Advanced Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells

Miro Zeman
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

Acknowledgments:
Members of PVMD group at TUD Nuon Helianthos, TU/e, UU, ECN, IPV Julich, OM&T, Ljubljana University SenterNovem for financial support

Outline
Status of thin-film Si solar cell technology Improvement and technology issues Si films with suppressed degradation Photon management Helianthos project Conclusions

World of Photovoltaics
PV industry: the fastest growing industry in the world
MW
5000

Solar cell production 1999-2007 2006: 90% wafer-type c-Si technology

~3800 2536 1815 750
34% 50%
Estimation market:

4000 3000 2000

2007 Cumulative installed capacity of PV systems ~ 9200 MW Turnover (modules+BOS) ~ 15x109

1256
68%

40%

1000

202
0 1999

287
42%

401
40%

560
39%

45%

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Photon International, March 2007

2006

2007

~ 70 000 jobs

World of Photovoltaics
PV industry: announced increase in capacity
45.000,0 40.000,0

Production Capacity [MW]

35.000,0 30.000,0 25.000,0 20.000,0 15.000,0 10.000,0 5.000,0 0,0 2006

Crystalline Silicon Thin Films

2007

2008

2009

2010

2012

Arnulf Jger-Waldau, EU-PVSEC-23, Valencia, 2008

Thin-Film Photovoltaics
PV industry: announced increase in capacity
12.000 10.000

silicon based CdTe CIS Dye + others

Applied Materials

8.000

[MW]

6.000
Oerlikon

4.000

2.000

0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012

Arnulf Jger-Waldau, EU-PVSEC-23, Valencia, 2008

Thin-Film Si solar cell producers

EUROPE Schott Solar Thin Film (Germany) a-Si/uc-Si. Ersol Thin Film (Germany) a-Si Single, a-Si/uc-Si Sontor GmbH (Q-Cells) (German) a-Si/uc-Si Sunfilm AG (Germany) a-Si/uc-Si Malibu GmbH (Germany) a-Si/uc-Si Inventux Technologies AG (Germany) a-Si/uc-Si Signet Solar (Germany) a-Si Masdar PV (Germany) a-Si/uc-Si HelioGrid (Hungary) a-Si Tandem Solar Plus (Portugal) a-Si Tandem Heliodomi (Greece) a-Si Tandem Oerlikon (Switzerland) (equipment manufacturer) a-Si/uc-Si Pramac SpA (Italy) a-Si/uc-Si T-Solar Global (Spain) a-Si/uc-Si Nuon Helianthos (The Netherlands) a-Si/uc-Si Intico Solar (Switzerland/Germany) a-Si/uc-Si Energo Solar (Hungary) (equipment manufacturer) a-Si Flexcell (Switzerland/Germany) a-Si USA United Solar Ovonic(ECD) (US) a-Si/a-SiGe/a-SiGe EPV Solar (US) a-Si Tandem Signet Solar (US) a-Si Single XsunX (US) a-Si/a-SiC Optisolar (US) a-Si Xunlight (US) a-SiGe single, a-Si/a-SiGe/nc-Si triple Applied Materials (US) (equipment manufacturer) a-Si/uc-Si JAPAN Kaneka Solartech (Japan) a-Si/Poly-Si Sharp Thin Film (Japan) a-Si/uc-Si/a-Si GaAs Sanyo Amorton(Japan) a-Si Single MHI (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) (Japan) a-Si/uc-Si Fuji Electric Systems (Japan) a-Si/a-SiGe

