Untitled

CHAPTER 4
TWO-MACHINE STABILITY
13. Two-Machine Stability Problem. In the preceding chapter
the torque angle characteristics of a simple two-machine system were
discussed for different fault and system conditions. The two-
machine system, which represents the simplest type of transient
stability problem, is useful for studying and illustrating many of the
fundamental phenomena of stability. Because of its relative sim-
plicity many system problems have been reduced to this form for
study. The case of a hydro station located at a distance from its
load and receiver system can usually be well represented as a two-
machine problem. If a study is made of a small generator or motor
connected to a large system, fault conditions which affect the small
motor or generator but which are known not to affect the large
system can be studied as a two-machine problem, or more specifically
as one machine against an infinite bus. Also many stability prob-
lems which may start out as multi-machine problems can later be
resolved into "two-machine problems" for many of the cases.
Because of the importance of the two-machine problem, particularly
for illustrating the phenomena under transient conditions, it is
worthy of considerable attention. In this chapter the special
methods of analyzing the stability of two equivalent machine groups
will be thoroughly discussed.
The multi-machine case will be described later.
14. Two Machines Resistance Neglected. In the simplest
two-machine case all resistance losses are neglected. This simplifica-
tion may be used to illustrate many fundamental principles of
stability.
The equations of rotor motion for machines 1 and 2, from Eq. 3-8,
can be written as
, ,,2 ~~ * ol ml ** el
kJ lit
H2 d S2 _ _
~~Z ~r& _ l <<2 J. tt<2 1 e2
rj lit
[4-1]
51
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52 TWO-MACHINE STABILITY [Ch. 4
If it is further assumed that during the first swing apart of the
machine rotors the mechanical shaft torques do not change from
their constant values, Tm\ = Tm2. This follows since there are
no losses and Te\ = Te2. Therefore, for the case of no resistance,
TaX = ~Ta2 [4-2]
Equations 4-1 may be written as
d2(Si - S2) _ d%2 _ vfjHi + H2)
dt2 dt2 HlH2
d 512 ir/
Tal [4-3]
or
dt2 H0
Tai [4-4]
where
H=rk
Since for the case of two machines with no resistance losses in the tie,
the electrical power or torque is given by Eq. 3-1, with #12 being
dependent upon the system conditions as described in Chapter 3.
Equation 4-6 may be written directly from Eq. 4-4.
d%:
dt2
irf ( ElE2 \
= i Tmi sin 512 ) 4-6]
Equation 4-6 is similar to Eq. 3-9 for one machine against an infinite
bus. The effect of two machines is included by the equivalent inertia
constant (Eq. 4-5).
This relatively simple equation (4-6) describing the relative angu-
lar displacement of two equivalent synchronous machine rotors was
thoroughly analyzed by Summers and McClure1 and later by Byrd
and Pritchard2 for the case of two changes in circuit conditions, and
general solutions given in the form of curves which greatly simplified
the calculations. This case corresponds, for example, to the applica-
tion of a fault and its removal. The solution is given for the maxi-
mum allowable switching time for removal of the fault without loss
of stability. Summers and McClure used a mechanical integrator
to solve Eq. 4-6, and Byrd and Pritchard used long hand step-by-
step methods.
These investigations used equations expressed in general terms so
that the results would have as broad an application as possible. One
Sec. 14] TWO MACHINESRESISTANCE NEGLECTED 53
of these general relations, which defines the critical switching angle
(5S of Fig. 3-11), is defined by Eq. 3.2. Equation 46 is the equation
whose solution is desired for the critical switching time corresponding
to SS during the fault period, after it is put in a more general form
obtained as follows:
E\E2 E\E2
sin S0 sin 512 [4-7]
or
when
d 312 _ jr/
dt H0 \_X 12(before) ^(during)
-TT = TT (âx sin 50 - r\Tm&% sin 512) [4.8]
at 11 q
E\E2 _ *12(before)
* max '1
*12(before) *12(during)
Equation 4.8 can be written as
d2S12 TfriTm
dt2 H0
(sin S0 . \ ,
-^ - sin S12J [4.9]
Now, if
''X Tmax [4-10]
or
-Jri Tmai [441]
Equation 4-9 becomes
rf25]2 sin 50
rfr2 r,
sin 512 [4.12]
This equation was solved for 5i2 in terms of r for various values of
T\ and sin S0 by machine integration1 and by step-by-step calcula-
tions.2 The curves of Figs. 4-1 to 4-17, taken from reference 2, give
directly the critical values of r for stability as a function of r\, r2,
and sin 50, where
xi 2 (before)
X\2 (after)
Sin 60-0.I0
55
5.0
5.0
Fig. 4-6.
Sin SQ-0.30
Sin 80n0.25
Sin $o=0.35
56
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
[Ch. 4
2.0 3.0
Fig. 4.9.
Fig. 4.8.
Sin 6o-0.50
Sin 80 '0.40
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
57
5.0
5.0
l'0.8
uN0.8
Fig. 411.
Fig. 4.10.
Sin 60-0.60
Sin 80-0.55
Sin 80=0.65
Sec. 14] TWO MACHINES RESISTANCE NEGLECTED
58
5.0
[Ch. 4
Fig. 413.
Fig. 4-15.
Fig. 4-14.
Sin S0'0.80
Sin 80-0.70
Sin 6on0.75
Sec. 14] TWO MACHINESRESISTANCE NEGLECTED
59
Sin 80-0.85
5.0
5.0
These curves represent the solution of Eq. 4-12 for different values
of r\ and sin S0 evaluated for the value of r, at which the displace-
ment reaches the critical angular displacement SS defined by Eq. 3.7.
In this way these solutions give directly the critical switching time in
terms of the system constants and initial loading conditions, with
the exception of one special case. This special case will be described
next, after which the use of these curves will be illustrated in this
section by an example.
Special Case (r\ = 0). The solution of Eq. 4-12 requires a special
solution when r\ 0, corresponding to a three-phase bus fault or
total disconnection i.e., Xi2(during) = 0-
Under this condition of r = 0, Eq. 3-7 becomes
cos5s
(5/ S0) sin S0 + r2 cos 5/
r.>
[4-13]
and Eq. 4-8 becomes
dt2
H0
rmax sin 50
[4-14]
For this case, let
rmax [4-15]
or
t = , K [4-16]
IZ
1 max
When Eq. 4.16 is substituted in Eq. 4-14, we have
d%
dp.
2 = sin 50 [4.17]
Solving for p when is initially zero, we have
dp
2(Si2 50)
sin Sn
[4-18]
The curves of Fig. 4-18 give the value of p corresponding to the
critical switching time (512 = 5S) when r\ = 0 for different values
of r2 and sin 5o.
Procedure for Calculation of Critical Switching Times. The follow-
ing is an outline of the procedure for determining the stability
characteristics of a system which can be represented by two equiva-
lent machines with resistance loss neglected. These stability char-
acteristics can best be shown in the form of switching time curves,
where the maximum power which can be transmitted without loss of
stability is plotted as ordinate and the critical switching time as
abscissa.
1. System representation. The first step is to draw an equivalent
one-line diagram of the system with an equivalent transient reactance
and inertia constant for each of the two machine groups. Machines
of the system which are known to swing together are considered as
one machine group having an inertia constant equal to the sum of
their inertia constants on the same kva base and an equivalent
transient reactance equal to their paralleled value including the
interconnecting system tie reactances.
If a network analyzer is used, an equivalent machine group can
easily be obtained by connecting together to one point all the points
back of transient reactance of the individual machines of that group.
>
Q.
00
61
CO
oo
CNJ
00 f
3 "!S
Sec. 14] TWO MACHINES RESISTANCE NEGLECTED
62
[Ch. 4
TW6-MACHINE STABILITY
This is shown in Fig. 4-19. If a network analyzer is not available,
the equivalent can be obtained by methods for reducing the system
network as given in Section 12, Volume I.
2. Determination of the initial voltages. From the initial operating
conditions, determine the voltages back of transient reactance
(i and E2) and the initial angular displacements of these voltages
(5l and 82) as the transmitted load is varied. Plot the variation
Ho 0-
yOOQQQi
Hb 0-
-^msusir-
He Q-
-dmSSLr-
a>-
-\00000 r-
-vJMJ&ay-
-ûmsu-
iQQOOOj
1 \S&St!llb'
iJUfiy^J
(0)
(b)'
I 'SiSiSiiI
MJ<S&&&Sb|viMfiff./ yjmaiLr(z)
to
Fig. 4-19.
of sin 5o, the sine of the initial angular displacement (512 initial),
against the load transmitted. Also plot EiE2/xi2(be(oTe) against
sin 80. These two plots will be used to determine the transmitted
power for a given switching time.
*12(before)
3. Determination of r and r2. Calculate r\ =
and
*12(during)
r2 =
^(before)
*12(after)
4. Determination of zero and infinite switching times. From Fig.
4-20 determine sin 80 corresponding to r\ and to r2. Refer back to
the plot of sin 80 versus initial power to obtain the power correspond-
63
ing to r\ (the power that can be transmitted if the fault is not cleared)
and the power corresponding to r2 (the power that can be transmitted
for instantaneous or zero switching time).
Fig. 4-20. r\ or r% vs. sin 8o.
5. Determination of the intermediate switching times {between
t = 0 to t ). From the curves of Figs. 4-1 to 4-17, for the
calculated values of r\ and r2, determine t for the selected values of
sin 50, which, from the curves plotted in accordance with (2), cor-
respond to definite values of initial power. Convert the values of r
into actual switching times by the following equation:
[4-19]
12(before)
iE2/*i2(before) is obtained from the plot of i2/î2(before) against
sin 50 as calculated in (2).
If rt =0 for any case, use Fig. 4-18 to obtain p and use Eq. 4-16 to
obtain t.
6. Switching time curve. Plot the results of (4) and (5), initial
power against switching time, switching time as abscissa, initial
power as ordinate. This is the desired switching time curve which
is a graphic summary of the results of the calculations for the selected
fault and fault location.
Example. (Abstracted from reference 2.)
1. System Representation. The system represented in Fig. 4-21 will be used to
illustrate the steps in the calculation of the transient stability limits by the method
just outlined. The effect of a fault on one of the parallel transmission lines connect-
ing machines 1 and 2 will be determined.
0.350
6.6/132
nmwM^
0.165
vicflfififla/
0ftH1H 0.350 f~||hSb-0
0.51. -'5
125.4/33.0
^ fr
Flg. 4-21. System diagram reactances based on 100,000 kva and rated voltages
6.6, 132, and 33 kv. Machine 1 is rated 50,000 kva at 1.0 power factor. Hi = 1.76
and Ha = 14.1.
It will be noted that the turn ratio of the step-down transformers is not the same
as the ratio of the rated voltages of the circuits which they connect. Therefore, if
132 kv, the rated voltage of the high-tension circuit, is chosen as the " unit " or
"base " voltage for the system, the per unit value of the low-tension rated voltage
will be 125.4/132 = 0.95; or the low-tension base voltage will be 34.7 kv. (See
Appendix I, Volume I.) Since the base voltage of the low-tension circuit is greater
H,l.76 0.350
o.i5o r^smsmu-
0.511
-'50 0.116
O^^HII" 0350 'tlh^Qfi^
Fjg. 4-22. System equivalent circuit (base kva = 100,000).
than 33 kv, the rated voltage upon which the reactances are given, the per unit
reactances of this part of the system must be decreased by the ratio (125.4/132 )2 =
(0.95)2 = 0.902. The reactance of the equivalent motor then becomes 0.902 X
0.131 = 0.118, and the reactance of the receiving end transformer becomes 0.902 X
0.165 = 0.15. Figure 4-21 becomes Fig. 4-22.
Sec. 14J TWO MACHINES RESISTANCE NEGLECTED
65
The turn ratio of the step-up transformers corresponds to the ratio of the rated
voltages of the circuits; therefore the base voltage on the generating station side
of these transformers will be equal to the rated voltage for that circuit, and no
correction of the per unit reactance of the circuit will be necessary.
The transformers are connected A-Y and solidly grounded on the high sides as
indicated in Fig. 4.21.
1.230
1.210
1.190
1.170
1.150
1.130
1.0
1.110
0.9
0.8
XI
OJ
1.090
1.070
1.050
1.030
1.010
0.7
1-
t 0.6
>
- 0.5
\ 0.4
0.990
'0.3
0.970
0.2
0.950
0.1
0.930
Trnax
Per Unit
Power
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sin S0
Fig. 4-23. Per unit power and rmax vs. sin So for the equivalent system of Fig. 4.22.
TABLE 4-1
Data for Curves in Fig. 4'23
2. Calculation of Initial and Maximum Power Corresponding to Initial Angular
Displacements between the Two Machines. If rated voltages are normally held on
