TVE 13 027 Juni

Examensarbete 15 hp Juni 2013

Design of amplifiers in LTspice

Aspects on the usage of spice-ware in the work of designing an electron tube amplifier Per Normann

Abstract
Design av frstrkare i LTspice Design of amplifiers in LTspice
Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet UTH-enheten Besksadress: ngstrmlaboratoriet Lgerhyddsvgen 1 Hus 4, Plan 0 Postadress: Box 536 751 21 Uppsala Telefon: 018 471 30 03 Telefax: 018 471 30 00 Hemsida: http://www.teknat.uu.se/student

Per Normann

Among users of guitar amplifiers there is a tendency of being enthusiastic about the usage of electron tubes in amplifiers. Further to shy away from the usage of transistors as gain devices. This to the extent that new technology is generally avoided. In this paper however a software tool called LTspice is used as an aid in the design process of an guitar amplifier. Electron tube spice models are examined and used in the process. The amplifier being designed in this paper has two types of electron tubes, 4 EL84 in the power section and 2 ECC83 in the pre-amplifier. The output of the amplifier is 30 to 35 W.

Handledare: Kjell Staffas mnesgranskare: Martin Sjdin Examinator: Martin Sjdin ISSN: 1401-5757, UPTEC F13 027

Table of Contents
1 Introduction.................................................................................................4 1.1 History of amplification.......................................................................4 1.2 Why electron tubes...............................................................................5 1.3 ld technolo!y - ne" tools ..................................................................5 2 #heory..........................................................................................................5 2.1 $lectron tubes.......................................................................................5 2.2 #he !rounded cathode !ain sta!e........................................................% 2.3 &ouplin! capacitor..............................................................................11 2.4 'hase in(erter.....................................................................................11 2.5 'o"er sta!e.........................................................................................12 2.) #one control.......................................................................................13 3 *imulation and desi!n...............................................................................15 3.1 $lectron tubes in +#spice...................................................................15 3.2 #he !rounded cathode !ain sta!e......................................................1% 3.3 're amplifier.......................................................................................1, 3.4 'o"er section.....................................................................................1, 3.5 Amplifier.............................................................................................13.) &alibratin! the tone stac...................................................................14 /esults........................................................................................................15 0esi!n soft"are.........................................................................................21 5.1 #one *tac. &alculator 1.3..................................................................21 5.2 +oad+ine'lotter.................................................................................21 5.3 +#spice I2..........................................................................................21 ) Ac.no"led!ement.....................................................................................21 % +iterature list.............................................................................................21 , Appendi3...................................................................................................22 ,.1 A 4 Anode characteristics dia!rams..................................................22 ,.2 5 4 Fre6uency responses..................................................................2,.3 & 4 &ircuitry......................................................................................31 ,.4 0.........................................................................................................33

Sammanfattning 5land an(7ndare a( !itarrf8rst7r.are finns en tendens att (ara entusiastis. 8(er ele.tronr8r. fta till den !rad att ny te.ni. und(i.s !enerellt i sambamd med !itarrf8rst7r.are. I den h7r uppsatsen unders8.s m89li!heterna att an(7nda spice-m9u.(ara som h97lp i desi!narbetet. I an(7ndandet a( spice-m9u.(aran an(7nds s: .allade spice-modeller f8r att emulera (er.li!a ele.tronr8r. Hur bra dessa spicemodeller :ter!er (issa e!ens.aper a( ele.tronr8r unders8.s oc.s:. $n l7sare b8r ha !rundl7!!ande .uns.ap inom ele.troni.;; dataan(7ndande; (iss erfarenhet a( spice-m9u.(ara underl7ttar oc.s: l7sandet. Allt an(7ndande a( spice-m9u.(ara s.er i pro!rammet +#spice som 7r ett s: .allat free"are; d(s. det finns att till!: fritt p: internet. <t8(er +#spice an(7nds annan m9u.(ara; te3 spice modeller. All den m9u.(ara som an(7nds presenteras med en .ortattad bes.ri(nin! hur den .an inf8rs.affas (ia internet. F8rst7r.aren som desi!nas h7r har 4 st $+,4 I slutste!et och 3 st $&&,3 I f8rste!et. F8rst7.rarens s: .allade ma3effe.t; ma3imal f8rst7r.nin! innan distortion f8re.ommer; 7r mellan 31 och 35 W.