Thin-Film Si solar cell producers

CHINA Topray Solar(Shenzhen China) a-Si Tandem Soltechpv (Beijing China) a-Si Tandem Jinneng Solar (Tianjin China) a-Si Tandem Polar PV (Anhui China) a-Si Single, Tandem Trony (Shenzhen China) a-Si Single Sumoncle (Shenzhen China) a-Si Single hksolar (Harbin China) a-Si Single Xinao Group (Hebe China) a-Si Tandem Suntech (Shanghai China) a-Si/uc-Si BSTRPV (Weihan China) a-Si Tandem China Solar Power (Yantai China) a-Si Single QS Solar (Nantong China) a-Si Tandem Yuanchang (Changzhou China) a-Si Tandem Ganneng Huaji (Jiangxi China) a-Si Tandem GS Solar (Quanzhou China) a-Si Tandem Zhongshang Quanxin (Zhongshan China) a-Si Tandem Cineng PV (Hangzhou China) a-Si Tandem Shenyang Hanfeng (Shenyang China) a-Si Tandem Uni-Solar Jinneng (Tianjin China) a-Si/a-SiGe/a-SiGe TAIWAN Green Energy Technology (Taoyuan Taiwan) a-Si Single CMC (Taoyuan Taiwan) a-Si Single Yutong Light Energy (Tainan Taiwan) a-Si/uc-Si Nexpower (Central Taiwan) a-Si Single Sunner Solar (Central Taiwan) a-Si Single Formosun (Hsinchu Taiwan) a-Si Tandem Kenmos PV (Tainan Taiwan) a-Si Tandem NanoWin (Tainan Taiwan) a-Si/uc-Si Sinonar (Hsinchu Taiwan) a-Si Tandem OTHER Bangkok Solar (Thailand) a-Si Tandem SolarMorph (Singapore) a-Si/uc-Si Moser Baer Photo Voltaic (India) a-Si Single Lambda Energia (Mexico) a-Si/a-SiC

In 2008 more than 60 companies

Strategic Research Agenda: EU roadmap

www.eupvplatform.org
Wim Sinke (ECN, Leader of WG 3 : Science, technology & applications of EU PV Technology Platform)

Thin-film Si solar cell technology

Present status:
+ + + Promising low-cost solar cell technology Industrial production experience (Flat panel display industry) Relatively low stabilized efficiencies ( 6-7%) Double-junction micromorph solar cell (>10%)
ideal combination of materials (a-Si:H/c-Si:H) for converting AM1.5 solar spectrum into electricity

Current developments:
increase in TF Si solar-cell production (in 2010 ~ 8 GW capacity) complete production lines available

Future developments:
short term: optimize tandem cell long term: optimize triple cell, breakthrough concepts for high efficiency (>17%)

Thin-film Si solar cell technology

Thin-film Si solar cells on glass

Power plant

Roof integration and new designs

Thin-film Si solar cell technology

Flexible thin-film Si solar cells
Consumer electronics Stand-alone system

Flexible module

Roof integration

Thin-film Si solar cell technology

Al SiO
2

Al n+
Glass superstrate TCO p-type

Thin film Si (0.3 - 5 m)

Material usage strongly reduced + Intrinsic a-Si:H

p-type sc Si p++ Al p++

Energy and cost strongly reduced n-type

Metal electrode

c-Si (200-300 m)

a-Si:H (0.3-0.5 m)

Thin-film Si solar cell technology

Plasma Enhanced CVD
electrode substrate plasma electrode

heater

reaction chamber

+ + + +
Pump system

Low deposition temperature Use of cheap substrates Large area deposition Easy doping and alloying

Gas system

rf generator

Low deposition rate (1-2 /s)

High potential for low cost solar cells

Thin-film Si solar cell technology issues

1. Increase conversion efficiency 2. Eliminate light-induced degradation 3. Increase deposition rate 4. Choice of mass-production technology 5. Lower material costs

Thin-film Si solar cell technology

Single-junction a-Si:H solar cells:
Crucial parts of a-Si:H solar cell:
Absorption of light surface texture of the TCOs ZnO back reflector Extraction of the charge carriers TCO/p interface p-type window layer p/i hetero-junction interface quality of the intrinsic layer

First a-Si solar cell made in 1974 by David Carlson.

