Gender & Marketing (Consumer Behavior Perspective)

ada Tunca Seminar In Brand Management Instructor: Prof. Gul Bayraktaroglu

Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2 1. Gender Differences ...................................................................................... 2 1.1 The Biosocial Approach ............................................................................ 4 1.1.2 Social Learning Theory - Gender Development ..................................... 6 1.1.2.1 Gender Roles........................................................................................ 8 1.1.2.2 Feminist Theory ................................................................................... 8 1.1.2.2.a Gender Inequality ....................................................................... 9 1.1.2.2.b Gender Oppression ..................................................................... 9 1.1.2.2.c Structural Oppression............................................................... 10 1.2 Media Representations of Gender Roles. ................................................. 10 1.3 Gender dIfferences in Consumer Behaivor;............................................. 12 1.3.1 branding ............................................................................................ 15 1.3.1.1 Brand commtment ......................................................................... 16 1.3.2 Hedonc consumption AND iMPULSE BUYiNG ............................ 17 1.3.3 Statistics of Women Consumer ......................................................... 19 2. Marketing for Genders Gender Segmentation ........................................ 21 2.1 Marketing Implcatons & Examples ....................................................... 22 References ...................................................................................................... 27

INTRODUCTION

In the last fifty years, the world we live in has changed dramatically. Women have gained greater financial independence and responsibility. This is due in part to the fact that more women graduate college each year than men. The trend toward larger numbers of women graduating started with the baby boom generation (Holland, 2012). The baby boom generation has created a group of women who are well educated, financially independent, and capable of making their own investment and purchasing decisions. Women currently account for eighty-five percent of consumer purchases in the United States (Sam et. al, 2010). Women often decide large and small purchases alike as they have taken over the role of the primary breadwinner of the family. In Prudential Financials biennial study, the majority of women today are financially responsible for generating their own and their families income (Fearnow, 2012). However, only three percent of creative directors for advertising agencies are women (Holland, 2012). Companies need to adapt to the changing market place in order to not only survive but also thrive as a business. The need for companies to adapt to the current market is not a new phenomenon. It has always been a challenge to adapt to market changes, but adapting to a radical shift in market segmentation can be even more difficult.

1. GENDER DIFFERENCES

Men and women traditionally approach purchasing decisions very differently. The difference is created because men and women want different things out of a buying decision. Women look to satisfy long term needs and wants while men are shorter sighted and look at satisfying immediate or short term needs and wants (Baker, 2012). Traditionally the purchasing decision is to move from customer

awareness to interest in purchasing and finally narrowing of options. Marketers who try and engage customers everywhere they go constantly inundate the modern consumer. For example, on an average drive to work a potential customer is likely to encounter radio ads, billboards, sign spinners, and store signs. These same consumers are likely to have checked a news website and accessed email or Facebook encountering banner adds all before work. This type of marketing overload has caused a shift in the process used to make purchasing decisions. According to a recent survey discussed in the Harvard Business Review blog, only about a third of consumers use the traditional approach to the purchasing decision. Another third use what they refer to as the open-ended path. These are consumers that constantly research differences in products and change their mind about which brand to buy. The final third have abandoned the search process entirely and focus on one brand exclusively (Anderson, 2012). Women prefer to shop at a relaxed pace when they actually go to a store. They want to examine merchandise, compare items and prices, ask questions, try things on, and then make purchases. There is a pride in the ability to be prudent and get the best products for the best prices (Levit). This is a market that stores like T.J. Maxx have honed in on. They make women feel accomplished for getting the best deal. T.J. Maxx has used the accomplishment and the need to share with women in their latest marketing campaign, Maxx Moments (Moore, 2008). Narratives and stories such as the Maxx Moments appeal to womens emotions. Women act on emotion in purchasing decisions (Baker, 2012). Companies that help others by supporting a cause also appeal to women. Social responsibility in companies has grown to be an integral part of the marketing strategy, particularly with women. In the age of social media, portraying a companys affiliation is easier than ever. Brands like Yoplait, General Mills, and Campbells have all done this extremely well. Yoplaits tops to support breast cancer has been very

effective. When done right, cause marketing can turn into brand loyalty and increased profits from both genders (Shayon, 2011). How do men and women form opinions? According to decisionmaking confidence, women use other peoples opinions to help make their own decision. Men use other peoples decisions to help them form their own opinion. They go on to explain that women like to know why other women made the choices they made, while men like to know that other men are happy having made the same decision as them (Baker, 2012).

