shoulder the reduction in speed is very marginal, whereas for bad condition of shoulder it is quite substantial. The reduction is due to shoulders influence on the drivers behaviour during crossing. It should be noted here that the combined effect of speed reduction of individual vehicle and the loss in carriageway width on capacity will be much more significant.

160
TABLE-19. REDUCTION Sec- Pavetion m e n t No. width (m)
IN

DR. CHANDRA ON
S PEED D URING P ASSING/O VERTAKING M ANOEUVRES Per cent reduction in speed of LCV during crossing a C a r LCV 3.1 4.6 10.0 3.7 4.0 7.8 2.2 5.0 6.8 4.3 7.2 11.4 6.2 6.2 9.8 4.2 7.4 10.4 HV 8.0 12.0 14.0 11.9 13.7 14.6 8.7 13.4 17.0 Per cent reduc- Shoulder tion in speed condiof HV during tion crossing a C a r LCV 9.6 9.6 10.5 9.3 13.4 15.8 10.0 11.1 12.9 11.4 10.5 14.7 14.8 17.9 19.6 14.2 14.5 17.8 HV 15.0 16.3 24.3 17.3 24.0 28.4 18.6 20.0 27.2 Average Poor Bad Average Poor Bad Average Poor Bad

Per cent reduction in speed of car during crossing a

Car 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 1.3 2.2 5.3 2.0 5.0 6.4 2.4 4.7 10.7

LCV 2.7 4.8 5.7 3.8 7.2 11.4 4.2 7.2 11.5

HV 7.0 8.3 10.7 7.8 12.2 15.3 8.8 11.9 15.7

5.5.4. Speed-volume relationships Data collected manually at 3 sections were used to develop speedvolume relationships. The traffic volume was converted into equivalent number of passenger cars and the mean speed was calculated. The free stream speed and capacity values as derived from these curves are given in Table-20.
TABLE-20. MEAN FREE SPEED AND CAPACITY FOR DIFFERENT CONDITION OF SHOULDERS Section No. 31. 32. 33. Conditon of Shoulder Average Poor Bad Mean Free Speed (km.h) 64.2 60.7 55.7 Capacity (pcu/h) 2654 2427 1831

The mean free speed of traffic stream changes from 64.2 km/h to 55.7 km/h as the shoulder condition changes from average to bad. The capacity values as calculated for 3 sections are also given in Table-20. The capacity of a two-lane road with average condition of shoulder (section 31) is 2654 PCU/h. It reduces to 1831 PCU/h (section 33) when shoulder was in bad condition.

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

161

5.6.

Effect of Road Roughness

This part of study was aimed at determining the effect of road roughness on free flow speed (FFS) and capacity of two-lane roads. Therefore, the data were collected in two parts. In the first part, the observations were taken for road roughness and free flow speed of vehicles. The roughness measurements were taken on sections, free from the effect of curvature, gradient and intersections. The shoulders were in good conditions and road surface was not cracked or pot holed. The roughness was measured using British Towed fifth wheel bump integrator on the following sections of the two-lane highways. (a) (b) (c) National Highway (NH) 73 in the state of U.P. State Highway (SH) 59 in the state of Uttaranchal National Highway (NH) - 7 in the state of Andha Pradesh

18 km length of NH-73, 5 km of SH-59 and 33 km of NH-7 was selected for roughness and speed measurements. Free flow speed of a vehicle was measured using radar gun at every 100 m interval of a kilometre and the average speed for the entire kilometre was determined. Only 2 categories of vehicles viz. car and heavy vehicles (bus & truck) were considered for this part of study. About 10 vehicles of each category were observed for speed on each location. In the second part of the study, speed-volume data were collected at 8 locations of two-lane highways. All sites were straight, level and free from any restriction to traffic movement. The video recording technique was used to collect the data for 4-5 hours on a typical weekday and these were analysed to plot speed-volume diagram. 5.6.1. Effect of roughness on free speed The variation in flow free speeds of two principal vehicle categories viz. car and heavy vehicle with roughness is shown in Fig. 11. The free flow speed (FFS) decreases with roughness according to the following relationships. Free speed of Car V ffsc Speed of HV Vffshv = 66.9 0.0034 * UI (43.05) (23.28) 51.6 0.0019 * UI (41.95) (16.38) R2 = 0.91 (Eqn. 6)