Thin-film Si:H solar cell issues

Degradation of a-Si solar cells
5 Current density [mA cm-2] 0 -5 -10 -15

p-i-n a -Si:H solar cell Jsc [mA/cm 2]

Initial

Degraded

16.2

15.7 0.74 0.64 6.3

0.75 Voc [V] fill factor 0.69 efficiency [%] 8.4

initial degraded

-20 -0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4 Voltage [V]

0.6

0.8

1.0

Creation of extra metastable defects in a-Si:H under illumination Extra trapping and recombination centres Initial versus stabilized efficiency

Thin-film Si:H solar cells challenges

Suppressing degradation Stable material
pc-Si:H, c-Si:H or poly c-Si New deposition techniques Hydrogen diluted silane

Increasing efficiency Photon management

Textured substrates - scattering Back reflector Novel approaches

Multi-junction concept
Tandem solar cells

Multi-bandgap concept
Low band-gap materials

Efficient use of solar spectrum

Suppress degradation
p i aaSi Si Energy np i i n
ph / m s ]

Increase efficiency
Photon energy [eV] 4.13 5.0 2.48 1.77 1.38 1.13 0.95 0.83
AM1.5 global solar spectrum

a-Si a-SiGe aSi or c-Si

3

4.0

3.0 2.0 1.0

a-Si a-SiGe

Photon flux [10

EF

27

0.0 300 500 700 900 1100 Wavelength [nm] 1300 1500

Multi-junction solar cell concept

Multi-bandgap solar cell concept

Thin-film Si:H solar cell structures

single-junction amorphous (a-Si:H) microcrystalline (uc-Si:H)
glass surface-textured TCO

double-junction micromorph a-Si:H/uc-Si:H

glass surface- textured TCO ZnO:Al
a-Si:H absorber

triple-junction e.g. a-Si:H/a-SiGe:H/ uc-Si:H

glass surface- textured TCO ZnO:Al
a-Si:H top absorber

p i n

uc-Si:H layers
ZnO back metal contact (Ag)

surface-textured TCO interlayer

a-Si Ge:H middle absorber

uc-Si:H absorber

ZnO Ag

uc-Si:H bottom absorber

Record st (confirmed)
9.5% (a-Si) Un. Neuchatel 10.1% (c-Si) Kaneka 11.7% (a-Si/ c-Si) Kaneka 12.4% (a-Si/a-SiGe) USSC*

ZnO Ag

13.0% (Si/SiGe/SiGe) USSC*

Si:H films from hydrogen diluted silane

Proto-crystalline Si growth regime:
Effect of high H dilution of silane, dilution ratio R=[H2]/[SiH4]

Si:H films from hydrogen diluted silane

Proto-crystalline Si growth regime:
Glass substrate

Micromorph Si tandem solar cell

University of Neuchtel (1994)

a-Si:H
ZnO

Micro morph

Spectral Response

c-Si:H a-Si:H MicroZnO morph

a-Si:H/ a-Si:H

c-Si:H

400
glass

600 800 Wavelength [nm]

1000

- Optimal bandgap combination -1.7 eV (a-Si:H) / 1.1 eV (c-Si:H)

- c-Si:H cell (1-3 m) stable - a-Si:H cell (0.2-0.3 m) unstable

Degradation of pc-Si:H solar cells

Degradation conditions:
670 nm laser, 300 mW/cm2
1.05 1.00 Normalized efficiency
normalized efficiency 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0 R=0 R=10 R=20 R=30 R=40

Halogen lamp, 100 mW/cm2

0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.1 1 R=0, 4.0 W, 0.7 mbar R=20, 4.0 W, 2.0 mbar 10 100 1000 10000 100000

1x10

Illuminatino time (min)

1x10 1x10 time (minutes)

1x10

1x10

Photon management
Proper handling of incident photons which have to be trapped and absorbed in the absorber layers of a solar cell

Photon management

Light trapping techniques: Manipulation of light propagation: multiple passes

Engineering of optically-active layers (back and intermediate reflectors, layers for optical matching)

Light scattering: change direction of propagation

Design of surface texture
(random or periodically textured surfaces)

Trap photons in the absorber layer and enlarge their average path

Modeling of thin-film Si solar cells

Optical modeling: Increase photocurrent
Understand light trapping Evaluate optical losses Design efficient light-trapping schemes