the high-tension side of the step-up transformers and on the low-tension side of the
step-down transformers, the current can be determined for any value of power
transfer. If the current is known, the magnitudes of the voltages E\ and 2 which
exist behind the machine reactances and the angle 50 between them can be cal-
culated.
The magnitudes of the internal voltages and the angle between them for various
values of load are tabulated in Table 4.1 and used to plot the two curves of Fig. 4-23.
One curve shows the relation between the initial power transfer and the sine of the
initial angle 4o between the internal voltages. The other curve shows the relation
H.lfc.2
between the function Tmtx = and sin 5o. E\ and 2 are the internal voltages
of machines 1 and 2, respectively, and X12 is the total reactance between the points
at which these voltages are maintained (see Fig. 4-22) *i2(before) = 0.511 + 0.150 +
0.175 + 0.150 + 0.118 = 1.104.
s-** U.OIl U.1DU
0.350
v 0000.0.0.0./^)
0.175 i 0.175
0.150 . 0.118
u.iou U.IIO /^
g Xf? 0(3$ fault)
(0)?
^-. 0.749 0.356
(V)ys&smsu-r-^smsmj@
(b)
0.0438
Fig. 4-24. Reactance diagram with a three-phase fault at the midpoint of one of
the parallel lines of Fig. 4-22.
3. Calculation of Reactances During and After the Fault, (a) Three-phase fault
at the center of one line. The equivalent reactance x/ of a three-phase fault is zero.
Therefore, (b) of Fig. 4-24 can be obtained from (a) by one A-Y transformation.
(0.749 X 0.356)
smdurin*) - 0.749 + 0.356 + i ^^ = 7.192
*i2(aiteo = 0.511 + 0.150 + 0.350 + 0.150 + 0.118 = 1.279
X\ 2 (before) 1104 _,-,.
r\ = = - = 0.1535
*12<during) 7.192
*12(before) 1104:
r2 = = = 0.863
*12(after) 1-279
(6) Double-line-to-ground fault at the center of one line. The equivalent reactance
Xj of a double-line-to-ground fault is the parallel value of the negative and zero
67
sequence reactances of the system viewed from the point of fault. Three steps in
the simplification of the reactance diagram are shown in Fig. 4-25.
*i2(dum) = 0.749 + 0.356 + ^ ^p"'35^ = 2-393
*12(before) 1.104
i = = ~r~^r: = 0.461
*12 (during) 2.393
f2 = 0.863, being the same for all types of faults at one location
0.350
^-^ 0.511 0.150 ^v ^' 0.150 0.118 ^-v
0.118
Xf (L-L-G Foult)
I 7 I__L.
(c)
0.749 0.356
s-\ 0.749
Fig. 4-25. Reactance diagram with double-line-to-ground fault at the midpoint of
one of the parallel lines of Fig. 4.22.
Note. The assumption is made that the negative sequence reactance of the system is
equal to the positive sequence reactance when viewed from the point of fault; and
that the zero sequence reactance of the transmission lines is equal to 3.5 times their
positive sequence reactance, mutual reactance between the two circuits being negli-
gible. See Section 10 for discussion of network representation during faults.
68
[Ch. 4
TABLE 4-2
Data for Three-Phase Fault at Center of One Line
Per
Unit
10.95
(n-0.1535
Switching
Time,
Sin 5o
Power
.1 max
?ll max
Vr^ma*
r2 = 0.863)
Second
0.825
0.995
0.80
0.933
1.177
0.1807
4.65
0.127
0.0273
0.75
0.843
1.134
0.1741
4.57
0.2365
0.0518
0.70
0.763
1.097
0.1684
4.49
0.353
0.0784
0.65
0.690
1.067
0.1638
4.43
0.450
0.1016
0.60
0.623
1.041
0.1598
4.38
0.554
0.1265
0.55
0.560
1.020
0.1566
4.33
0.666
0.1538
0.50
0.500
1.001
0.1537
4.29
0.783
69
TABLE 4-3
Data for Double-Line-to-Ground Fault at Center of One Line
Per
Unit
Power
10.95
Switching
Time,
Second
Sin Jo
-* max
fl* max
vVi7.max
(n = 0.461
r2- 0.863)
0.825
0.995
0.80
0.933
1.177
0.5426
8.07
0.353
0.0437
0.75
0.843
1.134
0.5228
7.92
0.702
0.0886
0.70
0.763
1.097
0.5057
7.79
1.01
0.1297
0.65
0.690
1.067
0.4919
7.68
1.32
0.1719
0.60
0.623
1.041
0.4799
7.59
1.671
0.2202
0.55
0.560
1.020
0.4702
7.51
2.081
0.2771
0.50
0.500
1.001
0.4615
7.38
2.574
0.3460
70
[Ch. 4
Data for switching time curves for a number of loads have been determined by
use of the curves of Fig. 4-23 and the master curves (Figs. 4-1 to 4-17) and are
tabulated in Tables 4-2 and 4-3.
From the data given in Tables 4.2 and 4-3, the switching time curves shown in
Fig. 4-26 (by the full lines) were plotted. The dotted curve is for a three-phase
fault on one of the parallel lines very near the sending end high-tension bus. The
calculations for this case of r\ = 0 and rj = 0.863 are summarized in Table 4.4,
based on the solutions of Fig. 4-18.
~ -.0
0.9
8 8
8,0.7
! 0.6
& 0.5
* 0.4
fe0.3
5 0.2
.s
I 0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Switching Time in Seconds
Fig. 4.26. Permissible fault duration versus initial power transfer for the system
given by Fig. 4.22. Note. Full load on machine 1 of Fig. 4.21 is 0.5 per unit power.
Curve
-L-G
fault ot center of one
ine
Curve 2-3$ - fault at center of one line.
Curve 3-3$ -fault negligibly distant
from gen. station h-v. bus.
L_
<
It
15. Results Obtained from Two-Machine Stability Analyses.
Sec. 15]
71
TWO-MACHINE STABILITY ANALYSES
severe than those at the center of a line. See Fig. 4-27 for a com-
parison of switching time curves for a three-phase fault located near
the center of one of the high-voltage circuits as compared with those
for a three-phase fault located near the high-tension bus. The bus
faults or faults near the buses, because they are more severe, are in
general considered in greater detail than faults along the line. There-
fore, any method which will decrease the severity of faults near the
buses will usually increase the value of power that it is considered
safe to transmit. This leads to a consideration of the effect of low-
tension versus high-tension bussing.
1.4
1.3
i,
=J
"-;
Fig.
Fault Location B7 < Fault Location A
n** /0.95 io.34^ n.n*
0>
o.89 nrvi)
Gen. System ^ Rec. System
Hi = 56 H2 = I90
'30
,Fou*-Lo
COtic
nA
Sgôu
Lto
i^tVo
le_
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Switching-Time-in Seconds
0.8
0.9
1.0
4-27. Switching time curves for three-phase faults near center of line and
near generator system bus. Faults cleared of both ends simultaneously.
High-Tension Versus Low-Tension Bussing. Low-tension bussing
reduces the severity of faults on the high-voltage circuits because of
the increased reactance to the fault made possible by such an arrange-
ment. The power that can be transferred through prolonged faults
is therefore increased. However, for quick switching off or clearing
of the fault no advantage is realized. For very small switching
times or for machine groups having comparatively large inertias
compared to the power being transmitted, high-tension bussing may
be advantageous. (See Fig. 4-28.)
72
[Ch. 4
These curves are based on simultaneous opening of line breakers
to clear the faulty circuit. The use of a high-tension bus allows for
an appreciable increase in the transient stability limit above that
obtained by low-tension bussing, provided the switching time can be
reduced below that indicated by the intersection of the two curves.
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
I.
o 0.
Q.
|0.
Fig.
oil
IJl-o cHj
fro
Gen. i i
iT Gen. 3
3x
"-Fault
* Vault
Low-Tension Bussing versus High-Tension Bussing
111
Lot
LEf^nJSussing
_ High-Tension Bussing
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
4.28. Switching time curves for double-line-to-ground faults with low- and
high-tension bussing.
The above comparisons are not altogether complete without con-
sidering the relays used to detect faults on the high-voltage circuits.
In low-tension bussing it may be possible to obtain simultaneous
clearing of the fault at both ends of the circuit with balanced relays;
in high-tension bussing sequential clearing of bus faults is generally
necessary unless pilot wire or carrier current relaying is used. The
transient stability limits for sequential clearing of faults will be less
than for simultaneous clearing if the time for the first breaker to
clear in either case is the same. The use of high-tension buses is
therefore of increasing value as breaker and relay times are reduced.
Intermediate High-Tension Buses. The question naturally arises,
when it is found that for a particular system high-tension bussing at
the generator and receiver ends is advantageous, of what additional
Sec. 15]
73
value is an intermediate high-tension bus? Figure 4-29 shows the
total critical switching times (breaker and relay) when an inter-
mediate high-tension bus is used. For this arrangement the im-
portance of the type of relaying is emphasized. Figure 4-29 has a
switching time curve (c) for sequential opening of the line breakers
(it was assumed that the second breaker and relay required as much
time to clear as the first breaker and relay after the opening of the
1.2
i.o
0.9
0.8
I -7
s.
.* 0.6
fc0.5
a.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
^^
^^
^^
^5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Switching Time in Seconds For First Breoker To Open
0.8
0.9
Fig. 4-29. Switching time curves for three-phase faults at generator high-tension
bus. A. No intermediate high-tension bus. B. Intermediate bus with simul-
taneous switching. C. Intermediate bus with sequential switching.
first breaker). From these results it is evident that the intermediate
high-tension bus requires even smaller switching times in order to
realize fully the possible increase in the transient stability limit made
available by the additional bus. Therefore, there is an optimum
number of high-tension bussing stations for a given line and for given
switching times. The most reasonable design depends upon the
number and types of faults expected as well as upon the breaker and
relay times. Figure 4-30 compares a three-phase and a double-line-
to-ground fault with high- and low-tension intermediate bussing.
It becomes important to determine the probability of the number
and types of faults, in order to determine in a rational manner the
best design. This information may be obtained from experience.
Valuable data from automatic oscillographs have been and are being
74
[Ch. 4
l.l
i.o
0.9
0.8
0.7
| 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
O.I
0.35 J>0J^55_cH_D0134_t:, 0 03
Vault
-8_
"*
--^
~-'
0.1
0.2
0.4 0.5 0.6
Fig. 4.30. Switching time curves showing gains realized by use of an intermediate
high-tension bus. A. No intermediate high-tension bus three-phase fault.
B. No intermediate high-tension bus double-line-to-ground fault. C. Inter-
mediate high-tension bus three-phase fault. D. Intermediate high-tension bus
double-line-to-ground fault.
collected by the operating companies in an effort to determine the
number and nature of faults which occur on their systems.
Two additional considerations, aside from the economic ones,
which influence the use of an additional high-tension bus are:
1. When one or more intermediate high-tension buses are used, the
probability for the occurrence of bus faults or faults just off the
high-tension buses is increased.
2. The steady state power limits of a system which determine the
amount of power that can be safely transmitted under steady
state conditions are obtained usually with one line out or a sec-
tion of a line out. These steady state stability limits can be
increased by intermediate high-tension buses.
When the two interconnected machine groups do not have large
inertias compared to the loads being transmitted, or when the relay
and switching times are long, the intermediate high-tension bus may
lower the average transient stability limits for certain types of faults
rather than increase them. However, intermediate bussing has
become generally beneficial with the use of modern circuit breakers
and relays.
Neutral Grounding Reactance. For faults involving ground it is
possible to increase the fault reactance and therefore the stability
Sec. 15]
75
limit for a given switching time by increasing the reactance offered
to the flow of zero phase sequence currents. This can be accom-
plished by grounding the neutrals of the high-voltage transformer
banks through impedance. The switching time curves for different
types of faults occurring at the high-tension bus of a hydroelectric
station delivering power to a synchronous motor load are shown on
Fig. 4-31. This shows the gain that may be realized by the use of a
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
t 0.90
0.80
5 0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I
Switching Time (Seconds)
Fig. 4-31. Power-switching time curves for various kinds of faults and the effect
of transformer neutral reactance. Synchronous generators delivering power to
