Santiago - Congressional Questions

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61
ConslilulionaI Queslions Incidenl lo
Iresidenl Obama's Iuerlo Rico Slalus
IIebiscile
CHARLIS R. VINATOR-SANTIAGO
"#$%&'()$"&#
In November 2012, Iuerlo Ricans voled on a non-binding IocaI slalus
Iebiscile.
1
The baIIol's Iebiscilary Ianguage and oulcome of lhe vole vere
conlesled.
2
This romled advocales of slalehood for Iuerlo Rico lo argue
lhal a ma|orily of eIeclors voled in favor of making lhe isIand lhe fifly-firsl
slale of lhe Union, il romled advocales of lhe revaiIing aulonomic, or
slalus quo, lo denounce lhe vhoIe rocess.
3
The Ialler essenliaIIy argued
lhal lhe baIIol's Ianguage excIuded lhe lradilionaI aulonomic slalus olion
and lhal lhe slalehood inlerrelalion inaccuraleIy counled lhe acluaI
number of voles casl. Nolvilhslanding conlradiclory slalemenls
emanaling from lhe While House, Iresidenl arack H. Obama's budgel for
lhe 2014 fiscaI year incIuded a funding requesl lo conducl a federaI, and
resumabIy binding, slalus Iebiscile for lhe isIand. Iresidenl Obama's
roosaI signaIed lhal he re|ecled lhe ro-slalehood inlerrelalion.
4

Assislanl Irofessor, }oinl Aoinlmenl in Dearlmenl of IoIilicaI Science and II Inslilulo:
Inslilule for Lalino/a, Caribbean and Lalin American Sludies al lhe Universily of Conneclicul.
*
R. SAM GARRITT, IUIRTO RICO'S IOLITICAL STATUS AND THI 2012 ILIISICITI:
ACKGROUND AND KIY QUISTIONS 5 (2013), atai|a||c ai hll://vvv.fas.org/sg/crs/rov/R42
765.df.
+
|!. al 8.
,
Scc i!. al 1013 (noling lhal roonenls of slalehood vouId remove bIank voles lo
Queslion 2 from lhe overaII voler laIIy resuIling in a ma|orily vole for slalehood, vhere lhose
oosed lo slalehood vouId do lhe oosile).
-
UNITID STATIS DII'T OI }UST., OII. OI }UST. IROGRAMS, IY 2014 IIRIORMANCI UDGIT
29 (2013), atai|a||c ai hll://vvv.|uslice.gov/|md/2014|uslificalion/df/o|-|uslificalion.df
(slaling lhal funds aIIocaled lo voler educalion are condilioned uon a finding lhal voler
educalion maleriaI, Iebiscile baIIol, and reIaled maleriaIs are nol incomalibIe vilh lhe
Conslilulion and Iavs and oIicies of lhe Uniled Slales . . .).
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62 Nc u |ng| an! Iau |c ti c u On |c nan! v. 48 + 61
Ior more lhan a cenlury, lhe Uniled Slales has lrealed Iuerlo Rico as
an unincororaled lerrilory lhal can be seIecliveIy vieved as a foreign
counlry for domeslic or conslilulionaI uroses. AIlhough Congress has
debaled uvards of 112 slalus and Iebiscilary biIIs since lhe Uniled Slales
annexed Iuerlo Rico in 1898, il has nol changed lhe isIand's conslilulionaI
slalus since.
5
WhiIe lhe mosl recenl round of Iebiscilary debales aears
lo have fizzIed oul, il raised lhree inleresling and inlerreIaled
conslilulionaI queslions lhal meril discussion.
". '/012123 45/678 %198:; )82;71757182<= >7<75;
During lhe 1890s, lhe Uniled Slales began deveIoing a nev lradilion
of lerriloriaI exansionism remised on lhe annexalion of slralegicaIIy
silualed lerrilories lhroughoul lhe vorId.
6
Irior lo 1898, lhe Uniled Slales
annexed lerrilories for coIoniaI uroses, or more secificaIIy, for lhe
urose of making nev slales. Iven lhough lhe Uniled Slales admilled
severaI nev slales afler 1898 (e.g. OkIahoma, Nev Mexico, Arizona,
Havaii, and AIaska),
7
il has nol enabIed any lerrilory annexed since 1898 lo
become a slale of lhe Union.
8
The nev lradilion vas remised on lhe
acquisilion of lerrilories lhal couId house slralegicaIIy silualed navaI bases
and coaIing slalions vilhoul binding Congress lo subsequenlIy organize
lhese lerrilories inlo slales of lhe Union. Crealing slralegicaIIy silualed
bases vouId enabIe lhe Uniled Slales lo asserl a seaborne over
lhroughoul lhe gIobe, a re-condilion for membershi in lhe gIobaI cIub of
emires: lhe nev lradilion of lerriloriaI exansionism enabIed lhe Uniled
Slales lo become a gIobaI emire.
The Uniled Slales deveIoed a corresonding conslilulionaI
inlerrelalion belveen 1898 and 1901. More secificaIIy, lhe Uniled Slales
began lo deveIo a nev conslilulionaI inlerrelalion regarding lhe slalus
of annexed lerrilories lo govern lhe Sanish uIlramarine isIand-rovinces
annexed during lhe War of 1898isIands rimariIy inhabiled by non-
vhile ouIalions.
9
The earIiesl ileralions of lhe gIobaI exansionisl