Integrated optical nad electrical modeling: Increase Voc and FF

Evaluate recombination losses Design material and interface properties

Modelling
ASA (Advanced Semiconductor Analysis) program:
ASA program has continuously been developed since 1987 Focus on amorphous semiconductors and amorphous silicon based solar cells Extended for crystalline semiconductor materials (comparable with PC-1D) Multi-junction solar cells with TRJ Genpro3 optical model: combination of coherent propagation of specular light and incoherent propagation of scattered light
Users:
Utrecht University, Eindhoven University of Technology, ECN, Helianthos bv, OM&T Stuttgart University, Kaiserslautern University, University of Siegen, University of Neuchatel, Cenimat, University of Gent, Slovak Academy of Sciences Fuji Electric, Kaneka, Tokyo Institute of Technology, LG Electronics, Samsung Toledo University, Syracuse University, Iowa State University, Applied Material, Ultradots, OptiSolar

Light trapping
Standard techniques: Random surface-textured substrates
Asahi U-type AP CVD SnO2:F, Julich wet-etched ZnO:Al

Back reflector
Thin ZnO layer between Si and metal

AP CVD SnO2:F

Wet etched ZnO:Al

Light trapping
State-of-the-art uc-Si:H solar cell:
180 160

di-uc-Si:H = 1 um

AM 1.5 spectrom (mW/(cm um))

140

10x
120 100 80 60 40 20 0

glass surface-textured TCO

cell 23.22 mA/cm2

p i n

uc-Si:H layers
ZnO back metal contact (Ag)

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200
Janez Krc, 2008

Wavelength (nm)

Light trapping
State-of-the-art uc-Si:H solar cell: analysis of optical losses using modeling
1.0

0.8

p+n

Rtot
glass

Absorption losses

0.6

i-uc-Si:H

BR

surface-textured TCO

0.4

TCO sub.

p i n

uc-Si:H layers
ZnO back metal contact (Ag)

0.2

0.0 400 600 800 1000

Janez Krc, 2008

Wavelength (nm)

Improving device performance

Modelling of a-Si:H/c-Si:H solar cells:
Starting
1.0

0.8

Quantum Efficiency, QE

200 nm

0.6

QEtop
10.0 mA/cm2

QEbot
14.3 mA/cm2

(ZnO)

0.4 Rtot

2.2 um

0.2

0.0

400

Wavelength, (nm)

600

800

1000

M. Zeman and J. Krc, Optical and electrical modeling of thin-film silicon solar cells, J. Mater. Res., 23 (4), Apr 2008

Optical improvements
Assumptions:
1. Enhanced scattering parameters
ideal haze parameters H=1 broad (Lambertian) angular distribution function (ADF) of scattered light

2. Reduced absorption in optically non-active layers

decrease absorption in the front TCO (5) decrease absorption in doped layers (5)

3. Improved back reflector

back reflector with an enhanced reflectance of 98 %

4. Improved light in-coupling

optimized single-layer ARC coating on glass (a) an optimized single-layer intermediate reflector (interlayer) (b) a (hypothetical) wavelength-selective interlayer adjustment of the absorbers thickness for obtaining current matching

M. Zeman and J. Krc, Optical and electrical modeling of thin-film silicon solar cells, J. Mater. Res., 23 (4), Apr 2008

M. Zeman

Optical improvements
1.0
Lambertian
100
98 %
ro u g h Z n O /A g

0.8
95

0.6
ADFT

0.4 0.2 0.0 -90

ZnO etched
rms = 60 nm

Reflectance, R (%)

90

85

-60

-30

30

60

90

80 600

700

Scattering angle, , (degrees)

W a v e le n g th , (n m )

800

900

1000

1100

Lambertian angular distribution (cos) function of scattered light

Improved back reflector R=98% (distributed Bragg reflectors)

M. Zeman and J. Krc, Optical and electrical modeling of thin-film silicon solar cells, J. Mater. Res., 23 (4), Apr 2008

Improving device performance

Modelling of a-Si:H/c-Si:H solar cells:
1.0

Improved

0.8

Quantum Efficiency, QE

200 nm

0.6

QEtop
15.65 mA/cm2

QEbot
16.48 mA/cm2

(ZnO)