synchronous motor loads.
Gen.
Mot.
o-
-o
* Fault
'Line-ground fault
(Reactance in neutral = 3 times -
transformer reactance)
Line-ground fault
Neutral solidly grounded
Double line-ground fault
- Reactance in .neutral
Double line-ground fault
Neutral solidly grounded
^3-phose fault
neutral grounding reactor having a reactance of three times the
transformer for the faults involving grounding (L-G and L-L-G).
No gain, of course, is realized for the three-phase fault, which is the
most severe type. In this case, it may be important to know the
probable number of three-phase faults as compared with the other
types in order to determine the economical advisability of installing
neutral grounding impedance.
The best value of neutral grounding reactance from a stability
standpoint depends upon the particular system involved. Figure
76
[Ch. 4
4.32 shows the gains for particular switching times for different values
of neutral ground reactance for a given system. It should be noted
that as the switching times decrease the gains are decreased, and
2.00
1.80
1.60
.40
1.20
.1.00
<
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
t=0
t = 0.2
t = 0.4
t = 0.6
t = cc
12 3 4 5 6
Times Transformer Reactance in Neutral of Transformer
Fig. 4.32. Power which may be carried through a double-line-to-ground fault
near bus vs. reactance in transformer neutrals. 8 per cent transformer reactance
assumed. / = high-tension switching time in seconds.
that the gains realized for this system by increasing the reactance in
the neutral rapidly drop off above two or three times transformer
reactance.
Instead of grounding the transformer through a neutral grounding
reactance it is possible to use a higher reactance transformer and
Sec. IS]
77
limit somewhat the zero phase sequence or ground current in this
manner. Figure 4-33 shows the gains realized as the switching time
is varied for different values of transformer reactance for a particular
system. These curves are for a double-line-to-ground fault at the
transformer terminals only. High-reactance transformers will in
general decrease the transient stability limit for the other types of
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
w 1.4
= 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
* 12% Reoctonce
^^8% Reactance
^"^4% Reactance
x0% Reactance
0.1
0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5
Switching Time In Seconds
0.6
0.7
0.8
Fig. 4-33. Switching time curve showing maximum power-transfer as a function
of transformer reactance for a double-line-to-ground fault near transformer high-
tension bus.
fault and fault locations rather than increase it, so that a more
logical arrangement is to keep the transformer reactance as low as
economically justifiable and place additional reactance in the neutral
if necessary to increase the power limit for faults involving ground.
High-Voltage Circuits Versus Low-Voltage Circuits. A given
amount of power may be transmitted over two circuits at a high
voltage or over a large number at a lower voltage. For example,
one 220-kv line will have approximately the same reactance as four
110-kv lines in parallel or three 132-kv lines in parallel. When more
than two circuits are used, the switching out of one line does not
increase the transfer reactance as much as the switching out of one of
two parallel circuits.
Figure 4-34 shows the relative transient stability limits for a system
having two parallel circuits as compared with a system having six
78
[Ch. 4
parallel circuits at a lower voltage. The parallel line reactance of the
lower voltage circuits for this case equals the parallel reactance of the
two higher voltage circuits. The system having lower voltage cir-
cuits without high-tension bussing is, for the case considered, the
best arrangement for stability.
3.
2.
2.
2,
2.
?.
!1.
Q.
I,
I.
0.
oajrj \ iSjoqfep
1111
I3#-
Steady State
<.6 .9 <>.6 <
*6- .9
-5J^
^.6 .9 ^.
s&
1 .9
**7
All Lines In
-0-
3 ,9 &
** >
-i
-o-iJ
6 .9
4iô-
S6
, .9
B 2L .9 *is
6 .9
5.F
1 .9
^""i "u ""J
"r
.9
<>.6
A--
bad
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Switching Time (seconds)
Fig. 4-34. Comparison of switching arrangements for double-line-to-ground faults.
In general, therefore, with an increase in the number of parallel
circuits the advantage at small switching times for high-tension
bussing decreases. The high-tension bussing arrangement will,
Sec. IS]
79
An increase in generator inertia will make it possible to clear the
fault before the generator rotor has reached as great an angular dis-
placement as it would with less inertia. For a system in which
series and shunt resistances may be neglected in order to simplify the
calculations, the maximum switching time for stability varies directly
as the square root of the equivalent inertia constant (H0) of the
3.0
2.8
'1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Steady state power limit (2 lines in)
Steady state power limit (1 line in)
-Stub feeder fault
o-f
0.
0000000
0.I ,
1 ti b Infinite
o]-i|-p bus
H = 2.60u - 0.3
TT5OTWr
I line fault
* Double line -to ground faults
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.0 I.I
Fig. 4-35. Comparison of stability limits for faults on stub feeder against faults
on one of the two parallel transmission lines.
system. That is, a 100 per cent increase in the inertia of a generator
delivering power to an infinite receiver system will result in an in-
crease in maximum switching time in order to transmit a given load
of 41 per cent. Figure 4-36 shows the gains that can be realized by
increasing the inertia 30 per cent. It should be noted that an increase
of 10 per cent in allowable switching time at about 0.2 second switch-
ing time is equivalent to only about a 4 per cent increase in the
power that can be transferred with stability. It is therefore im-
portant to define the percentages when using them in reference to the
gains obtained by a change in the influencing factors.
Figure 4-37 shows the gains realized in the transient stability limit
for a double-line-to-ground fault at the generator bus when the
machine transient reactance is changed from 0.4 to 0.316 per unit.
This change in transient reactance, for the case under consideration,
resulted in a larger machine with a correspondingly higher short-
circuit ratio, i.e., from 1 to 1.25.
80
[Ch. 4
I,
I.
5 i.
i '<
i o,
0,
-'U1MM J_| lntinit.
1 0.3
Double line to ground foult
H 3.38
[7
H-2.60
0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig. 4-36. Effect of increasing generator inertia 30 per cent.
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
- 1.2
5 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fig. 4-37. Switching time curve showing the effect of change in ucj on transient
stability.
0.
0000000
0.3 0
| K Infinite
^nreflnonn ^
I K bus
H = 2.60 X Double line to ground foult
.SCR l.25,x'd .316
Vj
SCR l.00,xd 0.4
16. Two Machines with Resistance. An important type of
transient stability problem is that of two machines in which the
effect of resistance loss in the network cannot be neglected. The
procedure in this case has been outlined in reference 3 and is quite
straightforward although not so simple as for the case when resistance
can be neglected.
Sec. 16] TWO MACHINES WITH RESISTANCE 81
For this case, we can again start with the equation of motion of the
two machines, and from Eq. 44 obtain
d2(h ~ h) d2S12
-/Tal Ta2\
[4.20]
dt2 dt*
In order to obtain an expression for dh2/dt, Eq. 4-21 may be used
d/dd\2 dS/d2S\
Alt) =2-d\le) [4-211
Substituting Eq. 4-20 in 4-21 and integrating, we obtain
This equation states that the relative angular velocity dSi2/dt is
zero when
,5,
mS%)
This is the general form of the equal area criterion and applies when
F.i is not equal to Ta2.
This criterion may be applied for the case of two machines when
resistance is included (Tai ? Ta2) in the following steps:
1. Calculation of voltages behind transient reactances for the given
operating conditions.
2. Calculation of driving point and transfer impedances.
3. Calculation of torque angle characteristics.
4. Determination of the critical switching angle, that is, the
maximum angle at which the fault can be cleared with stability
maintained.
5. Determination of switching time corresponding to the critical
switching angle by a step-by-step calculation.
1. Calculation of voltages behind transient reactances. Figure 4-38 (a)
shows a one-line impedance diagram of a system consisting of a
synchronous machine connected by two parallel transmission lines
to a second machine and a shunt impedance load. The transient
reactances of the machines are used in this diagram. The second
machine in this case is a motor, although the same methods could be
used if it were a generator or a condenser. From known voltages,
currents, and power factors which existed in the system before the
fault occurred, the magnitudes and angles of the voltages behind the
transient reactances of machines 1 and 2 can be calculated.
S2
[Ch. 4
2. Calculation of driving point and transfer impedances. For cal-
culating transfer and driving point impedances before the occurrence
of the fault and after the fault has been cleared (Section 2, Volume I)
the system can be reduced to the simple three-branch positive
sequence network shown in Fig. 4-38(6). When a fault occurs, it
may be replaced in the positive sequence impedance diagram by a
fault impedance Z/ which depends upon the character and location of
the fault (Section 10). The driving point and transfer impedances
may be obtained for each machine for each circuit condition (Section
7, Volume I).
MJ'O0W>
rO-WWV '.OD'OW"1D-i
KMM/W nWGGa^-o-i
lo)
C\J' ooooo <*vww'WOO'fPww(z)
(b)
Fig. 4-38. (a) Two synchronous machines connected by an impedance network
with a shunt impedance load, (b) Simplified impedance diagram of two-machine
system.
3. Calculation of torques. The torque angle characteristics for
machines 1 and 2, calculated by Eq. 1-6, are shown in Figs. 4-39 (a)
and 4-39 (b), respectively. These curves are shown separately for
the sake of clearness.
The horizontal lines Ti (Fig. 4-39[a]) and T2 (Fig. 4-39[b]) repre-
sent the mechanical torques on machines 1 and 2, respectively. T\
is positive and T2 negative.
The angle 50 is the initial value of the angle 512 between the volt-
ages E\ and E2. At the instant the fault occurs, the electrical torque
of machine 1 drops from the value Ti, shown by curve AX in Fig.
4-39(a), to the value shown by curve Bi, leaving a net accelerating
torque
E\E2
Tal = Ti - Tel
Ti sin an
12
sin (512 c*i2) [4-23J
Sec. 16]
83
TWO MACHINES WITH RESISTANCE
acting on the rotor of machine 1. Similarly, the accelerating torque
which will act on the rotor of machine 2 is
Ta2 = T2 Te2 = T2 - sin a22 + sin (512 + ai2) [4-24]
^22 ^12
Angle 812 in degrees
la)
Angle 8|2 In degrees
8,
The torque Tai, which is the difference between Ti and the ordinate
of curve B\ at S0, is positive. It therefore tends to increase the speed
of machine 1. Torque Ta2, which is the difference between T2 and
the ordinate of curve B2 at So, is negative. (The ordinate of curve
B2 at 5o in this particular case
is zero.) It therefore tends to
decrease the speed of machine
2. The relative acceleration of
the two machines is given by
Eq. 4-20. With finite inertia
constants, the relative acceler-
ation will be positive and the
angle 512 between the machines
will increase.
4. Determination of critical
switching angle. If at some
angle St the fault is cleared, the
electrical torque of machine 1
will immediately increase to
the value shown by curve C\
(Fig. 4-39[a]) and that of ma-
chine 2 will be shown on curve
C2 (Fig. 4-39[6]). The electri-
cal torques of machines 1
and 2 are now greater in mag- Fig. 4.39.
nitude than their respective
mechanical torques. Acceler-
ating torque Tai will be nega-
tive, Ta2 positive, and the relative acceleration of the machines.
will become negative and tend to decrease the speed. However,
while the relative acceleration was positive and 512 was increasing
from 50 to 5, the machines acquired a difference in angular velocities.
This positive relative velocity must be overcome if the machines are
to remain in synchronism. In the limiting case, it will be just over-
come and the relative velocity of the machines will become zero just
as the relative acceleration changes from a negative value to zero.
(o) Torque-angle characteristics