1 Introduction
1.1 History of amplification
In 1,11 Alesandro 2olta presents a !al(anic element. With this in(ention it is possible to create electrical (olta!e. #hree 6uarters of a centery later =a3"ell; >.& put for"ard ?1@ "hich is commonly .no"n as =a3"ellAs e6uations. =a3"ellAs e6uations theoretically describes electroma!netic "a(es and thus pa(es the "ay for ne" ad(ances in the field of electricity. In ?2@ HertB; H (erifies =a3"ellAs theories in a series of e3periments. When the ei!hteenth century dra"s to an end the Italian in(entor =arconi; C constructs the first si!nal transmitter ?3@ by utiliBin! the theoretical achie(ements done by =a3"ell and HertB. When the electron tube ?4@ is in(ented by Forest; 0 in 1-1% the transmitted si!nal can be amplified on the recei(in! end. 1-21 the refinement of the electron tube ma.es it possible to amplify the si!nal bein! sent. At the middle half of the 21th century the electron tube is the main component in !ain sta!es in electronic de(ices. A theoretical transistor ?5@ is presented in 1-4, by a !roup of scientists at the 5ell +aboratories. $i!ht years later; in 1-5); the same !roup presents a "or.in! transistor and reci(es the Dobel price for this. #he transistorAs ad(anta!es o(er the electron tube leads to a rapid decline in the usa!e of electron tubes. 5y the end of the 21Eth century the usa!e of electron tubes is almost non-e3istent. #here is ho"e(er one field in "hich electron tubes still are used fre6uently. In HiFi-amplifiers and !uitar amplifiers the electron tube is still popularly used. #he electron tube has some features that ma.es it popular to use in amplification of sound. 4

1.2 Why electron tubes

From the emer!in! of the transistor till present days the de(elopment of transistors in inte!rated circuit has been e3tensi(e. It is no" possible to emulate electron tube li.e amplifiers by the help of soft"are tools in computers. #his is ho"e(er a sub9ect of stron! opinions. #hrou!hout the !uitar amplifier community the fact "hether an emulated electron tube is on par "ith or e(en close to the real thin! seems to be a bi! no no. #he interested reader is encoura!ed to 9oin an on-line forum or 9ust read comments re!ardin! this sub9ect. While this te3t is "ritten; 2113-15-2); the Coo!le search transistor vs. tube renders o(er 22 million hits. #he idea that the electron tube is irreplaceable has a hu!e affect on amplifier mar.et. 0esi!ners and (endors of amplifiers ha(e to comply "ith this supply and demand situation. With a mar.et cra(in! for electron tube amplifiers; ne" in(entions is not li.ely to be profitable in years to come. In the race of cuttin! costs to raise profit many amplifier producers manufacture transistor amplifiers. #hese transistor amplifiers are often presented as a lo" cost alternati(e to electron tube amplifiers. In addition to this misleadin! mar.etin! of these de(ices is often used. Cuitar amplifiers "ith transistor techni6ue are often labelled in such a "ay that the user is lead to belie(e that the amplifier is a electron tube amplifier. 2al(estate; #ubetrans; 2al(etroni3 are 9ust a fe" of these some"hat misleadin! names; note that in 5ritish $n!lish electron tubes are commonly .no"n as (al(es.

1.3 Old technology ne! tools

ther aspects of !uitar amplifiers should ho"e(er be able to benefit from ne" technolo!y. Do mater if a computer emulated electron tube amplifier is a far cry from the real thin! or not soft"are tools can be of aid in the desi!n of a tube amplifier. In this paper the underlyin! techni6ue of electron tube amplification is in(esti!ated to !i(e an insi!ht in ho" a common electron tube amplifier "or.s. #his .no"led!e is then used to desi!n an electron tube amplifier in the soft"are tool +#spice.

In this section a sur(ey of the components in an electron tube amplifier is presented. #he sur(ey is meant to !i(e the reader a fair idea of ho" each part of ho" a standars electron tube amplifier "or.s. #he te3t is also meant to display and e3plain customary construction solution. A reader of this section should ha(e basic .no"led!e of alternatin! current electronics.