R2 = 0.84

(Eqn. 7)

162

DR. CHANDRA ON

Fig. 11. Free flow speed related to road roughness

Where speed is in km/h and UI is unevenness index in mm/km. The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are significant at 5 per cent level. 5.6.2. Effect of roughness on passenger car unit (PCU) The PCU of a vehicle type was calculated by Equation (2). These are given in Table-21. Figs. 12 to 14 show the variation in PCU for different types of vehicles with road roughness at different sections. As may be seen, the PCU for a vehicle type decreases linearly with roughness, the slope of linearity depends on the type of vehicle. Non-motorized vehicles are not much influenced by road roughness while speed of motorized vehicles is greatly influenced. The fast moving vehicles are substantially influenced by road roughness while its effect on all other vehicle types is relatively low. 5.6.3. Effect of roughness on capacity The PCU values given in Table-21 were used to convert heterogeneous traffic stream into a homogeneous equivalent. The mean stream speed was plotted against traffic volume. The capacity values as estimated for different sections are given in Table-22.

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
TABLE -21. PCU FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEHICLE ON VARIOUS SECTIONS
Section UI (mm/ (km) 2890 3490 4580 4910 5670 3050 4200 5150 PCU Tractor Trailer 13.49 9.73 6.64 6.30 6.20 11.85 8.86 6.39

163

Bus

Truck

LCV

MAT

2wheeler 0.36 0.38 0.28 0.26 0.27 0.38 0.33 0.29

3wheeler 1.59 1.58 1.33 1.4 1.42 1.57 1.48 1.41

Cycle

ADV

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

5.38 5.16 5.62 4.63 4.72 5.47 5.24 5.00

4.88 4.31 4.45 3.51 3.74 4.75 4.29 3.92

4.2 3.78 3.17 2.68 2.78 3.91 3.22 2.65

14.00 12.00 8.62 4.54 4.68 13.32 9.06 5.50

0.72 0.75 0.54 0.65 0.72 0.71 0.67 0.63

8.66 8.26 8.48 6.60 7.20 8.56 7.98 7.44

Fig. 12. Variation in PCU for large vehicles with roughness

164

DR. CHANDRA ON

Fig. 13. Variation in PCU with road roughness

Fig. 14. Variation in PCU for small vehicles with road roughness

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
TABLE-22. C APACITY FOR TWO-LANE ROADS WITH D IFFERENT R OUGHNESS V ALUES Section I II III IV V VI VII VIII Roughness (mm/km) 2890 3490 4580 4910 5670 3050 4200 5150 Capacity (pcu/h.) 3017 2868 2667 2263 2204 2940 2635 2350

165

A plot between capacity and the road roughness is shown in Fig. 15. It follows a straight line relationship as given in Equation (8).

Fig. 15. Capacity as related to road roughness

C Where, C UI

3888 - 0.2993 * UI (43.17) (8.96)

(Eqn. 8) R2 = 0.91

= =

capacity in pcu/h. unevenness index in mm/km

166

DR. CHANDRA ON

The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are significant at 1 per cent level. The above relationship indicates that capacity of a two-lane road decreases by 300 pcu/h when road roughness increases by 1000 mm/km.
6. METHOD OF CAPACITY ESTIMATION

HCM (2000) 10 state that the capacity of a two-lane rural highway is 1700 pcu/h for each direction of travel and normally does not exceed 3200 pcu/h for both direction of travel combined. IRC:64-1990 12 indicates the design service volume of 15000 pcu/day for a two-lane road in plain terrain, which corresponds to a capacity value of 2400-3000 pcu/h. The capacity of a two-lane road as estimated in the present study is 3140 pcu/h under the following conditions. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Lane width is 3.6 m. Shoulders are in good condition and 1.2 m on either side. The road surface is in good condition with surface unevenness of 2500 mm/km. The directional split is 50:50. The section is levelled and straight. Slow moving vehicles in the traffic steam are less than 10 per cent.