of machine 1. (6) Torque-angle character-
istics of machine 2. A. Before the fault.
B. During the fault. C. After the fault.
84
[Ch. 4
Fig. 4-40. Determination of criti-
cal switching angle by equal-area
method.
In Fig. 4-40 (Tai/Hi Ta2/H2) has been plotted for increasing
values of 512 from 50 to S/ for the conditions which existed with the
fault on the system, and after it had
been cleared from the system. These
curves are designated B and C, re-
spectively. If a vertical line is drawn
through that value of 512 = 5S for
which the area a,\, under curve B be-
tween So and S,, is equal in magnitude
and opposite in sign to the area a2,
under curve C between 5S and 5/, Ss
is the maximum angle between the
machines at which the fault can be cleared from the system with-
out causing instability. In this way Ss, the critical switching angle,
can be determined graphically.
5. Determination of switching time corresponding to the critical
switching angle. The switching time corresponding to the critical
switching angle is a function of the accelerating torques and the iner-
tias of the machines. Unfortunately there is no literal mathematical
solution for this function in the general case, and a step-by-step
method of calculation must be used in order to determine the time
required for the angle between the two machines to equal S, (Sec-
tion 12). In this way, time-angle
curves similar to those shown
in Fig. 4-41 can be drawn and
the time corresponding to the
critical switching angle obtained.
If the actual time of clearing
the fault is less than the time cor-
responding to the critical angle,
the system will be stable for the
given load and operating conditions; if it is greater, the system will
be unstable. Instead of calculating and plotting the angular posi-
tions of both machines with respect to a reference axis as in Fig. 4-41,
one curve giving angle between machines (512) versus time can be
used.
Sequential Switching. When the fault is cleared by sequential
opening of breakers (one line breaker opening before the breaker at
the other end of the line), a curve for (Tai/Hi Ta2/H2) corre-
sponding to the conditions existing with one breaker open must be
added to Fig. 4-40. If such values of Si2 (Ssi and Ss2) can be found
that the sum of the areas under the three curves is zero, the system
Fig. 4.41.
Sec. 17] SUDDENLY APPLIED LOADS 85
will remain in synchronism if the breakers are opened at values less
than these angles. Step-by-step calculations will be necessary to
determine switching times corresponding to the angles 5sl and Sa2.
Sustained Fault. Curve B in Fig. 4-40 gives (Tai/Hi Ta2/H2)
for a sustained fault. In this particular case the area under the
curve is entirely positive and the system is unstable. The angle
between the machines will increase until synchronism is lost.
A system will remain in synchronism under a sustained fault if
there is a value of 512 at which the area under the curve (Tai/Hi
Tai/Hz) is zero for the conditions existing with the fault on the
system.
Instantaneous Switching. Curve C in Fig. 4-40 gives (Tai/Hi
T<a/H2) for the conditions existing after the fault is cleared. If the
fault is cleared instantly, the disturbance is the switching out of
service of a portion of the system. The angle S\2 will at first increase.
With increasing values of 512 the area under Curve C in Fig. 4-40
changes from a small positive value to a larger negative value. For
the case shown the system will not lose synchronism on the first
swing of the machines.
17. Suddenly Applied Loads. A transient stability problem of a
somewhat different type arises when it becomes desirable to deter-
mine the maximum load that can be thrown on one of two syn-
chronous machine groups without loss of synchronism. Consider the
comparatively simple case of two synchronous machine groups con-
nected together by a tie line (Fig. 4-42). Suppose a sudden increase
of load, AL2, is thrown on system 2, owing'
either to the loss of an appreciable amount \L) Ci/ al,
of generation or to an actual sudden load
. Etc 4,42
increase. Assume that this sudden load in-
crease does not appreciably affect the transfer impedance of reactance
between machines 1 and 2. This sudden increase in load may, there-
fore, be considered equivalent to a sudden increase of the equivalent
shaft torque of system 2 or of the shaft load of a synchronous motor.
Neglecting resistance, we may write the differential equations for
the motion of the two systems (Eq. 4-1) as follows (assuming system 1
is initially transferring power of amount Tm to system 2):
Hi d% ElE2 .
f-7^ = Tm sin i2 [4.25]
vj at #12
H2d% Ar^l2
*7 dr x12
, = - Tm - AL + -^-i sin 51a [4-26]
86
[Ch. 4
Equations 4.25 and 4-26 may be written as follows:
d%
Hi
dt2 " " Ial
d% irf
dt2
Ho
o2
where
Tai Tm
EiE2
*12
sin 5x2
Ta2 = Tm AL H sin 512
^12
Subtracting Eq. 4-28 from 4-27, we have
.(Tal Ta2\
d%
dt2
t4-27]
[4-28]
[4-29]
[4.30]
[4-31]
Equation 4.31 is the same as Eq. 4-22, for which the criterion for
stability is
jC(S?S)*"0
[4-32]
where Ta\ and Ta2 are expressed for this case by Eqs. 4-29 and 4-30,
respectively.
In a similar manner as described
previously (Section 16) stability
can be determined by plotting
(Tai/Hi Ta2/H2) as a function
of 512.
Figure 443(a) is a plot of (Tai/
Hi Ta2/H2) against angle for a
particular case which is stable; a2
is larger than a\. The case plotted
in Fig. 43(6) is unstable; a2 is
smaller than a\.
By plotting (Tal/Hi - Ta2/H2)
against 5i2 in the above manner,
it is possible to determine how
much additional load, AL, may be
thrown on one of the systems.
This method of equal areas may in this manner be applied to deter-
mine the maximum shaft load that can be applied suddenly to a
synchronous motor when connected to a system.
H1*
'S^gi^>'
(b)
Fig. 4.43.
REFERENCES 87
REFERENCES
Progress in the Study of System Stability," by I. H. Summers and J. B.
McClure, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 49, 1930, pages 132-158.
Solution of the Two-Machine Stability Problem," by H. L. Byrd and S. R.
Pritchard, General Electric Review, February 1933, pages 81-93.
Calculation of Two-Machine Stability, with Resistance," by S. R. Pritchard
and Edith Clarke, General Electric Review, February 1934, pages 87-92.
CHAPTER 5
MULTI-MACHINE PROBLEM
18. Multi-Machines Procedure. This chapter will be devoted
to a discussion of the multi-machine problem. When making a
study involving several machine groups it is usually necessary to
neglect those factors which are of secondary importance, and the
following assumptions are usually made:
1. Transient saliency neglected (x = x'd = x'g). (Section 6.)
2. Flux linkages held constant corresponding to the voltage back
of transient reactance (*'). (Section 2.)
3. Damping torques and subtransient effects neglected.
4. Constant mechanical shaft torques of synchronous machines.
5. Loads represented by constant shunt impedances.
6. System network impedances constant, corresponding to normal
frequency.
7. Stability determined by the first swing of the machines includ-
ing those with the longest period.
When more than two equivalent machine groups are to be studied,
considerable work is involved since it is necessary to carry out the
step-by-step calculations until it is apparent that the machine
groups will no longer continue to separate but will return to a smaller
relative angular displacement after reaching a maximum or peak dis-
placement. Thus the procedure is a matter of cut and try to deter-
mine if an assumed switching time for a given set of initial system
conditions is stable or unstable. The exact critical switching time
then is found by interpolation.
The work becomes almost too difficult to do entirely by longhand
calculations when more than three- or four-machine groups are
involved. However, by using an a-c network analyzer for obtaining
the initial conditions and the accelerating torques under the transient
condition, multi-machine problems exceeding twelve-machine groups
have been successfully worked out.
The procedure for the calculation of a multi-machine swing curve
entirely by longhand method is this:
1. Reduce system network to simple equivalent.
Sec. 18] MULTI-MACHINES PROCEDURE 89
2. Determine transfer and driving point impedances for circuit
conditions of transient (fault on, fault off, etc.).
3. Determine initial conditions and power flow equations for sub-
sequent transient conditions.
4. Determine accelerating torque constant for each machine group.
5. Make up swing curve sheet.
6. Make swing curve calculations for assumed fault clearing time
until it is apparent that system is stable or unstable.
The procedure when using an a-c network analyzer is:
1. Set up on network analyzer system equivalent and initial power
flow conditions.
2. Determine accelerating torque constant for each machine group.
3. Make up swing curve calculation forms.
4. Make swing curve calculation by step-by-step procedure.
Read machine electrical power directly from analyzer, calculate
change in angle and then change phase angle of network
analyzer generator units at each step. Repeat this procedure
step by step.
The network analyzer reduces the amount of work entailed in the
calculation of a swing curve but does not obviate the necessity of
making a step-by-step solution. Because of the work involved in
making swing curve calculations the cases to be worked should be
well selected so that the effect of other faults for different system con-
ditions can be estimated from the results of the selected cases by
physical reasoning. In this way a picture of the system stability
characteristics is obtained.
The step-by-step procedure provides the solution of the following
equations of angular motion of n machines. (Refer to Eq. 3-8.)
Elfh-T -T T
~ , 2 1 * ml J. el
ttj at
Ho d Qo
VflF_ la2_ lm2~ le2 [5.i]
Hn d Sn _
kj at
The electrical torque at normal speed (from Eq. 1.6), for n machines
90 MULTI-MACHINE PROBLEM [Ch. 5
connected to a network, is given by the following set of equations:
Ei . EiE2 . . .
Tei = -= sin an + sin (512 ai2) < < <
Zll '-"" /il2
+ -= sin (5in ain)
t ^2 . EiE2 . .
re2 = -= sin a22 sin (5i2 + u)
^22 ^12
+ -=- sin (S2n - a2n) [5-2]
^2n
F2 Ki F
-* en = ^- Sin ann Sin {8in + <Xin)
E(n-i)En . ~ Sin (8tn-Dn + a(n-Dn)
^(nl)n
Knowing the driving point impedances (Zn, Z22, Znn), the
transfer impedances (Z12, Zi3, Zin Z2z - Z2n, etc.)> the
complements of their impedance angles (an, a22, ann, ai2, an,
a2n, etc.), and the original or initial voltages behind transient
reactance of the connected machines or machine groups (Ei, 21
En), we determine the equations for Tei, Te2, Ten in terms of
the angular displacement of the machines (S12, 813, 523, " " S(n-i)n)'
The relative angular displacement may then be determined by
means of a step-by-step calculation in a manner similar to that out-
lined in Section 12, when the inertia constants of each machine and
their mechanical torque inputs are known.
The following outline is a procedure for the longhand solution of a
three-machine problem. The same method of procedure applies to
any number of machines.
1. Reduction of system network. The first step is to reduce the
problem to as few machine groups as possible, in this case three. The
work involved in an analysis of this nature increases rapidly with an
increase in the number of machines to be studied. In reducing the
network and problem to as few machine groups as possible, the
Y-A and A-Y transformations will be found useful. If a d-c calcu-
'ating board is available, sections of the system may be reduced by its
re very quickly provided resistance may be neglected or constant
ipedance angle of the circuit elements assumed in that section.
Methods do exist by which it is possible to use a d-c board to make a
study of a network involving resistance and inductance.1 These
methods are not simple in their application and for this reason are not
generally used. When only an occasional study is to be made, the
longhand methods of circuit reduction described in Section 11,
Volume I, may be found sufficient.
In reducing the system to as few machines and as simple a circuit
as possible, it is necessary to retain the identity of points in the
system at which certain operating conditions are known, in order to
define the initial conditions for the swing curve.
2. Determination of circuit impedances. The next step is to cal-