1.1 THE BIOSOCIAL APPROACH

Biosocial theory argues that gender cannot be explained by biology alone. Instead it sees gender as determined by both biological and social factors working in conjunction with each other. Money and Ehrhardt argued that when a new-born baby is labelled as male or female, this labelling has consequences for how the child will be perceived and treated. Various research studies presented babies live or on videotape and found that participants labelled babies behaviour differently and in gender-stereotyped ways, according to whether they were told that a baby was a girl or a boy. This suggests that adults respond to the childs gender.

Money and Ehrhardt believed that the differential treatment of babies depending on their sex is what determines a childs gender identity and from this emerges its gender role identity and sexual orientation. As a result they predicted that if a genetic male is labelled as a girl and treated as a girl before the age of two to three, he would acquire the gender identity of a girl. Thus the key to gender development, according to Money and Ehrhardt, is the label that a person is given and their sex of rearing, not their biological sex.

The biosocial approach is supported by Smith and Lloyd who dressed babies in non-specific gender clothes, then labelled them with a boys or a girls name. They found that people would play with them differently according to their gender label, with boys being treated in a more physical manner. This supports the biosocial theory as it shows that when a baby is labelled as male or female, they are perceived differently.

The biosocial approach is also supported by Bradley et al who reported on a case of a biological male who, after accidental damage to his penis, had reassignment surgery and was raised as a female. This individual exhibited some male behaviours as a child but preferred female company and as a result, perceived himself as female and was happy that way. This suggests that sex rearing is more important that biology as suggested by Money and Ehrhardt.

Another piece of research support come from Schaffer who showed a sample of over 200 male and female adults a video of a 9 month old baby named either David or Dana, playing with toys and responding to stimuli. The adults labelled the babies behaviour and emotions in gender-typical ways according to whether they believed it to be a boy or a girl. This supports the biosocial approach as it shows that adults treat babies differently depending on their biological sex label.

However, the biosocial approach is contradicted by Reiner and Gearhart who reported on 16 biological males who were born without a penis and given gender reassignment surgery and raised as females. They found that all exhibited male tendencies and ten decided to become male again by the age of 16. This suggests that biological factors are more important than social upbringing in gender development.

Another contradicting piece of research is by Luxen who reports that a number of research has shown that very young children and even animals display sex differences in their toy preferences. This contradicts the biosocial approach as it shows that even before the ages of 2-3 years, children and animals show sex differences in their behaviour suggesting that biological factors are more important.

A strength of the approach is that in terms of real world application, biosocial theory is more valuble than biological explanations as it does not imply that sex differences are innate and cannot be changed by altering social context. Biosocial theory is valuable because it supports the feminist view that changes in social roles will lead to changes in psychological differences between men and women. In addition, it has high ethical appeal because sex roles are perceived as social and therefore more flexible.

However a limitation is that Money and Ehrhardt collected the majority of supporting research from abnormal individuals which makes it difficult to generalise to the whole population as not everyone has hormonal imbalances. Also, research on abnormal individuals raises ethical concerns because such participants are especially vulnerable to distress and psychological harm. This was evident in the David Reimer case study.

1.1.2 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Social learning theory regards gender identity and role as a set of behaviours that are learned from the environment. The main way that gender behaviours are learned is through the process of observational learning. Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways, some of which relate to gender. They pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behaviour. At a later time they

may imitate the behaviour they have observed. They may do this regardless of whether the behaviour is gender appropriate or not but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behaviour that its society deems appropriate for its sex. First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behaviour modeled by people the same sex as it is. Second, the people around the child will respond to the behaviour it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. It is likely that the child will be reinforced for acting in gender appropriate ways and punished or ignored for gender inappropriate behaviour. Third, the child will also have observed the consequences of other peoples behaviour and will be motivated to imitate the behaviour it has seen reinforced and avoid imitating the behaviour it has seen punished (vicarious reinforcement and punishment).