It is, therefore, believed that the capacity of 3200 pcu/h as suggested in HCM (2000) 10 is achievable in India also. However, it is suggested that the capacity of a two-lane road in mixed traffic condition be taken as 3100 pcu/h. This value is affected by gradient, lane width, shoulder width, shoulder condition, slow moving vehicles, directional split, and road roughness. The capacity of a two-lane road under mixed traffic conditions is given by Equation (A). Ca = cb.fg.fw.fds.f smv.f s.f ui where, Ca = Cb = (Eqn. A)

actual capacity under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions basic capacity (3100 pcu/h)

fg, fw, fds, fsmv, fs, and fUI are the adjustment factors for gradient, lane width, directional split, slow moving vehicles, shoulder conditions and unevenness

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS

167

index. These adjustment factors are given below: (i) Adjustment for grade : Every one percent upgrade decreases the capacity by 2.60 per cent (fg = 0.974) and one percent downgrade increases the capacity by 3.0 per cent ((f g = 1.03) Adjustment for lane width: Substandard lane width will reduce the capacity as given in Table-A.
FOR

(ii)

TABLE -A. RECOMMENDED CAPACITY REDUCTION F ACTORS Lane width (m) Factor (f w) 3.6 1.0 3.3 0.88

S UB-STANDARD L ANE W IDTH 3.0 0.76 2.7 0.63

(iii)

Directional split: If the flow is not balanced in two directions, the capacity of the road reduces as per Table-B.
TABLE-B. R ECOMMENDED FACTORS
FOR

DIRECTIONAL S PLIT 70 0.94 80 0.90 90 0.87 100 0.84

Flow in main direction (%) Adjustment factor (f ds )

50 1.0

60 0.97

(iv)

Slow Moving Vehicles: The effect of slow moving vehicles is negligible till their proportion in traffic stream is less than or equal to 10 per cent. After that their effect is to reduce the capacity as per Table-C.
TABLE-C. ADJUSTMENT F ACTORS
FOR

S LOW M OVING V EHICLES (SMV) 10 1.0 15 0.96 20 0.87 25 0.74 30 0.57

SMV (%) Adjustment factor (f smv )

(v)

Shoulder condition: The capacity of a two-lane road can be increased by providing shoulders in good condition so that these can be used by moving vehicles in emergency. Unfortunately, maintenance of shoulder in India is extremely poor and in some case they become reasons of accidents. For the purpose of analysis, shoulders are divided in four categories as discussed in Section 5.5.1. Adjustment factor as derived here for these conditions of shoulders are given in Table-D.

168

DR. CHANDRA ON
TABLE-D- A DJUSTMENT FACTORS
Shoulder condition Good Average Poor Bed
FOR

SHOULDER CONDITION

Adjustment factor (f s ) 1.0 0.85 0.77 0.58

(vi)

Surface Unevenness: The surface unevenness has direct effect on operating speed and thus on capacity. IRC:SP-30-1993 has recommended roughness values for different types of surfacing. A good road surface is expected to provide full development of traffic capacity. The capacity of a two-lane road reduces by 300 pcu/h when its road roughness reduces by 1000 mm/km.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present research was carried out under an AICTE sponsored research scheme Capacity Analysis of Two-lane Roads under Mixed Traffic Conditions. The financial assistance received from AICTE, New Delhi for collection of traffic data for this project is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES 1. Bang, K.L., Carlsson, A. and Palgunadi (1995), Development of Speed Flow Relationship for Indonesia Rural Roads Using Empirical Data and Simulation, Transportation Research Record 1484, Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C., pp. 24-32. Brilon, W. and Ponzlet, M. (1997), Variability of Speed-Flow Relationship on German Autobahns, TRR 1555, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 91-98. Chandra, S. (1997), Capacity of Urban Roads - Towards Review of IRC:1061990, Highway Research Bulletin, Highway Research Board, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, pp. 43-70. Chandra, S. and Goyal, N. K., (2001), Effect of Grade on Capacity of TwoLane Road, HB No. 64, IRC, New Delhi, pp. 77. Chandra, S. and Kumar, P. (1996), Effect of Shoulder Condition on Highway Capacity, Proceedings International Seminar on Civil Engineering Practices in Twenty First Century, Roorkee, India, pp. 512-519. Chandra, S. and Raj, Dev (1999), Roles of Shoulders in Traffic Operation, Indian Highways, Vol. 27, No. 11, pp. 31-38.