?
Scc R. SAM GARRITT, IOLITICAL STATUS OI IUIRTO RICO: OITIONS IOR CONGRISS 30 (2011),
atai|a||c ai hll://vvv.fas.org/sg/crs/rov/RL32933.df. Ior furlher exIanalion, see lhe
summary age of lhis reorl.
@
Scc GARY LAWSON & GUY SIIDMAN, THI CONSTITUTION OI IMIIRI: TIRRITORIAL
IXIANSION AND AMIRICA'S LIGAL HISTORY 103, 111, 11518 (2004) (delaiIing lhe acquisilion of
various isIand lerrilories, lheir conslilulionaIily, and lheir vaIue lo miIilary ob|eclives).
A
Scc Ojjicia| Nanc an! Siaius Hisicrq cj inc Sctcra| Siaics an! U.S. Tcrriicrics, GRIIN IAIIRS
(Sel. 24, 2013), hll://vvv.lhe greenaers.com/sIg/slalehood.hlmI (roviding a Iisl of lhe
various Slales and U.S. Terrilories dale of admission lo lhe Union).
B
Scc i!.
C
David D. Day & MaxveII Koer, A Ta|c cj Tuc Tcrriicrics. Hauaii, Pucric |icc, an! inc
Unsu|ar Ancrican Siaic, 16 HAW. .}. 18, 1820 (2012).
2014 Ccngr c s s i cna| Quc s i i cns 63
inlerrelalion vere eslabIished in lhe Trealy of Iaris of 1898, vhich
rovided for lhe resoIulion of lhe Sanish-American War and lhe
annexalion of Iuerlo Rico and olher lerrilories.
10
IoIIoving lhe cessalion of
hosliIilies, lhe var dearlmenl vas lasked vilh deveIoing nev lerriloriaI
oIicies lo govern lhe nevIy annexed lerrilories. In 1900, Congress enacled
lhe Ioraker Acl and normaIized lhe miIilary's insuIar or lerriloriaI
oIicies.
11
The foIIoving year, lhe Sureme Courl began lo lemer lhe nev
insuIar or lerriloriaI oIicies in a series of ruIings generaIIy knovn as lhe
|nsu|ar Cascs cj 1901.
12
The ensuing body of Iav, or lerriloriaI doclrine, has
since defined lhe slalus of Iuerlo Rico and aII olher lerrilories annexed by
lhe Uniled Slales since 1898.
ArlicIe IX of lhe Trealy of Iaris of 1898 Iaid oul lhe core rinciIes
defining lhe slalus of lhe annexed Sanish lerrilories.
13
The Second CIause
of ArlicIe IX eslabIished Congress's Ienary over lo delermine lhe fulure
annexed lerrilories' slalus, as veII as lhe civiI and oIilicaI righls of lhe
corresonding inhabilanls.
14
The var dearlmenl, as veII as olher IegaI
advocales for U.S. imeriaIism, argued lhal lhis rovision gave Congress,
and lhe U.S. governmenl more generaIIy, a Ienary over lo ruIe annexed
lerrilories such as Iuerlo Rico vilhoul conslilulionaI Iimils or reslriclions.
15

These IegaI aclors argued lhal lhe over lo ruIe lhe nev lerrilories vas
Iocaled in lhe lrealy ralher lhan lhe Conslilulion. To lhis exlenl, lhe Trealy
of Iaris dearled from eslabIished recedenls in lvo imorlanl vays. Iirsl,
vhereas aII reviousIy annexed lerrilories vere ruIed as conslilulionaI
arls of lhe Uniled Slales, lhe nevIy annexed lerrilories vere Iefl al lhe
mercy of U.S. Iavmakers. Secondand more imorlanlIylhe nev
inlerrelalion soughl lo siluale lhe source of over over lerrilories in lhe
lrealy ralher lhan lhe Conslilulion, even lhough rior lrealies Iodged
Congress's over lo ruIe lhe annexed lerrilories in lhe Conslilulion.
16

*D
Day & Koer, supra nole 9, al 19, scc a|sc Trealy of Ieace, U.S.-Sain, arl. II, Dec. 10,
1898, 30 Slal. 1754, 175455 |hereinafler Trealy of Iarisj.
**
Day & Koer, supra nole 9, al 20, Ioraker Acl, ch. 191, 31 Slal. 77 (1900) (codified al 48
U.S.C. 731 (2012)). Ior uroses of governing Iuerlo Rico, lhe Uniled Slales used lhe vords
insuIar and lerriloriaI inlercheangeabIy. The vord insuIar refers lo lhe geograhicaI
condilions of an isIand lerrilory.
*+
Day & Koer, supra nole 9, al 20. These cases consisled of a series of decisions belveen
1901 and 1922 anaIyzing lhe degree lo vhich lhe Conslilulion aIied lo lhe lerrilories. |!.
*,
Trealy of Iaris, supra nole 10, al 1759.
*-
Scc i!. (The civiI righls and oIilicaI slalus of lhe nalive inhabilanls of lhe lerrilories
hereby ceded lo lhe Uniled Slales shaII be delermined by Congress.).
*?
Scc Andrev Kenl, oumediene, Munaf, an! inc Suprcnc Ccuris Misrca!ing cj inc |nsu|ar
Cascs, 97 IOWA L. RIV. 101, 151 (2011).
*@
U.S. CONST., arl. IV, 3, cI. 2 (Congress shaII have |jover lo disose of and make aII
needfuI |rjuIes and |rjeguIalions resecling lhe |ljerrilory or olher |jroerly beIonging lo lhe
Draving on lhe Ialler inlerrelalion, Iresidenl WiIIiam McKinIey
asked lhe veII-knovn Nev York allorney, IIihu Rool, lo become Secrelary
of War and deveIo a nev lerriloriaI oIicy lo govern Iuerlo Rico and lhe
olher lerrilories annexed under lhe Trealy of Iaris in lhe summer of 1899.
17

The U.S. miIilary invaded Iuerlo Rico on }uIy 25, 1898, and during lhe nexl
lvo years, lhe var dearlmenl began lo aoinl a series of miIilary
governors lasked vilh deveIoing IocaI oIilicaI inslilulions.
18
elveen lhe
summers of 1898 and 1900, a succession of miIilary governors vere lasked
vilh ad|usling, dismanlIing, and crealing nev IegaI and oIilicaI
inslilulions lo ruIe Iuerlo Rico (as veII as lhe olher annexed lerrilories).
19