After that, social learning theorists identified specific sex-typed behaviors (Mischel, 1970). A behavior is sex-typed when it is more expected and therefore seen as appropriate when performed by one sex, but less expected and therefore seen as inappropriate when performed by the other sex. Making a list of sex-typed behaviors results in the articulation of a gender or sex role, which weve already discussed, so sex-typed behaviors are also similar to the concept of gender norms. The idea of sex-typed behaviors adds the idea, not necessarily contained in the idea of gender norms, that we very purposefully categorize behaviors as appropriate to one sex but not the other. Gender socialization works, according to social learning theorists, by rewarding children for engaging in sex-typed behavior that is consistent with their assigned sex category. The classic example is crying; while a little girl may be soothed when she cries, a little boy may be told that boys dont cry. Crying is a sex-typed behavior, seen as OK for girls and therefore not a punishable behavior. But because it

is not seen as an appropriate behavior for boys, the little boy may be punished or corrected for his crying behavior.

1.1.2.1 GENDER ROLES Gender role attitudes is a complex construct, and it is based on the gender role concept. Gender role refers to culturally-derived activities related with the characteristics of masculinity and femininity that an individual may adapt, and gender role attitudes refers to individuals beliefs about their social roles and responsibilities that are appropriate and socially acceptable for men and women (Spence and Sawin 1985). The attitudinal differences may range from an egalitarian view (regardless of sex, any gender roles are appropriate for both men and women) to a more traditional view (there are different gender roles for men and women). Gender role and gender role attitudes are not necessarily congruent with each other. For example, a woman who reports favorable egalitarian attitudes toward homework may engage some traditional feminine gender roles at the same time (Deaux 1985; Fischer and Arnold 1994, Palan 2001).

1.1.2.2 FEMINIST THEORY Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better women's lives. Feminist theorists have also started to question the differences between women, including how race, class, ethnicity, and age intersect with gender. Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways women have contributed to society.

1.1.2.2.A GENDER INEQUALITY Gender-inequality theories recognize that women's location in, and experience of, social situations are not only different but also unequal to men's. Liberal feminists argue that women have the same capacity as men for moral reasoning and agency, but that patriarchy, particularly the sexist patterning of the division of labor, has historically denied women the opportunity to express and practice this reasoning. Women have been isolated to the private sphere of the household and, thus, left without a voice in the public sphere. Even after women enter the public sphere, they are still expected to manage the private sphere and take care of household duties and child rearing. Liberal feminists point out that marriage is a site of gender inequality and that women do not benefit from being married as men do. Indeed, married women have higher levels of stress than unmarried women and married men. According to liberal feminists, the sexual division of labor in both the public and private spheres needs to be altered in order for women to achieve equality. 1.1.2.2.B GENDER OPPRESSION Theories of gender oppression go further than theories of gender difference and gender inequality by arguing that not only are women different from or unequal to men, but that they are actively oppressed, subordinated, and even abused by men. Power is the key variable in the two main theories of gender oppression: psychoanalytic feminism and radical feminism. Psychoanalytic feminists attempt to explain power relations between men and women by reformulating Freud's theories of the subconscious and unconscious, human emotions, and childhood development. They feel that conscious calculation cannot fully explain the production and reproduction of patriarchy. Radical feminists argue that being a woman is a positive thing in and of itself, but that this is not acknowledged in patriarchal societies where women are oppressed.

They identify physical violence as being at the base of patriarchy, but they think that patriarchy can be defeated if women recognize their own value and strength, establish a sisterhood of trust with other women, confront oppression critically, and form female separatist networks in the private and public spheres. 1.1.2.2.C STRUCTURAL OPPRESSION Structural oppression theories posit that women's oppression and inequality are a result of capitalism, patriarchy, and racism. Socialist feminists agree with Karl Marx and Freidrich Engels that the working class is exploited as a consequence of the capitalist mode of production, but they seek to extend this exploitation not just to class but also to gender. Intersectionality theorists seek to explain oppression and inequality across a variety of variables, including class, gender, race, ethnicity, and age. They make the important insight that not all women experience oppression in the same way. White women and black women, for example, face different forms of discrimination in the workplace. Thus, different groups of women come to view the world through a shared standpoint of "heterogeneous commonality."