culate the characteristic circuit impedances. They are necessary
for the calculation of electrical torque for three machines by the
following equations:
- Ei . E\E2 . . . -E1-E3 . ,. .
Tti = ^ sin au + sin (5i3-a12) + ; sin (513-a;13)
^11 z12 -^13
E2 E\Ei2 E2IL3
Te2 = sin aa22 sin (S12+a12) + sin (S23-a23) [5-3]
Z22 -^12 ^23
E3 . Ei\Ei% , E2E3
Tez = sin a33 sin (13+a13) sin (523+a23)
-^33 z13 ^23
The circuit impedances should be determined for each of the
different conditions that change the circuit constants. For example,
for a case of sequential switching, they must be calculated when the
fault is on, when the first breaker opens, and when the faulty section
or fault is removed from the system. That is, for the different
circuit conditions the following must be determined: (Zn, Z22, Z33,
212, Z13, and Z23). Also their corresponding impedance angles
hi, #22i <?33> #12. ^13. and 023 must be determined in order to obtain
an, <*22. 33. 12. 13. and a23. (See Section 7, Volume I.)
3. Power flow equations. A study is then made to determine
the relative loadings of the various machine groups, the equivalent
voltages behind transient reactance, and their angular displacements.
That is, this step in the procedure is to determine E\, E2, and 3,
the initial voltages behind transient reactance of the three-machine
groups; 8i, 82, and 53, the initial angular displacements of thesethree
voltages; and Tmi, Tm2, and Tm3, the initial shaft torques on the
three machines. The initial shaft torques are usually taken equal
to the initial electrical torques corresponding to the air gap electrical
torque, and are assumed constant.
When the circuit constants and the initial voltages behind transient
reactance have been determined, the equations for torque may be
written from Eqs. 5-3 for the case when the fault is on, when it is
cleared, and for any intermediate circuit condition.
4. Determination of accelerating torque constants. The next step
before setting up the swing curve calculation sheet is to determine
the accelerating torque constants ki, k^, and k3 for each machine,
where kn = from Eq. 3-28.
Hn
5. Swing curve calculation sheet. The swing curve calculation
sheet can now be set up (Table 5-1). The following form is for a
three-machine swing curve, for 0.OS-second time intervals. The
subscripts in parentheses refer to the time interval.
TABLE 51
Swing Curve Calculation Sheet
Time in Seconds 0 0.05
klTal(n-l)
A&l(n-li) = A5i(n-5$) + &iri(n-i)
5l(n) = 5l(n-l) + A&l(n-tt)
k2Ta2(n-l)
A52(n-H) = AS2(i-?i) + ^2^02(n-1)
S2(n) = S2(n-l) + AS2(n-H)
3?a3(n-l)
&h(n-\i) = A53(n-3$) + *3ra3(n-l)
S3(n) = 53(n-l) + ^H(n-Vi)
512 = 5152
513 =5153
523 =52 53
(512 a12)
(512 + 012)
(S13 13)
(5l3 + 13)
(S23 23)
(523 + 23)
sin (512 <*12)
sin (512 + ai2)
sin (513 an)
sin (513 + au)
TABLE 5-1Continued
Time in Seconds 0 0.05
sin (523 23)
Sin (23 + 2s)
r lJS2 /. ^
T12 = -5 sin (812 0(12)
Z12
1^2 , .
J 21 = sin (612 + <*12j
Z12
1.E3 . , .
Tit = sin (613 013)
^13
E1E3 .... .
Tn = sin (513 + 0:13)
-^13
2^3 . , .
1 23 = Sin (.523 23)
^23
2^3 . ,. . ,
T32 = sin (523 + 23)
Z23
El .
Tai = Tmi sin an Tu Tiz
Zn
El .
Tai = Tmi -r~ Sin a22 + ^21 ^23
/S22
El .
Ta3 = Tmz Sin a33 + T31 + T32
Z33
It should be remembered that for the first interval A5(n-j4) =
A5(n-?4) -f - ro(ni), that is, the accelerating torque ro(n1) is mul-
tiplied by k/2 instead of by k. (See Eq. 3-27.)
6. Swing curve calculations. The step-by-step process is carried
out until the time is reached at which there is a change in the circuit
conditions. At this time another set of circuit constants must be
used. The next increment in the angular displacement of each
machine (AS) is determined by using the average of the accelerating
torques at the time at which the circuit constants are changed, or
.. . . , , Ua(nl)fbefore) T 7a(nl)(after)J
A5(n-V = A5(7>-^) + *
It is well to plot the angular displacement of the machines (6%, 82, 83)
against time (t) as the work proceeds; the shape of these curves will
aid in the detection of errors in the computations. The stability or
instability of the system will be evident as the swing curves are
carried on. For stability the relative angular displacement of the
machine groups must tend to return to or oscillate about a position
of relative equilibrium, i.e., no one machine group should increase
94
[Ch. 5
indefinitely in relative angular displacement with respect to the
other groups.
19. Multi-Machine Methods. Although the longhand calculation
of a multi-machine problem requires a considerable amount of time,
it is of course possible to obtain just as accurate an answer by these
methods as by an a-c network analyzer, although the work by com-
parison is discouragingly laborious.
As an example, a system will be analyzed for transient stability
following a transmission line three-phase fault, cleared by sequential
clearing of line circuit breakers.
I.I26/-2.T
Fig. 5-1.
The synchronous machines are represented by their transient reactances and
a positive phase sequence system diagram drawn up with a common leva base.
(See Section 12, Volume I, for method.) Equivalent synchronous machine
groups are obtained by connecting together the points back of transient
reactance of the machines of the same group, and reducing the system to the
equivalent of Fig. 51 by Y and A transformation while maintaining the
Sec. 19]
95
MULTI-MACHINE METHODS
identity of points of known voltage and power flow sufficient for establishing
the equivalent load flow. The load flow diagram, with loads represented as
shunt impedance loads, is made up as shown in Fig. 5.1 from which the
voltages back of transient reactance are obtained both in magnitude and
angle. One of the loads which comprises synchronous converters is assumed
H2=7.65
H,-5.5
S $ Fault-
5.33+j 4.83
.154 KW
Unity P. F. converter
load disconnected
with occurence of
fault
to be disconnected from the system with the occurrence of the system fault.
The equivalent inertia constant of each machine group is obtained by summing
up the inertia constants of the individual machines of a given group, all on
the system kva base.
The impedance diagram (Fig. 5-2) for calculation of the impedances between
machine groups with the fault on, first breaker cleared, and second breaker
cleared is drawn up and the impedances calculated. (See Section 7, Volume
I, for method.)
96
3. The power flow equations are calculated.
4. The accelerating torque constants () are calculated.
5. The swing curve sheets are made up from a summary of data (Table 5-2).
6. The swing curve calculations are carried out (see Table 5-3); and the swing
curves plotted (see Fig. 5-3).
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
60
! 50
! 40
i 30
i 2
10
- 10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Fault on
Calculated
Swing Curves
,..,f .. fist breaker 0.2 sec
1.2nd breaker 0.4 sec
.. fist breaker 0. 15 sec
Switching timt: J _t,
^2nd breoker 0. 30 sec
\y
'
n<?
'
&
*2.
'
/>
Sec. 19] MULTI-MACHINE METHODS 97
TABLE 5-2
Acceleration Constants for At = 0.05 second (Eq. 3-28)
ki = 4.92 k3 = 4.91
kz = 3.53 kt = 5.76
Voltages Back of Transient Reactance
Ei = 1.138
3 = 1.126
E-t = 1.19
4 = 1.125
Initial Angular Displacements
Si = 23.5
h = -2.7
S2 = 19.4
54 - -10.1
Driving Point and Transfer
Circuit Impedances
Three-Phase Fault On:
Zn = 0.880/63.9
Zu = 55.5/90.8
Z22 = 0.311/86.3
Zu = 58.1/86.9
Z33 = 0.587/77.1
Z23 = 8.85/95.7
Z44 = 0.519/75.6
Z24 = 9.25/91.8
Z12 = 1.81/88.5
Z34 = 19.9/92.5
First Line Breaker Opened:
Zn = 0.884/63.8
Z13 = 33.7/91.0
Z22" = 0.330/85.8
Zu = 30.2/87.7
ZS3 = 0.598/76.8
Z23 = 5.36/95.8
Z44 = 0.537/75.1
Z24 = 4.80/92.5
Z12 = 1.73/88.7
Z84 = 10.1/93.0
Fault Completely Cleared:
Z11 = 0.900/63.4
Z13 = 11.03/91.7*
Z22 = 0.443/82.0
Zu = 9.94/89.7
Z33 = 0.663/74.4
22s = 1.76/96.6
Z44 = 0.590/71.5
Zu = 1.58/94.5
Z12 = 1.41/89.2
Z84 = 3.41/95.4
Fault on:
TABLE 5-3
0.40
2.523
11.241
60.455
1.019
14.634
93.067
-0.017
-1.766
-12.952
-1.086
-9.5*
-54.317
-32.61
73.41
114.77
106.02
147.38
41.37
-34.11
-31.11
74.21
0.*
2.262
8.718
49.214
1.1*
13.616
78.433
-0.048
-1.749
-11.186
-1.013
-8.479
-44.752
-29.22
60.40
93.97
89.62
123.19
33.57
-30.72
-27.72
61.20
SO 61)
0.*
1.920
6.456
40.496
1.441
12.4*
64.818
-0.116
-1.701
-9.437
-1.060
-7.466
-36.273
-24.32
49.93
76.77
74.26
101.09
26.84
-25.82
-22.82
*.73
49. 13
Sec. 19]
9<
<
cc
f^
^c
ro
ô
CN
O 00
CO ro
rs
-r
Ô
CN U-3
t*
r^
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CO
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r*
t~
iO
^1
oc
CN 00
- NO
-t-
vO
co
r-
rO
<
iO
00'
00
ic
in
Ov
c-
cc
O Ov
to iO
^H
t>
CN
iO
r<->
0O
100
[Ch. 5
OS
<
<
ta
i^
IO
-f
-r
vQ
r*)
^^
C N O IO Ô 1
f*5
i^
r-g
rs
-f
CN
-^
0 \ ^ 0 10 1
c"
rs
Cf.
rs
CN
CN
-r
-T
f^
00
TjOOlN|
-*
-r
ro
c3
1/3 CO O IN
101
vO
\r
rs
vo
NO
Ov
]>-
LO
Th
Ov
Tt<
t- *-.
CN
ro
CN
CO
io
CO
CS CN
t* *-H
Ov
vC
CO
CN
cv
vO
T*
CN
U-v
NO
Ov
CO
t^
ON
~H
00
IO
CN
y~i
00
CN
Ov
CO
Tt*
CN
O t~
CO
+1
102
[Ch. 5
H 00
CN O
~H CN
CO t^.
to *^.
fO <0
NO ro
t^. Tj<
- io
8S
ro OS
ro
CN 00
IO
io
* vO
gg:
CO
1*) ro
Ov Ov
Ov OO
O Tj"
iO ro
vO
<
t^ -H
oo
oo
oO
oo
o '
t^ r~
t* vO
Ov
Ov
CN CN
11
IO NO
-* 1
co ~H
to *>.
Ov CN
Ov o.
ô
Ov ro
iO -ej*
00 Ov
vO O0
~0 ">
O vO
CN
rN
t- 1^
H r^
vo v2>
io Ov
Ov OO
OO vO
r- CO
O -H
t~
oo
TABLE 5-3 Continued
First Line Breaker Cleared:
0.30
0.4591
0.3637
-0.*19
-0.2689
0.0208
0.0279
0.0405
0.0415
0.2421
0.2242
0.2772
0.2789
0.0574
0.0455
0.4056
0.0978
0.0567
-0.0001
, .... 2
0.25
0.3919
0.29*
-0.2459
-0.2120
0.0254
0.0244
0.0368
0.0384
0.2246
0.1974
0.2753
0.2701
0.0490
0.0367
0.*67
0.1741
0.0348
-0.0208
* I* U.15
0.20
0.3272
0.2267
-0.17*
-0.1387
0.0226
0.0216
0.0326
0.0347
0.1992
0.1641
0.2541
0.2427
0.0409
0.0203
0.2913
0.2940
+0.0067
-0.0603
0.16
0.2674
0.1*2
-0.0939
-0.0587
104
plil
IT;
t-
E?
<
r~ 00 to
IO Ov
vC
ro 00
3 ro
r^
* m is
Ot
-f
-<* <
vO CO
f)
Ov rC t-
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f^)
IO CN
rvi
vo <o
r^
~H O0 *^.
-*
CN
-r
co 10
rc
vC
CS
rC IO I-
JO *
ir,
O <0
3C
** *o
rg
fi O
I0 **
Sec. 19]
105
vO
O0 ov
r^
i^
Ov
v ON
.* o
<*
Ov
CN
>*
IO Ov
IO
t-- *-*
OO
'* r~
c^
to
O0
00
J^
-*
Ov vO
>o
O0 -^
O O0
t r~
T-^H ro
CO ro
Ov
Ov
Ov
Ov
00
Ov Ov
8S
*-i t^.
-^ IO
i O
oo
oo
*-H ~-!
vO ^
co *-
CO CN
CN O
Ov
CO
to
CN
CO
vO
106
[Ch. 5
vO
Ov t*
O -<
w CO
CO w
t #
vo vo
CN CN
00 ^H
ro O
CO
CN Ov
Ov CN
00 CO i*
tO Tf to
Ov ON -< CO
CO CO CO O
s-< vo
# ro
vo vo
* CN
O0 00
>o
to
i Tf
IO <0
CO iO
vo io
CO CO
*-t -t
OO
oo
oo
oo
oo
OO
oo
OOOO
11
00 CN
vo CO
"O CN
CO *
CN O
O l-
*-< CN
CN vo
ro v
t- vo
vO CO
to to
C> -* ^ iO
O0 O O Ov
Tf Ov O t*
H vo CO vo
to
T o
NO O
to Tf
00 I
NO to
CN CN
O vo
Sec. 19]
107
NO <0
C*
SS
ss
oo *-H
Ov C-
IT)
SO
IO
O0
Ov 00
Ov
IO T-H
Ov
io O
v-H *
vO
00
vo
^H
CN
oo
eC
vo
rO
<o r^
-*
IO t^>
CN
*- t*
u->
O CS
av
CO
CO
T-t T-H
IO
Ov
iO vO
r-
-*
CN
t-
CO
IO ~H
*-<
f*
~^
co
108
[Ch. S
<o
*~
-i o
00
00
r^
fN
rO
00
w 00
00
00
CO
ro
\O rs
O0
vo
00
00
IO
io
IO
IO
00 ^H
-r
00
CN
CN
oo
r*
CO
00
vo
NO
00
CO -Th
t^
<*
Ov
Ov
*H O
to
CN
o\
vo
Ov
oo
Oo
CN
cm
Sec. 19]
109
<o
t^
00
ON <0
ON
CO
CN
CN CN
ON
^,
<*
* ON
NO
00
O IO
NO
*0
Q ON
O -*
CO
NO
00
00 00
00
CO
t^. ON
00
Ov
00
NO
<>*
OO
ON
ON
tO CO
C- r-
CO
CO
CN *0
CO ~*
oo
OO
110 MULTI-MACHINE PROBLEM [Ch. S
A-c Network Analyzer Method. The a-c network analyzer method
is similar to the longhand method already described except in some
rather important respects which reduce the time required consider-
ably. These steps are:
1. The synchronous machines are represented by their transient
reactance and a positive phase sequence system diagram drawn
on a common kva base. Equivalent synchronous machine
groups are obtained by connecting together the points back of
transient reactance of the machines known to swing together,
while maintaining the identity of points of known voltage and
power flow required to define the initial conditions of equivalent
network. Y and A transformations are not necessary as re-
quired by the longhand method as the network analyzer gives
the required power flow directly. Faults at different locations
may require a different grouping of machines, which is easily
accomplished by merely changing the plugging of the points back
of transient reactance. The comparative ease with which a rela-
tively large number of machine groups may be considered per-
mits swing curves with the identity of the synchronous machines
maintained where relative swing characteristics are questionable.
Usually after the first few swing curves, many questions as to
