Additional Column Notes

NEW SOUTH WALES TECHNICAL AND FURTHER EDUCATION COMMISSION ________________________________________ NIRIMBA COLLEGE OF TAFE
4010A
Additional Column NOTES Week 15
Columns
Structures 1 2182M Created by Trevor Mullins on 20/10/2006 Version: 2
Additional Column notes Modified: 9/11/2009 Page 1 of 13
Introduction 1
A column is a structural member designed to resist compressive forces. It is a vertical member, usually supporting horizontal beams or slabs or other members. There are several structural members that perform the role of columnsthat is resist compressive loads. These include struts or props, studs, posts or poles and a number of other members. They can all be dealt with under the term column. Columns are very important since they can transfer large loads down to footings and the failure of just one column can result in major and extensive collapse of part or all of a building. The design and the construction of these structural members are therefore very important. In this section, we examine the behaviour and the general design principles of columns.
Behaviour of columns
Under a concentric loadthat is a load that is applied exactly through the centroid of the crosssection of a columnonly compressive stresses are generated. A column will experience a very small shortening in length due to this compression. The ratio of the change in length to the original length is called the compressive strain and can be represented by the following equation:
compressive strain =
amount of shortening original length
For example, if a certain load made a 2 metre long column shorter by 0.2 millimetres, the strain is:
compressive strain =
0.2 mm 2000 mm = 0.0001
Notice that strain does not have a unit (the units for change in length and length are the same and therefore cancel out). That is, strain is just a ratio of one length to another. Note also that the amount of shortening is generally very small, as you would expect from a structural member. The amount of strain that a column would experience depends on the size of load and the type of material from which the column is made.
Eccentricity of load
A perfectly formed column with a load applied concentrically through the centroid could be made very slender and infinitely long. In practice, however, loads are never perfectly concentrically applied and in addition, columns are never perfectly straight. This results in loads being applied eccentrically or not precisely through the centroid of the cross-section. Columns may also be designed to support loads that are intentionally eccentric. Eccentricity of loading leads to bending. Look at Figure 1 to see why column loading is often eccentric.
2182M Structures 1 notes.
Figure 1: Eccentricity of loading in columns.
Notes on Figure 1: a) The column to beam connection is very rigid, such as in monolithic concrete construction, or rigid connections in steel. In this example there is uneven loading of the two beams causing one of the beams to deflect more than the other. The rotation at the end of the beam, where it joins to the column, causes the column to bend. b) A timber beam notched into the side of a post is a common type of timber connection. The load coming through the bearer onto the post is not centralthat is, it is an eccentric load. c) There is a minimum bearing length required for a bearer sitting on a brick pier. This may not even extend to the centre of the pier hence the loading is eccentric. d) The way the steel beams are connected to the steel column section shows an obvious eccentricity of loading. This must always be taken account of in the design of the connection and of the column. Now look at Figure 2. It is clear how an eccentrically applied force causes bending and an uneven stress distribution through the column section.
Figure 2: Eccentric loading causes bending in a column.
Failure in columns
Columns usually fail in one of two ways: crushing or buckling. Short columns fail when the load becomes too great and the material starts to crumble or to bulge outwards.
Figure 3: Compression failures in short columns.
Long or slender columns fail when the eccentricity of the load, caused by non-centroidal loading or by non-straightness of the column, causes more bending and compressive stress than the column section can handle. At some point, sudden bending or buckling occurs. Take your plastic 300 mm rule (not one with a triangular section). Stand it upright and apply a load with your hand. If your ruler is straight, you can apply quite a bit of load. However, eventually the ruler buckles suddenly. This is the failure mechanism for a slender column.
Figure 4: The load from your hand onto your ruler.
Now you know that columns rarely experience purely compressive stresses. Imperfections in the column and non-centroidal loads cause bending stresses as well. Bending stresses are compressive on one face and tensile on the other. The total stress is the sum of the stress due to the compressive force and the stress due to the bending. Tensile stress can occur in a column if the amount of tension caused by the bending is greater than the amount of compression caused by the compressive load.
Figure 5: Combined compression and bending in a column.
Design principlesdesign for compressive load

A column must have sufficient cross-sectional area such that the compressive stress capacity of the material is not exceeded. Recall that
stress = force area
Consider a column that has to resist a 2000 kilonewton load (force). If it is made of 50 MPa concrete, approximately what cross-sectional area is required?
area =
force stress 2, 000, 000 newtons = 50, 000, 000 pascals = 0.04 m 2
Therefore a square cross section of dimensions 200 mm 200 mm satisfies the requirements (0.2 m 0.2 m = 0.04 m2). Note that in the actual design, factors of safety would be incorporated into both the load and the material properties in the sizing of the member. A concrete column experiencing a compressive load would tend to bulge in the middle. This bulging causes tensile forces in the concrete. Concrete does not perform well in tension. The vertical reinforcing bars are also resisting compressive load and are essentially very slender columns, so will tend to buckle outwards. This is the major reason why steel ties are used in concrete columns. They hold together the vertical reinforcement and the concrete itself in the column. The ties confine the bars to prevent buckling, and to contain any bulging and spalling of the concrete. Ties are also put in to provide strength in shear, as are the ties or stirrups in beams.
Figure 6: Effect of ties on a column in compression.
Design principlesdesign for eccentricity of load (bending and buckling)