1.2 MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER ROLES. Children are continually exposed to models of gender-linked behavior in readers, storybooks, video games and in representations of society on the television screen of every household (Courtney & Whipple, 1974; Dietz, 1998; Harris & Voorhees, 1981; Jacklin & Mischel, 1973; Miller & Reeves, 1976; Thomson & Zerbinos, 1997; Turner-Bowker, 1996). Males are generally portrayed as directive, venturesome, enterprising, and pursuing engaging occupations and recreational activities. In contrast, women are usually shown as acting in dependent, unambitious and emotional ways. These stereotypic portrayals of gender roles are not confined to North America. Similar stereotyping of gender roles has been reported in the televised fare of

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Great Britain, Australia, Mexico, and Italy (Bretl & Cantor, 1988; Furnham & Voli, 1989; Gilly, 1988; Mazzella, Durkin, Cerini, & Buralli, 1992). Male and female televised characters are also portrayed as differing in agentic capabilities. Men are more likely to be shown exercising control over events, whereas women tend to be more at the mercy of others, especially in coercive relationships which populate the prime time fare (Hodges, Brandt, & Kline, 1981). The exaggerated gender stereotyping extends to the portrayal of occupational roles in the televised world. Men are shown pursuing careers often of high status, whereas women are largely confined to domestic roles or employed in low status jobs (Durkin, 1985). For both sexes, these occupational representations neither fit the common vocations of most men nor the heavy involvement of women in the workplace in real life (Seggar & Wheeler, 1973). In the modern computerized workplace, men appear as managers and experts, whereas women appear as clerical workers or as merely attractive attendants in computer work stations (Ware & Stuck, 1985). The gender stereotypes are replicated in television commercials as well. Women are usually shown in the home as consumers of advertised products. Men, in contrast, are more likely to be portrayed as authoritative salesmen for the advertised products (Gilly, 1988; Mazzella et al., 1992; Manstead & McCulloch, 1981). Even when men do not appear in commercials, they are often presiding over the 37 depicted scenarios in the voice-overs (Furnham & Bitar, 1993). When women do make it into the televised sales roles, they generally promote food and beauty care products rather than computers, stocks and bonds or automobiles as do their televised male counterparts (Allan & Coltrane, 1996; Furnham & Bitar, 1993). Although there have been some changes so that the gender occupational differentiation is less pronounced, much stereotyping still remains in the occupational roles of men and women portrayed in the televised and print media

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(Bretl & Cantor, 1988; Kang, 1997; Manstead & McCulloch, 1981; Mazzella et al, 1992). In the social domain, some of the flagrant gender stereotypes in televised portrayals has been toned down. However, rather than modeling common capabilities, aspirations and roles by both sexes, women are being portrayed as emulating the more abrasive features of the masculine stereotype (St. Peter, 1979). Efforts to close the gender gap in the televised world seem to be taking the form of promoting masculine caricatures. From the early preschool years children watch a great deal of television day in and day out (Wright & Huston, 1983). Considering the media representations of gender in diverse spheres of life, heavy viewers of television are exposed to a vast amount of stereotypic gender role modeling. Not surprisingly, those who have a heavy diet of the televised fare display more stereotypic gender role conceptions than do light viewers (McGhee & Frueh, 1980). Studies in which females are portrayed in a counter-stereotypic way attest to the influence of modeling on gender-role conceptions. Nonstereotypic modeling expands children's aspirations and the range of role options they deem appropriate to their gender (Ashby & Wittmaier, 1978; O'Bryant & Corder-Bolz, 1978). Repeated symbolic modeling of egalitarian role pursuits by males and females enduringly reduces the gender-role stereotyping in young children (Flerx, Fidler & Rogers, 1976; Ochman, 1996; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1997;).