The miIilary governors generaIIy deveIoed lerriloriaI inslilulions modeIed
afler lhe rilish nolion of Dominionism and ruIed Iuerlo Rico as a
deendency. The miIilary crealed a nev lerriloriaI slalus enabIing lhe
governmenl lo seIecliveIy ruIe Iuerlo Rico as a foreign or occuied
lerrilory, even lhough lhe Uniled Slales annexed lhe isIand, ralher lhan
using eslabIished lerriloriaI recedenls lhal vouId have bound lhe Uniled
Slales lo lreal Iuerlo Rico as a arl of lhe Uniled Slales for conslilulionaI
uroses.
In 1900, Congress enacled IegisIalion lhal essenliaIIy normaIized lhe
miIilary lerriloriaI oIicy: lhe Ioraker Acl.
20
More secificaIIy, lhis Acl
adoled aII bul lvo of lhe IocaI miIilary governors' recommendalions.
Among lhe mosl conlroversiaI vas lhe exlension of lhe DingIey Tariff Acl
of 1897 lo Iuerlo Rico.
21
The Third Seclion of lhe Ioraker Acl eslabIished
lhal lhe Uniled Slales couId coIIecl a 15% lariff on merchandise lrafficked
belveen Iuerlo Rico and lhe Uniled Slales.
22
Under lhe Ioraker Acl, Iuerlo
Rico couId be seIecliveIy lrealed as a foreign counlry for lhe urose of
coIIecling lariffs, dulies, and olher laxes on merchandise lrafficked belveen
Iuerlo Rico and lhe Uniled Slales, even lhough lhe Uniled Slales had

Uniled Slales.), scc Gary Lavson & Roberl D. SIoane, Tnc Ccnsiiiuiicna|iiq cj Occc|cnizaiicn |q
Asscciaic! Siaicncc!. Pucric |iccs Icga| Siaius |cccnsi!crc!, 50 .C. L. RIV. 1123, 113132 (2009).
*A
Day & Koer, supra nole 9, al 19, scc a|sc Norvegian NobeI Insl., ||inu |cci|acis,
NOIL IRIZI, hll://vvv.nobeIrize.org/nobeI_rizes/eace/Iaureales/1912/rool-facls.hlmI
(Iasl
visiled Mar. 18, 2014).
*B
Day & Koer, supra nole 9, al 19.
*C
|!.
+D
Kenl, supra nole 15, al 12122, scc GARRITT supra nole 5, al 9.
+*
IauI SaIamone, Ccnsiiiuiicna| Scparaiicn an! inc |crakcr Aci. Hcu Tncq |nj|ucncc! Pucric
|iccs Tax |cjcrn jrcn 18981901 an! Ic! ic inc A!cpiicn cj inc |npcri |xcisc an! Prcpcriq Tax, 64
RIVISTA DIL CALDIGIO DI AOGADOS DI I.R., 34, 77 n.172 (2003).
++
Dovnes v. idveII, 182 U.S. 244, 24748 (1901), }ose }uIian AIvarez-GonzaIez, Iau
Ianguagc an! Siaicncc!. Tnc |c|c cj |ng|isn in inc Grcai Siaic cj Pucric |icc, 17 LAW AND INIQ.
359, 422 n.320 (1999).
formaIIy annexed lhe isIand. Lavmakers defending lhis rovision argued
lhal Congress vieIded lhe over lo seIecliveIy lreal Iuerlo Rico (and lhe
olher annexed lerrilories) as a foreign counlry for domeslic or
conslilulionaI uroses. More reciseIy, Iavmakers advocaling for lhe
gIobaI exansionisl viev began lo describe Iuerlo Rico as an
unincororaled lerrilory or a lerrilory lhal beIonged lo, bul vas nol a arl
of, lhe Uniled Slales.
Monlhs Ialer, in lhe |nsu|ar Cascs, lhe Sureme Courl began ruIing on
lhe conslilulionaIily of lhe Ioraker Acl and lhe insuIar IegisIalion
deveIoed lo ruIe lhe olher annexed (Havaii, AIaska, and lhe IhiIiines)
lerrilories and occuied (Cuba) lerrilories.
23
Of lhese ruIings, Ocuncs t.
Bi!uc||
24
slands as lhe key ruIing lhal eslabIished lhe core rinciIes of lhe
nev lerriloriaI oIicy. Ocuncs addressed lhe conslilulionaIily of lhe
Ioraker lariff. IrevaiIing inlerrelalions lrealed annexed lerrilories as arl
of lhe Uniled Slales for conslilulionaI uroses. IresumabIy, imosing a
lariff, duly, or lax on merchandise lrafficked belveen lhe isIand and lhe
mainIand vioIaled revaiIing inlerrelalions of lhe Uniformily CIause of
lhe Conslilulion.
25
A ma|orily of lhe Courl uheId lhe conslilulionaIily of
lhe Ioraker lariff and began lo eslabIish lhal lhe Uniled Slales couId
seIecliveIy ruIe some annexed lerrilories as foreign IocaIilies for domeslic
or conslilulionaI uroses.
26

AIlhough lhe five |uslices comrising lhe ma|orily did nol agree on lhe
underIying ralionaIe, lhe Courl subsequenlIy embraced }uslice Idvard D.
While's inlerrelalion in his concurrence, vhich conlinues lo endure.
27

}uslice While re|ecled lhe nolion lhal Congress derived ils over from lhe
lrealy, and inslead argued lhal lhe Terrilories CIause granled Iavmakers
lhe over lo enacl seciaI IegisIalion for Iuerlo Rico and lhe olher annexed
lerrilories nol deslined lo become slales of lhe Union.
28
CenlraI lo }uslice
While's argumenl vas his cIaim lhal Congress heId a over lo incororale
a lerrilory inlo lhe Union.
29
Incororaled lerrilories vere Iaced on a alh
lo slalehood, vhereas unincororaled lerrilories couId be ruIed as
deendencies beIonging lobul nol a arl oflhe Uniled Slales for
conslilulionaI uroses. According lo }uslice While, nolhing in lhe Ioraker
Acl indicaled lhal Congress inlended lo incororale Iuerlo Rico, if