how the system will behave for the different fault locations are
determined which may allow for a further grouping and reduc-
tion of machine groups, with a corresponding reduction in time.
The initial load balance is obtained with loads represented as
shunt impedance loads. This balance is obtained by adjusting
the phase angle and magnitude of the voltages back of transient
reactance.
2. The equivalent inertia constant of each machine group is ob-
tained by summing up the inertia constants of the individual
machines, all on the system kva base.
3. The acceleration constants are calculated and recorded on the
swing curve sheet for each machine group such as that shown in
Table 5-4. The swing curve calculation forms (Table 5-4) are
made up with the initial quantities properly recorded. The
initial air gap power, magnitude, and phase angle of the voltage
back of transient reactance are read for each machine and
recorded. In Table 5-4 this is recorded in the line marked
"Before Fault."
4. The swing curve is started. First the fault is applied, (a) With
voltages and angles maintained at their initial values (before
jj
t-
<
<
<
<
a'
c-
CJ
-h
**
h"
5?
-M
i2
ud
S0
-*';
uk
E3
3S
H II
>
3<
111
<-sl
U ffl
CDF
w if.
5 1*
irpD
gjj-3
JsS;: *
Sec. 19]
aaS ota a'
***s 0-*"'
S39J33p III
-j )U3lU33E[dSIQ
*--aa2a2
ooo'os J,ivu V/Ul
ss**
"J V a -
a-02 a
2a0* a
Za02 a
-62 a
2*- a
6*62 a
3-622 a
-a03 a
a*- a
8a'oe
-6*08 *
2 0N aovd
*X1+V*"V-,"(V
*(oi) i(ndn) (ism) (iczw" '".
a*3
26* S
62a a
8a3a +
8*6a -
4-0 a
-O- a
-na *
04-a a
3aaa1*
*2*a0*
Za*-2*
608*-a*
N0iivinoivo 3 Ay no
VAM "a ...
".(
H3ZA1VNV XU0MJ.3N *3'V
IV) J a81 "1 ""';J
62a a
**50"a
0*aa a
0a0a %
a5a +
0-a*a
(nms)
It6'Oa*
24-'aa+v^
--6*-*
--a6a *X
JUCQ I'll.Mill
M.--.>..- V
MX aaO a
N *a1a a
"* a *
'*--a
-V -*a8a *
ff* aiqi
anbioj.
6aa
-aa a
*8aa +
*6a
ttVO +
Sec. 19] MULTI-MACHINE METHODS 113
fault) the air gap power is read for each machine group, (b) The
change in angular displacement for the first time interval is
calculated as shown in Table 5-4. (c) The phase angle of the
voltages back of transient reactance is adjusted and the swing
curve calculation procedure carried on as shown in Table 5-4
and by the sample sheet of Table 5-5.
Circuit changes may be made during the swing curve calculation
corresponding to opening of circuit breakers or restriking of the fault,
etc. With the fault cleared completely by opening all breakers
feeding the faulted circuit, or with the fault only partially cleared as a
result of opening only one breaker, the procedure is the same except
at the time interval immediately following the change in circuit con-
ditions produced by the opening of the breaker. At this point, the
power outputs of all machine groups are read at the time interval for
the change in circuit conditions, before and after the instant of
breaker opening, and the average value used for determining the
accelerating torque for that interval. The calculations are then
continued in the normal manner until another change occurs in the
network conditions or until the swing curve has been carried far
enough to determine whether the machine groups will remain in
synchronism or go out of step.
Plot the swing curve and determine if machines of system are
stable. Figures 5-4(a) and 5-4(6) are representative swing curves
from network analyzer studies. The criterion for stability is whether
or not all the machines return to oscillate around relative angular
displacements or if one or more machines pull out of step with the
other machine groups. This can usually be determined after a time
corresponding to the swing of the machine group having the longest
period.
For involved problems, an a-c network analyzer is advantageous.
On such an analyzer the complete or simplified network can be set up
and the electrical power output of each machine or machine group
read directly from electrical instruments. See Fig. 5-5 and Fig. 5-6
for views of a-c network analyzer and instrument panel for quick and
direct reading of circuit quantities. If the power or torque output is
known, the accelerating torque may be determined and then the
relative angular displacement of the machines at the next instant
changed by adjustment of phase shifters. The solution using a net-
work analyzer, although involving the use of the step-by-step
method, simplifies the results since it is not necessary to calculate the
circuit impedances or the power flow. A network analyzer also
200
It
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
'/
//
//
s'
^.
//
>
o 80
Angula* Displacement in Elect*i
oo oooooc
.1
^~.2
~T3
3-
-.4
0.
.5
.6
.7
.6
.90
- 10
-20
-30
-40
^s
Time in seconds
-50
-60
. -70
-80
-90
-100
-1 10
"
- -
115
Time
Sec. 19]
Fig. 54(6). Calculated swing curves.
116
[Ch. 5
Fig. 5.5. Network analyzer showing the general arrangement of cabinets.
Fig. 5.6. Central instrument and control panel showing generator units and
instruments with their control switches.
Sec. 20] SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS 117
makes possible the ready determination of currents and voltages in
the various branches with changes in the relative angular displace-
ments of the machines. Such information is valuable in determining
or checking the setting of relays of the system.
20. Special Considerations. There are many different ways in
which a system may be represented and a swing curve calculation
carried forward. This allows for a full play of ingenuity on the part
of the individuals participating. Some of the special methods which
have been developed will be briefly outlined here. Many other
techniques, however, have been and can be developed.
Change in Time Interval. The time interval may be changed in the
course of a swing curve calculation when, for example, it is evident
a larger time interval will not introduce an appreciable error. In
this way the swing curve calculation time may be reduced. After a
fault is cleared the change in angular displacement for the selected
time interval may be found to be small, and the time interval can be
increased. Usually, the time interval should not be larger than that
which will allow a maximum A5 of 20 for any synchronous machine
group. To double the length of the interval, a value of k, which is
four times the original value, must be used for all succeeding compu-
tations. For the time interval at which this change is made, the
total angular change is calculated by adding the angular change with
the new acceleration constant to the angular change for the two
preceding time intervals. This follows, since the angular change for
the two preceding intervals is in each case for only half as long a time.
From that point on, the calculation proceeds in the normal manner.
The sample swing curve sheet of Table 5.5 shows the manner
in which the time interval was increased (0.05 to 0.10) at 0.30
second.
Representation of Synchronous Condensers. Synchronous con-
densers can be represented in many system studies with good
accuracy by variable shunt capacitors. This may be done for those
synchronous condensers of a system which are known not to pull out
of synchronism. Since a synchronous condenser which does not
pull out of step oscillates in angular displacement with respect to its
terminal voltage, and furthermore since it usually has a relatively
high natural frequency of oscillation compared with the other
machine groups, it can be assumed that its phase angle is equal to
the phase angle of its terminal voltage. This assumption therefore
allows for the representation of the synchronous condenser by a
variable shunt capacitor. This method of representation may be
accomplished on the a-c network analyzer by varying the capaci-
118
ICh. 5
tance until the current to the system satisfies the relation
le =
- ete
*dc
[5.4]
where subscript c indicates synchronous condenser quantities,
Ic = armature current,
e'qc = voltage back of transient reactance,
etc = terminal voltage,
= direc axis transient reactance.
xd
Fig. 5-7. Approxi-
mate network ana-
The synchronous condenser may also be approx-
imately represented2 by a variable shunt capaci-
tance back of its transient reactance adjusted at
each swing curve time interval so that the correct
voltage back of transient reactance is maintained.
(See Fig. 5-7.) The effect of the synchronous
condenser's excitation system can also be included
in this approximate representation by varying e'qc
in accordance with the methods developed in
Section 25.
Negative Sequence Braking Torque. For un-
lyzer representation Daiancecl faults there may develop appreciable neg-
of synchronous con- , , , . , , ,
,' , ative phase sequence braking torques due to the
denser under tran- .... . . _. . .
sient conditions. double-frequency induced rotor currents. This is
particularly true for unbalanced faults close to the
terminals of solid rotor turbine generators or salient pole machines
which have high-resistance amortisseur windings. As shown in Sec-
tion 28, this effect can be taken into account by subtracting from
the difference of the mechanical torque and the air gap electrical
torque a loss torque equal to /i(2?2 -Ro). where
I2 = per unit negative sequence armature current,
2?2 = Per unit negative sequence resistance of the machine,
Ra = per unit armature resistance of the machine.
The accelerating torque acting on the machine 1 rotor is therefore
Tai = Tmi Tei ^2(^2 .Ro) [5-5]
where Tai = accelerating torque,
Tmi = mechanical shaft torque,
Tei positive phase sequence air gap electrical torque.
If this refinement is to be included in the swing curve calculation,
Sec. 20]
119
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
it will, of course, be necessary to set up the negative sequence imped-
ance network in sufficient detail to determine the negative sequence
currents flowing in the affected machines.
Circuit Changes. The application of unbalanced faults and the
opening of phases of a circuit can be represented by methods devel-
oped from the theory of symmetrical components.3 A summary of
these representations is given in Appendix II. When more than one
unbalance occurs, such as two simultaneous unbalanced faults, the
opening of one phase of a circuit at a time of an unsymmetrical fault,
etc., the equivalent representation becomes more difficult, although
methods have been developed for these cases also.4,5 It is possible
on a network analyzer to avoid this difficulty by representing the
three"phases of a transmisison line as shown in Fig. 5-8, assuming
V-J$
Z C|+j|
->M/ -\SXXLr-
Z" f|+j*l
-M - 1000/-
-pfI M\h
i i i -Y.j^
\MA/ '<QQlr-
-V _
Ttt
IX
=&
L' 3 + J 3 (MM/ yS&J
Fig. 5-8
7-
that the positive and negative sequence impedances of the generating
sources are all equal. To a limited extent this method of representa-
tion may be used for a study of simultaneous unbalances. This was
the type of system representation used for a network analyzer study
of single-phase reclosing (Section 42). In this representation the
grounded transformer banks of the system are represented as actual
three-phase transformers using the 1-to-l mutual transformers of the
a-c network analyzer to provide the grounded points. Neutral
impedance can be placed in these transformer neutrals to represent
the actual system neutral impedance. The voltage bases of the
network analyzer are changed to correspond with the differences in
yoltage bases between the primary or Y and secondary or A sides.
Additional Effects. Additional effects such as saliency, damping,
excitation, and governor response can be calculated in as much detail
as is considered necessary. Ordinarily they are neglected in most
studies. They can be introduced by making the proper modification
and additions to the swing curve calculations. How this may be
done and the effect on performance are described and discussed in
detail in Chapter 6. Some of the effects, such as damping and
governor response, depend upon or are related to the instantaneous
speed or slip of the synchronous machine.
Instantaneous Slip or Speed. The speed or slip can be obtained
from the swing curve sheets by the following simple relation:
1 A
S=^fM [5<6]
where 5 = per unit slip, 5 = electrical radians, / = normal frequency
in cycles per second, / = seconds.
If S is expressed in degrees, Eq. 5-6 becomes
5 2*/ 180 At 360/ M l ' J
When A5 is the change in angle from the (re 1) to the reth in-
terval, Eq. 5-7 gives the per unit slip at the (re J^) interval.