1.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN CONSUMER BEHAIVOR;

Western societies have changed dramatically over the past 40 years, and the mere assumption that men and women behave differently in terms of consumption becomes outdated and misleading for both

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marketing scholars and practitioners (Palan 2001; Stern 1988). Since the 1960s, researchers have begun to introduce different aspects of gender (other than sex) and suggest its possible impacts on consumer behaviors. Though only limited studies address multiple gender effects and consumer behavior, research in the area has continued unabated. On the other hand, some studies have documented significant differences. For example, women put more time and effort into shopping for Christmas presents than men (Fischer and Arnold, 1990), and enjoy shopping in general more than men do (Rook and Hoch, 1985). Studies also show that women process information in advertising and product information messages in a more detailed and comprehensive manner than men (Meyers-Levy and Sternthal, 1991; Kempf et al., 2006);(Laroche et al., 2000). Women also tend to make more impulse purchases than men (Coley and Burgess, 2003; Dittmar et al., 1995; Rook and Hoch, 1985). Importantly, many of womens documented shopping habits resemble behaviors that would have been needed in a world where gathering available food resources fruit, nuts, tubers and the like was critical to staving off starvation. Kruger and Byker (2009) found that women tend to carefully scrutinize products before they buy, prefer to choose from an assortment of products, and are more likely than men to pay attention to when items are likely to be on sale. Similarly, gatherers will examine the fruit in a patch carefully, choosing only those which are ripe and ready to eat, and will return to specific patches according to seasonal changes in ripeness and abundance (Kruger and Byker, 2009). Further insights come from the literature comparing mens and womens spatial orientation and navigational skills. There is evidence that although men have better spatial skills in general, women may possess specific spatial skills suited for gathering (Silverman et al., 2007). One study conducted at a large farmers market showed that

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women were better than men at pointing to the locations of stalls where they had previously been given particular food items (New et al., 2007). This makes sense in hunger-gatherer terms, as foraging sites unlike game can be counted on to stay in the same place. Multi-tasking in shops :women are polychromic men are monochromic Multi-tasking is often portrayed as a key advantage women have over men when it comes to shopping. They can jump between categories, buy bras and bread in a single breath and still find time to get the family holiday booked. Men, as grab and go shoppers may struggle with this, and prefer to stay focused on the single task in hand, perhaps experiencing stress when the shopping list keeps getting added to, or when the pursuit of their single goal is interrupted. Polychromic shopping behaviour (retail multi-tasking) is more flexible, adaptable and responsive to the situation than monochromic (single-tasking) shopping behaviour. But as more retailers focus on instore engagement, shopper interception initiatives, cross-merchandising and multichannel marketing, are women more able to deal with this retail store evolution than men? Research from the US (Lindquist, J) provides guidance for retailers who appreciate the difference: Those polychromic time use shoppers who enjoy changing among activities may want the retailer to provide a variety of product presentations, free trials, and demonstrations, while other more monochromic shoppers may simply wish to focus on their desired purchases. It is essential that retailers attempt to better understand how different types of shoppers wish to use their time. PRICE ! US research (Green, R.D) has shown that in husband and wife shopping relationships, husbands perceived that hypermarkets had higher prices than their wives did, providing a counterpoint to the

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common perception that women are the more price-concerned of the two sexes. It was further highlighted that advertising messaging in relation to retailer quality werent getting through to husbands in the same way that they were to wives. Husbands appeared to be more critical in their assessment of their hypermarket, with more extensive judgement factors revealed in their assessment processes. Hence, although men thought hypermarkets were more expensive than females, lowering prices alone wouldnt necessarily improve how they were perceived as quality retailers and the money spent on getting the quality message across to guys was not apparently well directed. TIME ! Studies have shown that are significant decision factors involved in how men approach shopping in-store, and reveal key differences between male and female mindsets. Researchers in the UK (Bakerwell, C.) identified decision making styles and priorities unique to men. For wallet and watch disciples, two of these traits are particularly noteworthy, as they refer to time spent shopping and loyalty to particular retailers. They reported for example that: The male traits of time-energy conserving and store promiscuity suggest male shoppers save time either through visiting the same store and buying quickly (time-energy conserving) or being indifferent to which store is selected and the brands offered by it (store promiscuity). In Iran, similar research has revealed similar results for the Gen Y male shopper: Iran men demonstrate bargain hunting tendencies, brand indifference and are short of time to shop (Hanzee, K.H)