+,
Ifren Rivera Ramos, Tnc Icga| Ccnsiruciicn cj Ancrican Cc|cnia|isn. Tnc |nsu|ar Cascs
(19011902), 65 RIV. }UR. U.I.R. 225, 24041 (1996).
+-
182 U.S. 244 (1901).
+?
U.S. CONST., arl. 1, 8, cI. 1.
+@
Ocuncs, 182 U.S. al 250, 28687.
+A
Scc i!. al 28789 (While, }., concurring).
+B
Scc i!. al 28990.
+C
|!. al 30406.
anylhing, lhe Ioraker lariff eslabIished lhe oosile.
30
Since lhen, lhe
Uniled Slales has ruIed Iuerlo Rico as an unincororaled lerrilory, and
neilher Congress nor lhe Courl has incororaled lhe isIand.
Since 1901, hovever, Congress enacled IegisIalion rogressiveIy
granling Iuerlo Ricans adminislralive aulonomy over Iuerlo Rico's IegaI
and oIilicaI inslilulions vilhoul changing lhe isIand's lerriloriaI slalus.
Ior examIe, lhe }ones Acl of 1917 essenliaIIy lransferred fuII conlroI of lhe
IocaI IegisIalive assembIy lo Iuerlo Ricans.
31
The IIeclive Governor Acl of
1947 enabIed Iuerlo Rican residenls lo eIecl a IocaI governor.
32
And, in
1950, IubIic Lav 600 aulhorized lhe Iuerlo Rican IegisIalure lo drafl a IocaI
conslilulion (sub|ecl lo Congress's arovaI) lransferring adminislralive
aulhorily over lhe isIand's governmenl lo Iuerlo Ricans.
33
Iven lhough in
1952 lhe ensuing conslilulion began lo describe Iuerlo Rico as an
associaled free slale,
34
IooseIy lransIaled as a CommonveaIlh, lhere is no
evidence lhal Congress incororaled or changed lhe lerriloriaI slalus of lhe
isIand.
35
Suffice il lo say, Iuerlo Rico vas ruIed as an unincororaled
lerrilory for more lhan a cenlury.
"". 45/678 %198:; 4=/E1;917/;
Congress's overs lo adminisler lerrilories, incororaled or olhervise,
are enumeraled in ArlicIe IV, Seclion 3 of lhe U.S. Conslilulion. The second
cIause of Seclion 3lhe TerriloriaI CIauseemovers Congress lo make
aII ruIes and reguIalions necessary lo govern lerrilories. TradilionaIIy,
foIIoving lhe annexalion of a lerrilory, Congress enacls organic or
lerriloriaI IegisIalion roviding for lhe organizalion of a lerriloriaI
governmenl. Throughoul lhe lerriloriaI slage, lhe Iresidenl is emovered
lo govern lhe lerrilories on behaIf of Congress. AIlhough lhe Conslilulion
is siIenl on hov lo lransform an organized lerrilory inlo a slale of lhe
Union, generaIIy Congress viII invoke lhe firsl cIause, olhervise knovn as
lhe Admissions CIause, of Seclion 3 lo enacl IegisIalion enabIing a
lerrilory lo bid for such admission. Again, vhiIe lhe IegaI hislory of lhe

,D
Scc i!. al 34344.
,*
Scc 48 U.S.C. 731bc (2012), jcncs Aci, LIRARY OI CONG.,
hll://vvv.Ioc.gov/rr/hisanic
/1898/|onesacl.hlmI (Iasl visiled Mar. 18, 2014).
,+
48 U.S.C. 737 (2012), scc Luis Iuenles-Rohver, Tnc Ian! Tnai Ocnccraiic Tnccrq |crgci,
83 IND. L.}. 1525, 1539 (2008).
,,
Scc Iub L. No. 600, 64 Slal. 319 (1950) (codified as amended al 48 U.S.C. 731bc (2012)).
,-
Scc I.R. CONST. res. 22.
,?
AIlhough lhe Iuerlo Rican governmenl adoled lhe use of lhe lerm CommonveaIlh
lo describe lhe slalus of lhe isIand foIIoving lhe adolion of lhe conslilulion, lhis lerm mereIy
describes a conlinualion of lhe aulonomic slalus of Iuerlo Rico vilhin lhe Uniled Slales.
slalehood rocess of lhe lhirly-seven slales admilled afler lhe originaI
lhirleen has varied videIy, Congress has relained a Ienary over lo
adminisler a lerrilory and admil nev slales inlo lhe Union.
36

Irior lo 1898, Congress used Iebisciles lo oII lhe suorl for
slalehood among lhe residenls of organized lerrilories. In mosl cases,
lerrilory residenls voled in favor of slalehood and Congress subsequenlIy
admilled lhe lerrilories as nev slales of lhe Union. Hovever, in some
inslances Congress addressed olher nalionaI inleresls before deciding lo
granl slalehood lo a lerrilory. Texas slands as lhe mosl nolabIe examIe
vhere a ma|orily of U.S. cilizens reealedIy voled in favor of slalehood
onIy lo be re|ecled by Congress on severaI occasions.
37
The oosile is aIso
lrue. Ior examIe, desile ouIar voles againsl slalehood in seven
lerriloriesMaine (180774%), Wisconsin (184478%), Nebraska (1860
53%), CoIorado (185955%), Oregon (185658%), Washinglon (187170%),
and Arizona (191284%)Congress assed slalehood annexalion Iavs in
each inslance.
38
The oinl is, lerriloriaI slalus Iebisciles have never |cun!
Congress lo change lhe lerrilory's slalus or granl il slalehood.
Since 1898, Iuerlo Rican eIeclors have voled in four non-binding
Iebisciles aiming lo resoIve lhe isIand's oIilicaI slalus. elveen 1898 and
lhe lime of lhis vriling, federaI Iavmakers debaled uvards of 112
Iebiscilary biIIs and enacled one Iav aulhorizing a slalus Iebiscile in
1967.
39
Three addilionaI Iebisciles, heId in 1993, 1998, and 2012, vere
based on IocaI Iavs enacled by lhe Iuerlo Rican IegisIalure.
40
AII lhree
Iebiscilary Iavs vere enacled vhen lhe Iuerlo Rican ro-slalehood arly
conlroIIed lhe Iuerlo Rican governmenl. The four Iebisciles rovided
Iuerlo Ricans vilh lhree slalus olions, incIuding muIliIe varianls of lhe
aulonomic or CommonveaIlh olion. Neilher lhe slalehood nor
indeendence olions have been abIe lo garner a ma|orily vole in any of
lhe Iebisciles.
The 1967 Iebiscile rovided volers vilh a choice among lhree slalus
olions: lerriloriaI aulonomy (a conlinualion of lhe unincororaled slalus),
slalehood, or indeendence.
41
As TabIe 1 demonslrales, 60% of Iuerlo