0.4

2.2 um

0.2

Rtot

0.0

400

Wavelength, (nm)

600

800

1000

M. Zeman and J. Krc, Optical and electrical modeling of thin-film silicon solar cells, J. Mater. Res., 23 (4), Apr 2008

Improving device performance

Modelling of a-Si:H/c-Si:H solar cells:
55

Rel. contribution to increased JSC(opt) (%)

Current density, J (mA/cm2)

-2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16

starting cell

opt. + el. improved

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
H=1 Lamb. ADF

top (a-Si:H) cell bottom (uc-Si:H) cell

JSC = 10.41 mA/cm2 15.45 mA/cm2 VOC = 1.35 V FF = 0.71 Eff. = 10 % 1.45 V 0.71 15.8 %

starting cell

optically + electrically improved

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

Voltage, V (V)

5x lower abs. BR 98% single interl. TCO p,n ARC (sel.)

- Broad ADF of scattered light (H=1) - BR and interlayer

Develop concepts and test them

M. Zeman and J. Krc, Optical and electrical modeling of thin-film silicon solar cells, J. Mater. Res., 23 (4), Apr 2008

Advanced concepts for light trapping

Wavelength-selective manipulation of reflection and transmission of light at interfaces using 1-D photonic crystals Concept of modulated 1-D photonic crystals Applied as back and intermediate reflectors
100 %

Light-In project
TUD, Helianthos ECN, OM&T

1.0

100 %

1.0

0.8 Reflectance

PC_1
Reflectance

0.8

PC_2

0.6

0.6

0.4

50/100 nm

0.4

70/140 nm

0.2

0.2

0.0

600

800

1000 Wavelength (nm)

1200

1400

0.0

600

800

1000 Wavelength (nm)

1200

1400

Advanced concepts for light trapping

Angle-selective manipulation of light scattered at the rough interfaces using 1-D and 2-D diffraction gratings
Light-In project
TUD, Helianthos ECN, OM&T
1.0

P = 700 nm h = 80 nm
0.8

inc = 0o
Asahi U-type

ADFT (a.u.)

0.6

0.4

0.2

ZnO:Al (40" etched) r 110 nm

-60 -30 0 30 60 90

0.0 -90

Scattering angle (scatt)

Advanced concepts for light trapping

Angle-selective manipulation of light scattered at the rough interfaces using 1-D diffraction gratings
Average efficiency of 10 best cells plotted versus groove height

Light-In project
TUD, Helianthos ECN, OM&T

9.0 8.8 Average Efficiency (%) 8.6 8.4 8.2 8.0 7.8 7.6 7.4

Asahi reference

Period = 600 nm 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Feature height (nm)

Advanced concepts for light trapping

Angle-selective manipulation of light scattered at the rough interfaces using 2-D diffraction gratings
Light-In project
9.4 9.2 9.0 8.8 8.6 Asahi reference 8.4 8.2 8.0 7.8 Period = 600 nm 7.6 2D period = 500-800 nm 7.4 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Feature height (nm)
TUD, Helianthos ECN, OM&T

Average Efficiency (%)

Helianthos project
Development of low-cost roll-to-roll technology for fabrication of thin-film silicon solar modules (started in 1996) Dutch route: Temporary superstrate solar cell concept

By courtesy of Helianthos bv.

Helianthos manufacturing sequence

Al foil + TCO

+ a-Si:H

+ back contact

+ carrier foil

- Al foil

+ series connect

+ contact wires + cutting

+ encapsulant

Status Helianthos project

By courtesy of Helianthos bv.

Flexible a-Si:H module: ready for production

Flexible lab-size tandem module

Achieved: 1st generation modules Single junction a-Si:H module in > 7% st = ~6%

Challenge: 2nd generation modules Tandem a-Si:H/c-Si:H module in > 11% st = ~10%

Summary
Thin-film Si:H solar cell technology
Promising future option for large-area low-cost PV Expected large increase in production capacity Large scale of applications (rigid + flexible) Modules with 10% efficiency

Challenges:
Increase efficiency st>15% (photon management) Development and implementation of novel ideas