1.3.1 BRANDING In terms of brand and advertising messaging, research from the UK UK (Bakerwell, C.) reveals that men may respond more positively to aspiration brand messaging than females, who may reject marketing

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messages which emphasise standing out from the crowd. To communicate effectively with male consumers, retailer should therefore emphasise success, prestige and achievement in relation to brand adherence much more so than for female customers, who may find this emphasis alienating. Women may like to be noticed, but do not necessarily welcome the brand-limelight. Men however may like to be seen as taking centre-stage as the leading brand-man: Males may be more materialistic and have a stronger orientation towards external validation through visually portraying prestige and accomplishment. Males also may be more active in processing advertising cues, which emphasize the conspicuousness of brands. Alternatively, females may be rejecting messages to be noticed or stand out and/or they may not be accurately processing these cues as males do. Research from India reveals that men have a higher risk taking propensity when it comes to new brand experiences, and maybe therefore more likely to try new products and to brand switch as a consequence. Mature male consumers were however less likely to talk to peers about their recent purchases than younger males, limiting perhaps the effectiveness of word of mouth marketing for new products aimed at older male demographics (Hanzee, K.H).
1.3.1.1 BRAND COMMITMENT

Brand commitment is highly associated with brand loyalty (Kim et al., 2008); some argue that it is a necessary and sufficient condition for brand loyalty (e.g. Knox and Walker, 2001). While brand commitment is a function of brand characteristics (Kim et al., 2008), it may also be related to consumer traits. For instance, both brand commitment and loyalty are associated with risk aversion (Matzler et al., 2006). There is evidence that risk aversion has a genetic basis (Miles et al., 2001) and also that women tend be more risk averse than men (Byrnes

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et al., 1999). From the evolutionary perspective, risk aversion is likely to have been selected for in women: A cautious, risk averse mother would have had better chances of protecting her children, and therefore passing on her genes to future generations. A tendency toward risk taking, on the other hand, would have benefited ancestral men as they engaged in the competition for resources and mates (Wilson and Daly, 1985). 1.3.2 HEDONIC CONSUMPTION AND IMPULSE BUYING Hirschman and Holbrook (1982) nicely described hedonic consumption as those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of ones experience with products. That is, a hedonic shopping experience involves multiple sensory modalities, such as touch, taste, scent, and sound; it is likely to include imaginative ideation and to produce emotional arousal. Hedonic consumption also has indirect effects on wellbeing, by improving consumers satisfaction within relevant life domains (Zhong and Mitchell, 2010) The idea that consumption shopping can be a hedonic experience makes sense in light of the evolutionary perspective. People are more likely to spend time doing something, however important, if they enjoy it; and where survival depended on hunting and foraging, those who took pleasure in the pursuit and kill (men) or in making the most nutrient-rich finds (women) would be at an advantage. Present-day shopping is more similar to foraging than to hunting; like foraging, it involves making choices from among a range (large or small) of available objects. In fact, women report enjoying shopping more than men and are more likely to view it as a recreational pastime (Kruger and Byker, 2009). Women report higher levels of hedonic consumption in comparison to men.

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Impulse Buying Retailers typically view impulse buying as an important component of their business; measures used to stimulate impulse buying include strategic product placement and point-of-purchase advertising displays (Wood, 1998). Impulse buying can be described as having a strong and sudden desire to buy a product which one did not intend to purchase, and doing so without much contemplation (Rook and Fisher, 1995; Rook, 1987). Impulse buying is related to hedonic consumption (Rook and Hoch, 1985). Consumers report that they feel better after an impulsive purchase (Rook, 1987), even experiencing a sense of being rewarded (Hausman, 2000). Although such purchases are unintentional, they may indeed be perceived as satisfying certain needs (Hausman, 2000). Indeed, impulse buying has been linked to negative emotions (Silvera et al., 2008) and may serve as a way to alleviate negative affect (Verplanken et al., 2005). There are at least four reasons why women may be more inclined to impulse buying. First, since impulse buying is related to hedonic consumption, and women score higher in hedonic consumption than men, we can expect them to show higher levels of impulse buying as well. Second, women, more than men, suffer from anxiety (Feingold, 1994) and depression (Wade et al., 2002). Given the link between impulse buying and negative emotions (Silvera et al., 2008); (Verplanken et al., 2005), women may use impulse buying as a means to improve their mental state. Third, consumers with a high need to touch are more susceptible to impulse buying (Peck and Childers, 2006). There is evidence that women have a greater need to experience things tactilely than men (Workman, 2010). This need to touch may be a product of natural selection. We have already described how foragers need to examine potential food resources carefully, selecting those that are ripest or in best condition for eating (Kruger and Byker, 2009); doubtless all the senses especially sight, smell, taste, and touch would be employed