,@
Scc U.S. CONST. arl. IV, 3.
,A
C. T. Neu, Anncxaiicn, TIXAS STATI HISTORICAL ASS'N, hll://vvv.lshaonIine.org/hand
book/onIine/arlicIes/mga02 (Iasl visiled Mar. 18, 2014).
,B
GRUIO DI INVISTIGADORIS IUIRTORRIQUINOS, RIAKTHROUGH IROM COLONIALISM: AN
INTIRDISCIILINARY STUDY OI STATIHOOD 118195 (1984).
,C
Scc CharIes R. Venalor-Sanliago & Yazmin A. Garcia Tre|o, Pucric |icc an! |c!cra| Siaius
Icgis|aiicn, 19522012, LATINO DICISIONS (Ocl. 26, 2012), hll://vvv.Ialinodecisions.com/bIog
/2012/10/26/uerlo-rico-and-federaI-slalus-IegisIalion-1952-2012/.
-D
Scc i!.
-*
ConsuIla de ResuIlados: IIebiscilo de Slalus deI 23 de |uIio de 1976, Comisin IslalaI de
Rican eIeclors voled in favor of conlinuing lhe isIand's aulonomic
reIalionshi vilh lhe Uniled Slales. Again, federaI IegisIalion aulhorizing
lhis Iebiscile vas exIicil in slaling lhal Congress vouId nol be bound lo
lhe oulcome of lhis vole. The 1967 Iebiscile is lhe onIy congressionaIIy
sanclioned Iav enacled in 115 years addressing lhe resoIulion of Iuerlo
Rico's oIilicaI slalus.
$<E=/ *F *C@A 4=/E1;917/
-+

$/6617861<= >7<75;
&G7182;

Total
Number
of Votes
Percentage Total
Number
of
Ballots
Percentage
Aulonomy

425,132 60.40% 425,132 60.10%
Slalehood

274,312 39% 274,312 38.70%
Indeendence

4,248 0.60% 4,248 0.60%
NuII

3,601 0.50%
Total 703,692 100% 707,293 *DDH

Since lhen, lhe Iuerlo Rican IegisIalure enacled lhree Iavs aulhorizing
IocaI, non-binding Iebisciles. The 1993 vole rovided eIeclors vilh a
choice among lhe lhree slalus olions avaiIabIe in lhe 1967 Iebiscile.
Again, as TabIe 2 demonslrales, a ma|orily of Iuerlo Ricans voled in favor
of lhe aulonomic olion.

IIecciones de Iuerlo Rico, Islado Libre Asociado de Iuerlo Rico, atai|a||c ai
hll://209.68.12.238/cgi-bin/evenlos.I`evenlo1967.
-+
|!.
$<E=/ +F *CC, 4=/E1;917/
-,

$/6617861<= >7<75;
&G7182;

Total Number of Votes Percentage
Slalehood

788,296 46.3%
Aulonomy

826,326 48.6%
Indeendence

75,620 4.4%
NuII

6,549 0.4%
Iank aIIols

4,199 0.2%
Total 1,700,900 *DDH

Hovever, il is imorlanl lo nole lhal Roberlo Sanchez ViIeIIa, a former
ro-aulonomy governor, and olhers successfuIIy sued lhe Iuerlo Rican
governmenl chaIIenging lhe 1993 Iebiscile's faiIure lo rovide IocaI volers
vilh aIlernalive slalus olions and definilions of lhe lhree lradilionaI
slalus olions. In S4ncncz Vi|c||a ci a|. t. |IA ci a|.,
44
lhe Iuerlo Rican
Sureme Courl affirmed lhe righl of eIeclors lo submil bIank Iebiscilary
baIIols as a form of rolesl. Slaled differenlIy, lhe Iuerlo Rican Sureme
Courl unequivocaIIy eslabIished lhal bIank baIIols (nol lo be confused vilh
a faiIure lo vole) are a Iegilimale and democralic form of civiI disobedience
in Iuerlo Rican eIecloraI Iav.
The 1998 Iebiscile incororaled lvo addilionaI baIIols designed lo
veaken lhe hegemony of lhe CommonveaIlh slalus among Iuerlo Rican
eIeclors, as demonslraled beIov in TabIe 3. The nev Iebiscile incIuded lhe
olion of an Inhanced CommonveaIlh lhal exanded lhe overs of lhe
CommonveaIlh slalus in lhe inlernalionaI arena, bul conlinued lo affirm
Iuerlo Rican lerriloriaI aulonomy vilhin lhe U.S. gIobaI emire.
45
In

-,
ConsuIla de ResuIlados: IIebiscilo de Slalus deI 14 de noviembre de 1993, Comisin
IslalaI de IIecciones de Iuerlo Rico, Islado Libre Asociado de Iuerlo Rico, atai|a||c ai
--
134 D.I.R. 503, 519520 (I.R. 1993).
-?
Scc ConsuIla de ResuIlados: IIebiscilo de Slalus deI 13 de diciembre de 1998, Comisin
hll://209.68.12.238/cgi-bin/evenlos.I`evenlo1998, |s|an! Siaius an! Hisicrq, LIT IUIRTO RICO
DICIDI, hll://vvv.Ieluerloricodecide.com/slalus.h (Iasl visiled }an. 20, 2014).
addilion, lhe Iebiscile gave lhe isIand residenls lhe olion of disregarding
lhe avaiIabIe slalus olions and voling for None of lhe Above. Al lhe
lime, lhe Iuerlo Rican ro-CommonveaIlh arly raIIied lo boycoll lhe 1998
Iebiscile and managed lo mobiIize a ma|orily of eIeclors lo vole None of
lhe Above.
46
Like lhe revious lvo Iebisciles, neilher lhe slalehood nor
lhe indeendence olions garnered a ma|orily vole among lhe Iuerlo
Rican eIeclorale.
$<E=/ ,F *CCB 4=/E1;917/
-A