This relation may be used to show the magnitude of the change in
per unit speed for what is considered a fairly large rate of change of
electrical angular displacement from a stability standpoint. Take,
for example, the case of a 60-cycle system which during the swing
curve calculation has a A5 = 10 during a time interval At = 0.0S
second. Then, according to Eq. 5.7, the slip from synchronous
speed is
10
5 = = 0.00925
360 X 60 X 0.05
or the speed
5=1-5 = 0.99075
Ordinarily synchronism is either maintained or lost before the syn-
chronous machines involved have changed their speed sufficiently to
make an appreciable change in the mechanical shaft torque either
due to the inherent prime mover torque speed characteristics or the
governor characteristics.
Representation of Loads. The simplest manner to represent a load
is by a constant shunt impedance. It is of course possible to vary
Sec. 21] SYSTEM VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS 121
this load during the swing more nearly to represent actual conditions.
If the characteristics of the load are known, it is possible to make
a corresponding representation. The loads are, however, not usually
very well known, particularly under transient conditions, so that it
is necessary to approximate their effect. The assumptions usually
used are either (1) constant shunt impedance or (2) constant shunt
impedance during fault with variable impedance after fault is cleared
to give a constant power component of load.
If these two methods of load representation give importantly
different results, then a more complete representation of the loads
may be necessary. Usually, the difference in results obtained by
assumptions 1 and 2 will not be sufficiently great as to necessitate
the inclusion of more complete load characteristics, yet the approxi-
mate effect of a change in load characteristic will have been obtained.
Small Machines Out of Step. Occasionally in making swing
curves it will be found that a small machine, particularly a syn-
chronous motor load, will pull out of step before the major synchro-
nous machine groups have acquired any appreciable angular sepa-
ration. If the machine that falls out of step quickly is relatively
unimportant, it may be desirable to continue the swing curve in order
to see what happens to the major machine groups.
When the small machine has definitely gone out of step and has
acquired an angular displacement of 180 with all the other machine
groups, a reasonably close approach to the effect of this machine
upon the rest of the system may be obtained for the remainder of
the swing curve calculations by disconnecting it from its generator
unit and connecting the machine positive phase sequence reactance
directly to ground.
Additional Information. During the swing curve calculation for
determining stability of the system, additional information may be
obtained by taking readings in the network or making calculations of
current, voltage, and power flow during the swing. Such informa-
tion may be used to check the performance and setting of relays, and
the performance of small loads or machines which have themselves
a relatively small effect on the system and whose identity was not
maintained.
21. Calculation of System Voltages and Currents during Transient
Swing. During oscillations of machine groups it is sometimes desir-
able to determine the currents and voltages existing at certain points
in the network. This may be necessary to check the performance
of relays or equipment at points in the system. It may be accom-
plished by means of the general network equations for real and reac-
122
[Ch. 5
tive power. Although it is a difficult calculation by longhand
methods, it is relatively simple with an a-c network analyzer. If an
a-c network analyzer is used, voltage and current in any part of the
network being studied may be read directly while the swing curve
is being made. The components of current positive, negative,
and zero phase sequence may be read directly from the corre-
sponding phase sequence networks during circuit unbalances.
The equations for positive phase sequence real and reactive
power for three machines are as follows. (See Volume I, Eqs.
1-46 and 1.49.)
Real Power
t> E? , E1E2 . /. x . -E1.E3 . ,. .
Pi sin an + sin (512 - a12) + sin (5i3 - a13)
^11 ^12 ^13
P2 = -5- sin a22 sin (512 + ai2) + ^f-^sin(523 - "23) [5-8]
^22 ^12 ^23
E3 . E1E3 . E2E3
P3 = -5 sin a33
^33 ^13
sin (S13 + a13) -
^23
sin (523 + "23)
Reactive Power
77^ 77 77 77 77
Qi = -rr- sin dn sin (512 + 0i2) ^- sin (513 + 013)
6\\ Ai2
77^ 77 77
Q2 = -1 sin d22 + -- sin (512 - d12) - ^^ sin (523 + 023) [5-9]
z22 z12
77^ 77 77
Q3 = -^r sin 033 + -^- sin (513 - 013) + :=~ sin (523 - 023)
^33 ^13 ^23
^13
E2E3
^23
E2E3
These are equations for positive phase sequence real and reactive
power at the points where the voltages
Ei, E2, and 3 are maintained. These
equations may, however, be used to de-
termine the positive phase sequence
quantities at points in the network in
the following manner.
Assume that it is desired to determine
the positive phase sequence voltage and
power factor at point a in the network of
Fig. 5-9, having available the results of a swing curve calculation of
the three-machine groups during and following a disturbance.
Fig. 5.9.
Sec. 21]
123
SYSTEM VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
In order to have made the swing curve calculations, the equations
for P\ for the different conditions, fault on, first breaker cleared, etc.,
were necessarily obtained. Similarly, the equations for Qi may be
obtained as a function of the relative angular displacements 512
and 823. Since 5l2 and 823 are known at the various time intervals
(obtained from swing curve calculation sheet), the values of Pi and
Qi may be plotted or tabulated as a function of time. (See Fig. 5-10.)
The vector expression for the positive phase sequence current from
machine 1 may be determined by the relation (voltage E\ as reference
vector):
Pi .Ql VpT+Q? / . -!<?!
T - i-i
~J
[5-10]
The positive phase sequence voltage at a is, therefore,
Vol El lal Za
[5-11]
P. (Real Power)
Figure 5-11 is a vector diagram of these quantities.
When balanced conditions exist on the network, when no unbal-
anced fault or loads exist, the
positive phase sequence voltages
are the actual voltages. When
unbalanced faults occur (L-G,
L-L, L-L-G) it is necessary to <
determine the negative and zero
phase sequence components of
current in the various branches
by consideration of the negative
and zero phase sequence imped-
ance network in the fault im-
pedance network. In most cases involving more than two machine
groups or an interconnected network this becomes quite involved,
e, (Reference vector) although it is amenable to
analysis by application of
circuit theory principles.
An a-c network analyzer
is of particular advantage
in handling problems of this
type in which it is desired to
determine the current, volt-
age, and power factor in each
phase of an interconnected group of machines during a disturbance
involving ground. Circuits which connect machine groups during
124
[Ch. 5
oscillations may be subjected to comparatively high current mag-
nitudes. These values of current and the values of voltage and
power factor that occur simultaneously with them are of particular
importance to relay engineers. Many serious system disturbances
which have been studied were found to be entirely stable and would
have resulted in no-load interruption, except for the unnecessary
tripping of circuits by relays because of the current produced during
the swing and subsequent oscillations.
J 0.2T5
j 0.085 . J 0.483
0.33 +J 0.60 0.41 *j 0.43
0.09+J 0.151
</ 3 0 Foult
g J-49 Q
Fig. 512. Equivalent system diagram.
22. Relay Operation during Swing. This section will describe
briefly a case for which calculations were made to determine the
possible performance of relays of an interconnected system following
a sustained three-phase fault.
Figure 5-12 is an equivalent diagram of the major synchronous
machine groups. The fault location is as shown. Initially power
was flowing from machine groups 6 and 7 toward 5 with a small
amount of power being transferred through bus b toward bus a.
Machine groups 4 and 5 were, except for a small amount of inter-
change, generating power for the loads in their own areas. It was
desired to determine the swing current at relay points b, c, and d
following a sustained short circuit. The breaker at relay point a
Sec 22]
125
RELAY OPERATION DURING SWING
is assumed to open quickly. For the purpose of calculating this
case it was possible to neglect all line resistance except in the lines
in which the fault currents were large.
Since the breaker at a opened quickly it was possible, for the
defined conditions of initial power transfer, to assume that machines
1, 2, 3, 6, and 7 swing together.
40
30
-JO
5 -50
,-70
-90
Machine Groups #1,2,3,6, and 7
1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time in Seconds
Sô
i*s
Angular Displacements of Machine Groups
Fig. 5.13. Calculated swing curves.
Figure 5-13 shows the results of a swing curve calculation indi-
cating the system is stable although the fault has not been cleared
at bus b. As shown, machine groups 4 and 5 slow down slightly
because of the decrease in power transfer from the remainder of the
system with the application of the fault and because of the increase
in line losses due to the fault.
By the method of Section 21 it is possible to determine the current
flow during the swing at locations b, c, and d. These results are
shown on Figs. 5-14(a), (o), and (c). In a similar manner the
voltage and power factor can be determined during the swing at any
bus or relay location. See Fig. 5-15 for system conditions slightly
different from those for Fig. 5-14.
The significant part of this study is that the current at d is con-
siderably greater than the current at c during the swing although,
if the swing current had not been considered, the current at c could
be expected to be comparable with the current at d.
126
[Ch. 5
The determination of performance of relays and other equipment
which depend upon the current and voltage existing during and
following a disturbance is an important field for the application of
800
700
600
S. 500
400
300
200
100
Relo
y Se
ting
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Time in Seconds
Fig. 5-14(a). Calculated line currents. Current at bus 6.
1100
1000
900
eoo
700
600
~ 500
400
300
200
100
ela
ys
ett
inq
Înitial
Current
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I 1.2
Time in Seconds
Fig. 5-14(6). Calculated line currents. Current at bus c.
the principles of power system stability. Relay and system pro-
tection engineers are required to have a fundamental understanding
of stability principles in order to apply protective equipment properly.
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
I 800
<
= 700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 l.I
Time in Seconds
Fig. 5-14(c). Calculated line currents. Current at bus d.
Relo
y Set
ting
4_
Initiol Load
Current
1400
1300
1200
MOO
1000
900
eoo
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
-~-
pt
"-
^ Power Fo<
lor - Bus e toward d
11
^5
9r Fqc
tor-e
us d
toward e
Relay Setting
'^.
l1i
Voltage-Bus c
^ II:
'oltag
!-Bu'
70
80 tT
90
100
REFERENCES
1. " Load Studies on the D-C Calculating Table," Part I, by W. C. Hahn, General
Electric Review, Vol. 34, No. 7, July 1931, pages 444-445.
"Load Studies on the D-C Calculating Table," Part II, by W. C. Hahn, General
Electric Review, Vol. 34, No. 8, August 1931, pages 482-489.
2. " Capacitors, Condensers, and System Stability," by J. W. Butler, W. Ridg-
way, and T. W. Schroeder, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 63, 1944, pages
1130-1138.
3. Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems Vol. I, Symmetrical and Related
Components, by Edith Clarke, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1943.
4. " Simultaneous Faults on Three-Phase Systems," by Edith Clarke, A.I.E.E.
Transactions, Vol. 50, 1931, pages 919-939.
5. " Experimental Analysis of Double Unbalances," by Edward W. Kimbark,
A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 54, 1935, pages 159-165.
"Network-Analyzer Solution of Multiple Unbalances," by Edward W. Kim-
bark, A.I.E.E. Transactions, Vol. 56, 1937, pages 1476-1482.