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in this selection process. Maternal parenting is another possible trigger of the selection process in regard to touch. In an observational study in Sweden, mothers showed more tending behaviors towards their infants, including touching and holding, than fathers did. These differences existed even in non-traditional families in which fathers took parental leave (Lamb et al., 1982). Finally, it may be that natural selection selected against behaviors that might lead to impulse buying in men. The hunt requires great care in the timing of the purchase: strike too early and the prey will flee. Foraging is kinder toward errors in timing. If a forager digs up a tuber prematurely, the loss (in terms of the time and calories expended) is small. 1.3.3 STATISTICS OF WOMEN CONSUMER Women make up 51% of the population and spend $6 trillion dollars every year. They make 88% of retail purchases and buy: 53% of all stocks 51% of all sports equipment 66% of all PCs 51% of consumer electronics 47% of hardware and home improvement materials 85% of toilet tissue 81% of groceries 75% of over-the-counter drugs

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 90% of greeting cards 94% of all home furnishings 46% of mens wear 60% of flowers 65% of cars 80% of all health care 88% of medical insurance 60% of self help books 4 out of 5 homes in America 7 out of 10 appliances Women also manage 75% Women comprise over 62% of the workforce and make up over half of all managers. Every 60 seconds a women starts a new business. Women earn 55% of all bachelors and masters degrees, 59% of associate degrees, and 40% of doctoral degrees. One in four women make more than their husbands, and 43% of people with assets over $500,000 dollars are women. It is believed that by the year 2020, women will control most of the wealth in the US. Family status and employment status are the most important factors when trying to appeal to women. For example, women who are stay at home moms are more likely to act similarly than career women, regardless of age. Men are exactly the opposite. The most important factors to men are age, income and education. The difference in what each gender makes an important factor is explained by the types of purchasing decisions men and women make. A majority of decisions made by men are for themselves while a majority of decisions for women are about others. A woman typically makes financial decisions for herself, her significant other, her children, and even her parents.

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Women are more often in charge of family finances than in previous generations (Heermann, 2010). As it is known that, women make eighty-five percent of buying decisions. This is a fairly recent discovery despite the fact that women have been associated with shopping, as long the concept has existed. Even now many marketing groups take the wrong approach in marketing to women. Companies often believe that they need to market to women so differently that they try to create an entirely separate brand in order to reach women. This often back fires on the company and further alienates women from the brand, as they tend to water down the message and the product. It can also alienate men as they feminize the product. Marketing to women when done correctly is a smart all around marketing strategy. Effective marketing to women is about setting high standards and consistently delivering on your promises (Holland, 2012). As discussed before, research has shown that women are generally better at reading body language and facial expressions than men. This perceptive nature makes women more receptive to contextual brand messaging (Levit). Women are also excellent at detecting inconsistencies in the marketing message. If your product performance and retail experience do not match your message you have lost her trust and she will find another place to spend her money (Holland, 2012). However, if women trust your product and find it to be a quality product they are willing to pay a premium for the product.