Territorial Status Options $87<= #5IE/6 80
J87/;

Percentage
CommonveaIlh (Olion -1)

993 0.1%
Inhanced CommonveaIlh
(Olion -2)

4,536 0.3%
Slalehood (Olion -3)

728,157 46.5%
Indeendence (Olion -4)

39,838 2.5%
None of lhe Above (Olion -5)

787,900 50.3%
NuII

2,956 0.2%
Iank aIIols

1,890 0.1%
Total 1,566,270 *DDH

Residenl Commissioners, Luis G. Iorluo and Ialer Iedro IierIuisi,
inlroduced earIy versions of lhe 2012 Iebiscile, aIso knovn as lhe
Democracy Acl, in lhe House of Reresenlalives belveen 2005 and 2010.
48

-@
Doreen HemIock, Ncnc cj inc A|ctc Wins |cjcrcn!un in Pucric |icc, SUN SINTINIL (Dec.
14, 1998), hll://arlicIes.sun-senlinaI.com/1998-12-14/nevs/9812140038_1_slalehood-
commonveaIlh-slalus-edro-rosseIIo.
-A
ConsuIla de ResuIlados: IIebiscilo de Slalus deI 13 de diciembre de 1998, Comisin
-B
Scc Siaicncc! jcr Pucric |icc Gcis A!!iiicna| Bccsi uiin |criunc as |s|an!s Prc-Siaicncc!
Can!i!aic jcr Gctcrncr |criunc Tcps |s|an! Siaicncc! Prinarq Picr|uisi Siaicncc! Ocnccraiic
Can!i!aic jcr |csi!cni Ccnnissicncr, IR STATIHOOD, hll://vvv.rslalehood.com/nevs/
Wilh lhe suorl of Reresenlalive }ose Serrano (D-NY), Residenl
Commissioner IierIuisi successfuIIy ushered lhe Democracy Acl of 2010
lhrough lhe House, bul lhe biII faiIed lo ass lhe Senale.
49
In 2011,
hovever, lhe Iuerlo Rican IegisIalure assed a revised version of lhis Acl
lhal sarked slrong ob|eclions from lhe ro-CommonveaIlh Ieadershi.
50

The Iuerlo Rican Indeendence Iarly Ieadershi veIcomed lhe Iebiscile
vilh lhe underslanding lhal ils Ianguage vas designed lo fragmenl lhe
ro-CommonveaIlh hegemony and favor slalehood. Iuerlo Rican
Indeendence Iarly members beIieved lhal lhe Uniled Slales Congress
vouId uniIaleraIIy re|ecl any Iuerlo Rican demands for slalehood and
exose lhe Iuerlo Rican eIeclorale lo lhe oIilicaI Iimils of lhe isIand's ro-
slalehood oIilicaI arly.
The 2012 IIebiscile on Iuerlo Rico IoIilicaI Slalus vas heId on
November 6, aIong vilh lhe isIand-vide generaI eIeclions.
51
The Iebiscile
conlained lvo queslions. Iirsl, volers vere asked lo choose belveen
mainlaining or changing Iuerlo Rico's lerriloriaI slalus.

forlunado_0308.as (Iasl visiled Mar. 18, 2014), Iress ReIease, Iedro IierIuisi, Iuerlo Rico
Slalus iII Coming lo a Vole (Ar. 22, 2010), atai|a||c ai hll://ierIuisi.house.gov/media-
cenler/ress-reIeases/uerlo-rico-slalus-biII-coming-lo-a-vole.
-C
CharIes R. Venalor-Sanliago, Tnc |icn Ccnicxi cj inc 2012 P|c|iciic cn Pucric |iccs Pc|iiica|
Siaius, LATINO DICISIONS (Dec. 26, 2012),
hll://vvv.Ialinodecisions.com/bIog/2012/12/26/lhe-rich-conlexl-of-lhe-2012-Iebiscile-on-
uerlo-ricos-oIilicaI-slalus/.
?D
|!.
?*
|!.
$<E=/ -F K5/;7182 *F '8 L85 <36// 7M<7 45/678 %198 ;M85=N 9827125/ 78
M<O/ 17; G6/;/27 086I 80 7/6617861<= ;7<75;P
?+

Territorial Status
Options
Total
Number
of Votes
Percentage $87<= #5IE/6
80 Q<==87;

Percentage
Olion -1 (Yes) -
Voled in favor of
mainlaining lhe
isIand's currenl
lerriloriaI slalus
(CommonveaIlh/u
nincororaled
lerrilory)

816,978 46% 816,978 44%
Olion -2 (No) -
Voled in favor of
changing lhe
isIand's lerriloriaI
slalus

958,915 54% 958,915 52%
Irolesled lhe baIIol
and vere
disquaIified by lhe
Iuerlo Rican Slale
Commission of
IIeclions (NuII)

13,160 1%
Did nol ansver lhe
queslion (bIank
baIIol)

65,863 3%
$87<=

1,775,893 100% 1,854,916 100%

A second queslion required volers lo choose among lhree differenl
slalus olions: slalehood, indeendence, or Sovereign Iree Associaled

?+
Ccn!icicn Pc|iiica Tcrriicria| Aciua|. |csu|ia!cs |s|a, COMISION ISTATAL DI ILICCIONIS,
ISTADO LIRI ASOCIADO DI IUIRTO RICO (Nov. 16, 2012), hll://64.185.222.182/RIYDI_Noche
DeIIvenlo12/index.hlmI-es/defauIl/CONDICION_IOLITICA_TIRRITORIAL_ACTUAL_ISL
A.xmI.
Slalehood (a version of lhe Inhanced CommonveaIlh slalus). The second
queslion eIiminaled lhe CommonveaIlh slalus as an olion.
$<E=/ ?F K5/;7182 +F %/3<6N=/;; 80 L856 ;/=/97182 12 7M/ 016;7 R5/;7182S
G=/<;/ I<6T UM19M 80 7M/ 08==8U123 282V7/6617861<= 8G7182; L85 U85=N
G6/0/6.
?,