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CHAPTER 4

13. Two-Machine Stability Problem. In the preceding chapter

the torque angle characteristics of a simple two-machine system were

discussed for different fault and system conditions. The two-

machine system, which represents the simplest type of transient

stability problem, is useful for studying and illustrating many of the

fundamental phenomena of stability. Because of its relative sim-

study. The case of a hydro station located at a distance from its

load and receiver system can usually be well represented as a two-

machine problem. If a study is made of a small generator or motor

connected to a large system, fault conditions which affect the small

system can be studied as a two-machine problem, or more specifically

as one machine against an infinite bus. Also many stability prob-

lems which may start out as multi-machine problems can later be

resolved into "two-machine problems" for many of the cases.

Because of the importance of the two-machine problem, particularly

for illustrating the phenomena under transient conditions, it is

worthy of considerable attention. In this chapter the special

methods of analyzing the stability of two equivalent machine groups

will be thoroughly discussed.

The multi-machine case will be described later.

14. Two Machines Resistance Neglected. In the simplest

two-machine case all resistance losses are neglected. This simplifica-

tion may be used to illustrate many fundamental principles of

~~Z ~r& _ l <<2 J. tt<2 1 e2

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52 TWO-MACHINE STABILITY [Ch. 4

If it is further assumed that during the first swing apart of the

machine rotors the mechanical shaft torques do not change from

no losses and Te\ = Te2. Therefore, for the case of no resistance,

TaX = ~Ta2 [4-2]

Equations 4-1 may be written as

d2(Si - S2) _ d%2 _ vfjHi + H2)

dt2 dt2 HlH2

dependent upon the system conditions as described in Chapter 3.

Equation 4-6 may be written directly from Eq. 4-4.

= i Tmi sin 512 ) 4-6]

bus. The effect of two machines is included by the equivalent inertia

constant (Eq. 4-5).

This relatively simple equation (4-6) describing the relative angu-

lar displacement of two equivalent synchronous machine rotors was

thoroughly analyzed by Summers and McClure1 and later by Byrd

general solutions given in the form of curves which greatly simplified

the calculations. This case corresponds, for example, to the applica-

of stability. Summers and McClure used a mechanical integrator

These investigations used equations expressed in general terms so

that the results would have as broad an application as possible. One

Generated on 2014-03-17 01:13 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015002900275 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Sec. 14] TWO MACHINESRESISTANCE NEGLECTED 53

of these general relations, which defines the critical switching angle

(5S of Fig. 3-11), is defined by Eq. 3.2. Equation 46 is the equation

whose solution is desired for the critical switching time corresponding

to SS during the fault period, after it is put in a more general form

sin S0 sin 512 [4-7]

dt H0 \_X 12(before) ^(during)

-TT = TT (^ax sin 50 - r\Tm&% sin 512) [4.8]

Equation 4.8 can be written as

-^ - sin S12J [4.9]

''X Tmax [4-10]

-Jri Tmai [441]

Equation 4-9 becomes

sin 512 [4.12]

T\ and sin S0 by machine integration1 and by step-by-step calcula-