Stress in a column is also caused by bending due to the eccentricity of loading. To determine the maximum compressive stress in the column, the compressive stress due to the bending must be added to the compressive stress due to the compressive load. In addition, bending can cause tensile stress. Concrete behaves poorly in tension and therefore is reinforced with steel. The axis of bending may be known and a column shape may be designed to take this into account. For example, a concrete column may be made rectangular in shape to allow for larger bending stresses about one of the principal axes. A steel column, usually an H-section, will be oriented such that the direction of greater bending moments will align with the direction of the stronger axis (see Figure 7).
Figure 7: Orientation of steel columns to allow for greatest bending.
Have you noticed how timber studs are oriented in timber wall frames? Look at Figure 8. The strongest axis of bending is for bending perpendicular to the wall.
Figure 8: Arrangement of timber columns in domestic construction.
Slenderness
We have discussed how slender columns are more prone to buckling failure. What determines whether a column is slender or not? Well actually, that is quite obvious. The longer it is, and the smaller the cross-sectional dimensions, the more slender it is. In fact, slenderness is defined as:
slenderness, s =
leff r
where leff = effective length, and r = radius of gyration
Radius of gyration is a quantity that enables us to compare directly, different cross-sectional shapes and areas. We mentioned earlier that the slenderness is related to the cross-sectional dimensions. Well thats fine, but which dimension?
Figure 9: Which dimension can be used to compare the slenderness of columns with these cross-sections?
Cross-sectional area (CSA) alone is not sufficient because as we have seen in Section 5, the same CSA can behave quite differently when subjected to bending. You should recall from Section 5 a discussion of second moment of area of a cross-section. In fact, these two section properties are combined to give us an entity called the radius of gyration.
radius of gyration, r = I A
where
I = second moment of area, and A = cross-sectional area
It is not necessary for you to memorise this formula or to understand it. For those of you keen to conceptualise this property, r is like the size of an equivalent CHS* (circular hollow section), for any given cross-section. That is, to produce a CHS with the same bending behaviour as a given section, r is the radius at which you need to place all of the area of the material. (* This is a simplification of the actual meaning of radius of gyration, but the concept can be understood in these terms.)
Figure 10: An approximate equivalence of sections to show the meaning of radius of gyration.
A CHS is equally stiff about all axes and is the most efficient shape for a column with no intentional eccentricity of load. You can see why this would be so as it is symmetrical about any axis. It also has its material placed away from the centroid. This makes the second moment of area high. So it is reasonable to standardise any other cross-sectional shape in terms of its buckling or bending behaviour, by relating it to an equivalent CHS. Now you should see why the radius of gyration is so important in determining a columns slenderness or resistance to bending. The larger the radius of gyration, the less the columns tendency to buckle. That is, a CHS with a large diameter would be less likely to buckle than one with the same mass but a small diameter.
Effective length
Slenderness also depends on the length of a column: the longer it is, the greater the tendency to buckle and thus the more slender. However, it is not the overall length that is crucial, but the effective length. In other words, the portion of the length that is prone to buckling.
Rigidity of supports
Consider the two columns shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Two similar columns with different support rigidity subject to identical loads.
It should be clear that the column on the left with the rigid end supports will be less likely to buckle under the load and will have a different buckling length. See Figure 12.
Figure 12: Buckled shape of two columns with different support rigidity.
The stiff end supports hold the column firmly in position, not allowing any rotation and making the column much more difficult to buckle. The pinned ends allow the column to rotate freely about the point at which it is held. Can you guess what the buckled shape of a column with one stiff end support and one pinned support would look like?
Figure 13: Buckled shape of column with one fixed end and one pinned end.
For the column in Figure 13, given that it had the same cross-sectional shape and was made of the same material, the size of the load that would cause buckling would be more than that which would cause buckling in a pin ended column. But the buckling load would be somewhat less than for the column with the two fixed ends.
Lateral restraints
If a column is restrained or prevented from buckling sideways by some means, we say that it is laterally restrained. A column can be laterally restrained in many different ways. See Figure 14.
Figure 14: Various types of lateral restraint to columns.
Lateral restraints essentially prevent buckling of the full length of the column. In fact, they reduce the effective length, thus increasing the load required to cause buckling. The buckled shapes of an unrestrained and a similar, but restrained column are shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Buckled shapes of unrestrained and restrained column.
The load required to cause buckling when the effective length is halved is actually four times as much, so lateral restraints make a column much stronger in terms of buckling.
Terminology
concentric load A load applied to the geometric center or the centroid.
eccentric load
A load applied at a distance from the geometric center or the centroid. Sideways; to the side.
lateral
lateral restraint
Physical restriction that prevents bending or buckling in the sideways direction.
Summary
Columns must resist compressive forces as well as bending. Bending adds to the compressive stress on one side of a column and reduces it on the other, sometimes leading to tension. Columns generally fail by crushing or bulging if they are short buckling if they are slender.
The slenderness of a column depends upon the effective length and the radius of gyration. The effective length can be reduced by adding lateral restraints or by changing the end fixities. Radius of gyration is dependent upon the cross-sectional shape of the section.

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NEW SOUTH WALES TECHNICAL AND FURTHER EDUCATION COMMISSION ________________________________________ NIRIMBA COLLEGE OF TAFE

Structures 1 2182M Created by Trevor Mullins on 20/10/2006 Version: 2