Territorial Status
Options
$87<=
#5IE/6
80 J87/;
Percentage Total
Number
of Ballots
Percentage
Olion -1 Slalehood

824,195 61% 824,195 45%
Olion -2
Indeendence

74,812 6% 74,812 4%
Olion -3 - Sovereign
Iree Associaled
Slalehood

449,679 33% 449,679 24%
Irolesled lhe baIIol and
vere disquaIified by lhe
Iuerlo Rican Slale
Commission of IIeclions
(NuII)

18,357 1%
Did nol ansver lhe
queslion (bIank baIIol)

480,916 26%
Total 1,348,686 100% 1,847,959 *DDH

Iuerlo Rican advocales for slalehood have offered lhree inlerrelalions
of lhe resuIls. Iirsl, lhey argue, a ma|orily of lhe eIeclorale (54%) voled for
a change in lhe lerriloriaI slalus of Iuerlo Rico in Queslion 1 and for
slalehood (61%) in Queslion 2. Second, 7,217 more eIeclors voled in favor
of slalehood (824,195) in Queslion 2 lhan for lhe aulonomic olion
(816,978) in Queslion 1. IinaIIy, severaI Iuerlo Rican ro-slalehood arly
Ieaders argue lhal nuII or bIank baIIols shouId nol be counled in a

?,
Opcicncs Nc Tcrriicria|cs. |csu|ia!cs |s|a, COMISION ISTATAL DI ILICCIONIS, ISTADO
LIRI ASOCIADO DI IUIRTO RICO (Nov. 16, 2012),
hll://64.185.222.182/RIYDI_NocheDeIIvenlo12
/index.hlmI-es/defauIl/OICIONIS_NO_TIRRITORIALIS_ISLA.xmI.
democralic vole. In sum, advocales for Iuerlo Rico's slalehood argue lvo-
lhirds of lhe eIeclorale voled for slalehood in lhe 2012 Iebiscile.
AIlernaliveIy, crilics offer al Ieasl four counler inlerrelalions. Iirsl,
lhey emhasize lhe baIIol's confusing Ianguage and lhe facl lhal lhe
Iebiscile look Iace during lhe generaI eIeclions. Second, Queslion 2
eIiminaled lhe aulonomic olion, resumabIy romling 480,916, or 26%
of volers, lo fiIe a bIank baIIol. Third, incIuding lhe Sovereign Iree
Associaled Slalehood olion vas designed lo fragmenl lhe lerriloriaI
aulonomy eIeclorale belveen lhe aulonomic and lhe enhanced sovereignly
olions. IinaIIy, crilics invoke lhe Sancncz Vi|c||a recedenl lo incIude lhe
bIank and olher rolesl baIIols in lhe finaI laIIy of lhe resuIls. When
incIuding lhese rolesl baIIols, lhe ercenlage of volers vho chose lhe
slalehood olion in Queslion 2 droed from 61% lo 45%, a ercenlage
consislenl vilh lhe ro-slalehood oulcomes of lhe 1993 (46.3%) and 1998
(46.5%) Iebisciles. This Ialler argumenl is remised on lhe nolion lhal
bIank and olher rolesl baIIols are Iegilimale forms of democralic
exression under Iuerlo Rican eIecloraI Iav. Il foIIovs lhal if Iuerlo Ricans
use IocaI Iavs lo demand slalehood from Congress, lhen lhey shouId aIso
use IocaI slandards lo exIain lhe oulcome of lhe Iebiscile. In sum, crilics
in Iuerlo Rico argue lhal lhe ro-slalehood arly Ieadershi is acliveIy
lrying lo hoodvink Iresidenl Obama and Congress by roviding
misIeading inlerrelalions of lhe 2012 Iebiscile.
Il is ossibIe lo discern al Ieasl lhree concIusions. Iirsl, Congress
ossesses lhe over lo bolh ruIe lerrilories and admil nev slales inlo lhe
Union. Second, lhe slalehood and indeendence oIilicaI olions have
never garnered a ma|orily of voles in Iebisciles addressing lhe slalus of
Iuerlo Rico. IinaIIy, il is ossibIe lo argue lhal a ma|orily of Iuerlo Rican
eIeclors have consislenlIy voled lo affirm lhe aulonomic slalus of Iuerlo
Rico vilhin lhe U.S. gIobaI emire.
""". )566/27 45/678 %198 4=/E1;917<6L '/E<7/;
The 2014 Iresidenl's budgel, reIeased by lhe While House in Iebruary
2013, conlains a federaI funding requesl for lhe Iuerlo Rico slalus
Iebiscile. More secificaIIy, Iresidenl Obama requesled $2.5 miIIion lo
fund a voler educalion camaign on Iuerlo Rico's slalus olions, and lo
subsequenlIy deveIo a Iebiscilary baIIol for lhe Iuerlo Rican eIeclorale.
54

CenlraI lo lhis Iebiscile, hovever, is a seciaI rovision requiring lhe U.S.
Dearlmenl of }uslice lo furlher cerlify lhal lhe definilions of lhe oIilicaI