2. MARKETING FOR GENDERS GENDER SEGMENTATION

Gender segmentation has long been used in clothing, cosmetics, toiletries, and magazines. For example, Procter & Gamble was among

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the first with Secret, a brand specially formulated for a womans chemistry, packaged and advertised to reinforce the female image. More recently, many mostly womens cosmetics makers have begun marketing mens lines. For example, LOreal offers Mens Expert skin care products and a VIVE For Men grooming line. Ads proclaim, Now LOreal Paris brings its grooming technology and expertise to men . . . because youre worth it too. Nike has recently stepped up its efforts to capture the womens sports apparel market. It wasnt until 2000 that Nike made womens shoes using molds made from womens feet, rather than simply using a small mans foot mold. Since then, however, Nike has changed its approach to women. It has overhauled its womens apparel linecalled Nikewomento create better fitting, more colorful, more fashionable workout clothes for women. Its revamped Nikewomen.com Web site now features the apparel, along with workout trend highlights. And Nike has been opening Nikewomen stores in several major cities

2.1 MARKETING IMPLICATIONS & EXAMPLES

Gender differences have been manifested across a wide variety of marketing practices. Marketers use sex as an important segmentation variable to classify a product or a brand for men or for women. They also use brands to convey different gender images, either masculine or feminine. Through factoring some gender-related cues into brands, marketers help consumers develop certain implicit symbolic meanings to associate the brands with their own gender perceptions (Gainer 1993; Kates 2002; Yorkston and De Mello 2005). As such, gender and brand perceptions are related to consumer attitudes and behaviors. In fact,

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researchers have addressed gender and brand relationships in several different ways. Examples for Masculine Products; Marlboro Man The Marlboro Man is assuredly the most successful and most controversial manly brand icon. Created in 1954 by advertiser Leo Burnett, the Marlboro Man was a lone, rugged cowboy who always had a Marlboro cigarette coolly dangling from his lips. The story of why the Marlboro Man was created is pretty fascinating. Marlboro cigarettes were some of the first in the U.S. to feature filters. After anti-tobacco litigation, which resulted in limits being placed on cigarette advertising in magazines and on radio, television, and billboards. Because of the negative press surrounding the Marlboro Man and tobacco in general, Philip Morris discontinued the campaign in 1999. Despite being laid to rest with other brand icons, the Marlboro Man still lives on in pop culture and continues to influence the way masculinity is portrayed in America. Mr. Clean

In 1958, Proctor and Gamble introduced a new home cleaner they dubbed Mr. Clean and created one of the most iconic brand icons in history. P&G wanted a strong, manly looking guy to be the face of their product in order to first, appeal to the ladies

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who would be buying the product, and second, to convey the message that Mr. Clean is there to kill the dirts ! Gucci

Male consumers are an increasingly profitable market for luxury brands, especially when it comes to fragrance and beauty. However, marketers face the challenge of breaking down the barriers and stereotypes related to male consumption of fragrance and beauty products. Gucci has shown how to achieve engagement from male consumers through its Gucci Guilty For Men advertisements Omega This watch advertisement portrays the theory of visual culture. In western culture, a man's watch serves as more than just a tool to tell time, but more as a representation of success, wealth, power, masculinity and taste. This advertisement portrays these characteristics by associating the watch with James Bond, the ideal example of a strong and powerful man of class.

Old Spice

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The Wild Collection, a new line from Old Spice, implies that its fragrances can enhance the primal and sophisticated appeal of its users.Advertising for Old Spice's "Wild Collection" appeals to wild, masculine side of men while having a little more sophisticated look and feel.

Examples for feminine products; Gucci A Gucci designer brand, advertising Flora fragrance. The colours used in this image are light and pale, the background is dark, making the woman, text and product stand out to the viewer. The woman has a bunch of flowers attached to her clothes, this a hidden message that the perfume will make you smell as beautiful as this. The font of 'Flora' is feminine and attractive which suggests it's elegant.

Misty

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Misty used feminine graphics on its packs to attract young women to their brand; rainbows adorned Misty packs, while flowers and butterflies could be found on Eve packs. In 1999, the slogan "Find your rainbow" postured the brand as an opportunity for women to find individuality and freedom, a common tactic in cigarette ads targeted at young people. Samsung The LaFleur Collection is designed to celebrate and enhance the elegant beauty and lifestyle of women. The Collection brings essential apps that enable women to indulge in an exciting and balanced lifestyle, According to Kwon Jae Hoon, Managing Director of Samsung Malaysia Electronics. Be it at home, work or play, the LaFleurs customisable and time-saving applications will enable women to stay on top of the different roles they juggle in life. The collection is a way of showing our appreciation to women by developing more intuitive and personal devices that allows the freedom of self-expression.

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