2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
7.

169

Chandra, S. and Sikdar, P.K. (2000), Factors Affecting PCU in Mixed Traffic Situations in Urban Roads, Road Transport Research, Vol. 9, No. 3, Australian Road Research Board, pp. 40-50. Farouki, O.T. and Nixon, W.J. (1976), The Effect of Width of Sub-Urban Roads on the Mean Free Speeds of Cars, Traffic Engineering + Control, Vol. 17 (12), London, pp. 518-519. Fi, I. (1994), Highway Capacity and Level of Service in Highway: Experience with Intersection without Traffic Signals, Country Reports of Second International Symposium on Highway Capacity, Australian Road Research Board Ltd. Highway Capacity Manual (2000), Transportation Research Board, Special Report 209, fourth edition, Washington D.C. Hossain, M. and Iqbal, G.A. (1999), Vehicular Headway Distribution and Free Speed Characteristics of Two-lane Two-way Highway of Bangladesh, Institution of Engineers (India) Vol. 80, pp. 77-80. IRC:64 (1990), Guidelines on Capacity of Roads in Rural Area, (First Revision), Indian Code of Practice, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi. Kadiyali, Dr. L.R., Lal, Dr. N.B., Sathyanarayana, M. and Swaminathana, A.K. (1991), Speed-Flow Characteristics on Indian Highways, Indian Roads Congress Journal, Vol. 52-2, New Delhi, pp. 233-262. Karan, M.A., Ralph, H. and Kher, R. (1978), Effect of Pavement Roughness on Vehicle Speed, TRR 602, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., pp. 122-127. Kumar, V.M. and Rao, S.K. (1998), Studies on Speed-Density-Flow Relationship on a Few Stretches of NH-5 and NH-6, Indian Highways, Vol. 26 (12), Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, pp. 33-41. Leong, H.J.W. (1978), Distribution and Trend of Free Speeds on Two-Lane Two-Way Rural Highways in New South Wales, ARRB 4, Part 1, pp. 798814. Parker, M.T. (1996), The Effect of Heavy Goods Vehicles and Following Behavior on Capacity at Motorway Sites. Traffic Engg + Control, Vol. 37(9), London, pp. 524-532. Prakash, V. (1970), Highway Shoulder, Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 33-3, pp. 441-446. Ramanayya, T.V. (1988), Highway Capacity Under Mixed Traffic Conditions, Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 29, No. 5, United Kingdom, pp. 284300. Sahoo, P.K., Rao, S.K. and Kumar, V.M. (1996), A Study of Traffic Flow Characteristics on Two Stretches of National Highway No. 5 Indian Highways, Vol. 24 (4), Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, pp. 11-17.

8.

9.

10. 11.

12. 13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18. 19.

20.

170

DR. CHANDRA ON CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR T WO-LANE R OADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
Sarna, A.C., Jain, P.K. and Chandra, G. (1989), Capacity of Urban Roads - A Case Study of Delhi and Bombay, Highway Research Bulletin, No. 4, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, pp. 1-38. Shivananda, M. (1994), Private Sector Participation in Development of Highway Network of India, Indian Highways, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi. Taragin, A and Eckhardt. H.G. (1953), Effect of Shoulders on Speed and Lateral Placement of Motor Vehicles, HB Proceedings, Vol. 32, pp. 371-82. Turner, D.S., Rogness, R.O. and Fambro, D.B. (1982), Shoulder Upgrading Alternatives to Improve the Operational Characteristics of Two-lane Highway, TRB Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C. William, R. and Reilly, P.E. (1992), Operational Aspect of Highway Capacity, Traffic Engineering Hanbook, 4 th Edition, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 117-153. Yagar, S. and Aerde, M.V. (1983), Geometric and Environmental Effects on Speeds of 2-Lane Highways, Transportation Research-A, Vol. 17A, No. 4, pp. 315-325.

21.

22.

23. 24.

25.

26.