?-
Scc Iress ReIease, Iedro IierIuisi, While House Seeks $2.5 MiIIion Arorialion lo
ResoIve Iuerlo Rico's IoIilicaI Slalus (Ar. 10, 2013), atai|a||c ai hll://ierIuisi.house.gov/
media-cenler/ress-reIeases/vhile-house-seeks-25-miIIion-arorialion-lo-resoIve-uerlo-
rico-s.
slalus olions avaiIabIe on lhe baIIols are conslilulionaI or, al Ieasl,
conslilulionaIIy viabIe. Since lhen, lhe House Arorialions Commillee
aroved lhe measure and, in May 2013, a Senale Commillee on Inergy
and NaluraI Resources heId a ubIic hearing cIarifying lhe lhree revaiIing
slalus olions.
55
Il is imorlanl lo nole lhal lhe Democralic Ieadershi in
lhe Senale soughl lo Iimil lhe Iebiscile lo a vole belveen slalehood and
indeendence. In conlrasl, lhe ranking ReubIican, Senalor Lisa
Murkovski, recognized lhe viabiIily of lhe aulonomic slalus olion.
56
In
addilion, bolh lhe Democralic and ReubIican Ieadershi signaIed lhey
vouId re|ecl roosaIs lo incIude an Inhanced CommonveaIlh or olher
sovereignly ileralions of aulonomic slalus. If Congress voles lo fund lhe
Iresidenl's requesl, lhen a slalus Iebiscile vouId be heId in 2014.
SimuIlaneousIy, on May 15, 2013, Iuerlo Rican Residenl Commissioner
Iedro IierIuisi, a member of lhe Iuerlo Rican ro-slalehood arly and a
conservalive member of lhe Democralic Iarly, inlroduced lhe Iuerlo Rico
Slalus ResoIulion Acl.
57
The urose of lhe Acl is lo rovide for a
federaIIy aulhorized ralificalion vole, lhe 2012 Iebiscile.
58
Residenl
Commissioner IierIuisi's biII affirmed a ro-slalehood inlerrelalion of lhe
2012 Iebiscile's oulcome and caIIs for an u-or-dovn referendum vole
ralher lhan anolher slalus Iebiscile.
59

Iresidenl Obama's Iebiscile roosaI, hovever, raises lhree imorlanl
and inlerreIaled conslilulionaI queslions. Iresidenl Obama's Iebiscile
makes lhe Dearlmenl of }uslice lhe cenlraI arbiler of bolh lhe voler
educalion inilialive and lhe oIilicaI slalus olions avaiIabIe lo lhe Iuerlo
Rican eIeclorale. Il foIIovs lhal lhe resoIulion of Iuerlo Rico's slalus vouId
become a civiI righls maller ralher lhan a oIilicaI queslion resoIved by
Congress. To be sure, vhereas Congress has lyicaIIy heId a Ienary over
(conslilulionaIIy enumeraled by lhe Admissions CIause) lo delermine lhe
admission of nev slales, Iresidenl Obama's Iebiscile vouId rovide U.S.
cilizens residing in Iuerlo Rico an oorlunily lo argue lhal resoIving lhe
isIand's oIilicaI slalus is a maller lhal affecls individuaI voling and civiI
righls. Moreover, enabIing cilizens lo invoke a voling righls vioIalion
mighl oen lhe door for lhe courls lo inlervenea scenario lhal couId force
Congress lo resoIve lhe maller.

??
|irsi Scssicn ic |cccitc Tcsiincnq cn inc Nct. 6, 2012, |cjcrcn!un cn inc Pc|iiica| Siaius cj
Pucric |icc an! inc A!ninisiraiicns |cspcnsc. Hcaring Bcjcrc inc Ccnn. cn |ncrgq an! Naiura|
|cs., 113lh Cong. 1 (2013) (oening slalemenl of Hon. Ron Wyden, U.S. Senalor from Or.),
atai|a||c ai hll://vvv.go.gov/fdsys/kg/CHRG-113shrg82719/df/CHRG-113shrg82719.df.
?@
Scc i!. al 3.
?A
H.R. 2000, 113lh Cong. (2013).
?B
|!. 2(b).
?C
Scc i!. 3.
In addilion, lhe currenl debales over lhe slalus olions lhal shouId be
avaiIabIe lo lhe Iuerlo Rican eIeclorale are: (1) mainlain lhe slalus quo, or
(2) eIiminale lhe CommonveaIlh, aIong vilh olher varianls of lerriloriaI
aulonomy Iike lhe Inhanced CommonveaIlh or Iree Associalion.
IronicaIIy, even lhough Congress cerlified lhe CommonveaIlh's Iegilimacy
in 1952 vhen il aroved lhe Iuerlo Rican conslilulion, conlemorary
federaI Iavmakers are currenlIy escheving lhe aulonomic slalus olions.
More imorlanlIy, dismissing lhe aulonomic or CommonveaIlh slalus
olion undermines lhe Iuerlo Ricans' abiIily lo exercise a democralic form
of seIf-delerminalion. Nolvilhslanding lhe facl lhal Congress has affirmed
lhe Iegilimacy of Iuerlo Rican lerriloriaI aulonomy for more lhan a
cenlury, resenl-day Iavmakers re|ecl lhe CommonveaIlh olion and
olher varianls of lerriloriaI aulonomy. The Iuerlo Rican eIeclorale's abiIily
lo choose lheir fulure oIilicaI slalus is again Iimiled lo lhe slalus olions
lhal lhe U.S. gIobaI emire viII loIerale.
)&#)W(>"&#
In my oinion, Congress viII nol seriousIy conlemIale resoIving lhe
slalus of Iuerlo Rico in lhe near fulure. Admilling Iuerlo Rico as a nev
slale of lhe Union vouId enlaiI granling lhe isIand lvo senalors and five
reresenlalives, vhich according lo avaiIabIe eIecloraI dala vouId IikeIy
idenlify vilh lhe Democralic Iarly. The reresenlalives vouId eilher be
reaorlioned from olher slales or added lo lhe currenl number of
reresenlalives. I cannol envision slales or lhe ReubIican Iarly conceding
lo lhis olion. Indeendence vouId enlaiI dismanlIing a cenlury oId
syslem of oIilicaI-economic inslilulions, incIuding addressing lhe
queslion of denaluraIizing miIIions of U.S. cilizens residing in Iuerlo Rico.
WhiIe lhis is robabIy lhe mosl |usl oIilicaI olion for Iuerlo Rico, il is
aIso lhe Ieasl suorled oIilicaI olion among lhe Iuerlo Rican eIeclorale.
UnIess Congress imosed lhis oIilicaI slalus on Iuerlo Ricans, lhere is no
evidence lhal a ma|orily of lhe IocaI eIeclorale vouId vole in favor of
indeendence any lime soon. Ior lhe lime being, Congress is IikeIy lo
eilher reaffirm lhe aulonomic slalus or a variance lhereof. The queslion,
hovever, is vhal reforms couId be negolialed lo imrove lhe quaIily of Iife
for Iuerlo Ricans residing in an unincororaled lerrilory`

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