2 Theory

2.1 "lectron tubes

2.1.1 The triode .asura; *. et. al. sur(eys the historical usa!e and de(elopment of electron 5

tubes ?)@. An in depth e3amination of the triode is presented. A common "ay of constructin! and (end contemporary triodes is in pairs mounted in (acuum tubes. ne of the predominant electron tubes is the $&&,3 "hich is t"o $5&-1 triodes pac.a!e in one (acuum tube. 0ue to the "ide spread usa!e in Hi-Fi and !uitar amplifiers the $&&,3 is one of fe" types of electron tubes still bein! produced in lar!e numbers. #o !et a triode to amplify a si!nal the triode is connected to the si!nal "ire; to !round and to "ires that supply heater current. #he basic structure of the triode sta!e is presented in Illustration 1. In a triode the amplification is obtained by inducin! and controllin! an electric field bet"een the anode and the cathode. #he cathode is heated to lo"er the threshold for the cathode to emit electrons. $lectrons are prone to stream from the ne!ati(e cathode to the positi(e anode. #he electric stream from the cathode to the anode in the triode induces a Illustration 1: The in-signal is received current. 5y controllin! the electric at the grid connection 1. The anode field the current throu!h the triode connection 2 sends the amplified out is indirectly controlled. #he control signal. The cathode connection 3 is mechanism is achie(ed by applyin! grounded over a resistor. a ne!ati(e (olta!e at the !ird bet"een the anode and the cathode. #he "ay the anode; cathode and !rid (olta!es are balanced is often referred to as bias. +o" ne!ati(e bias (olta!e at the !rid ma.es it easy for electrons to flo" from the anode to the cathode. &on(ersely; a hi!h ne!ati(e bias (olta!e at the !rid pre(ents the electrons flo" from the anode to the cathode. #his beha(iour allo"s for (ariations in the !rid (olta!e to appear at the anode. 5y superimposin! an electric si!nal on the bias (olta!e at the !rid the si!nal is transferred from the !rid to the anode. In !ain sta!es a triode amplifies the si!nal appearin! at the anode. #he $5&-1 triodeAs amplification factor is 111. 2.1.2 The beam po!er pentode #he beam po"er pentode is similar to the triode in many "ays. In a po"er pentode there are three !rids instead of the triodeAs sin!le !rid. In order from the cathode to the anode the first !rid is the control !rid; it functions li.e the !rid in the triode. #he second !rid is the screen !rid that focus the electron beam so that more of the 9umpin! electrons ma.e it to the anode. #he third is suppressor !rid that hinders electrons to 9ump bac. to the screen !rid. #his is necessary because the screen !rid is often .ept at )

positi(e (olta!es. In this paper the $+,4 is used in the po"er section of the amplifier. #he $l,4 is a "idely spread pentode that is still bein! manufactured because of the popularity in Hi-Fi and !uitar amplifiers.

2.2 The grounded cathode gain stage

#he !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is a fundamental buildin! bloc. in electron tube amplifiers; it is characterised by the triode and the topolo!y of the sta!e. In Illustration 2 the schematics of a !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is outlined. #he main idea of the !rounded cathode sta!e is to amplify a small input si!nal into a lar!er output si!nal. An ideal !ain sta!e amplifies the in-si!nal "ith a linear fre6uency response and no distortion. Ho"e(er; in !uitar amplifiers a Illustration 2. A grounded cathode gain stage. !ain sta!e is often deliberately desi!ned to distort the amplified si!nal and alter the fre6uency response. 2.2.1 Triode characteristics A data sheet displayin! the static anode characteristics is often used "hen a triode !ain sta!e is desi!ned. #here seem to be many different names used for this dia!ram; in this paper the dia!ram "ill be called static anode characteristics dia!ram. An anode characteristics dia!ram holdin! the data of the $&&,3 electron tube is displayed in Appendi3 A1. #he dia!ram displays the current Ia and (olta!e drop Ua from the anode to the cathode. #he cur(ed lines sho"s the (olta!e drop Ugc from the !rid to the cathode. #hese lines are often referred to as !rid cur(es. #hese entities are central "hile settin! up a common cathode !ain sta!e. 2.2.2 The anode load line In a !rounded cathode !ain sta!es there is a resistor Ra connected to the anode of the triode. With a (olta!e applied on Ra; the triode and Ra are in series. If there is no current flo"in! throu!h the triode there can be no (olta!e drop o(er the Ra; conse6uentially by hmAs la"; all the (olta!e drop is o(er the triode. Assumin! that a point A can be defined in the static anode characteristics dia!ram at A F GUaFUma ; Ia1F1H; Appendi3 A2. Uma is commonly .no"n as plate (olta!e. If all a(ailable current flo"s throu!h %

the triode all the (olta!e drop "ill be o(er Ra. 5y applyin! hmAs la" it is possible to calculate Ia! I a= Ua . Ra
G1H

With no current flo"in! throu!h the triode a point " F GUaF1; IaFUaIRaH can be defined in the anode characteristics dia!ram; Appendi3 A2. Althou!h these t"o e3treme points are not seen in any functionin! triode sta!e they are useful "hen a triode sta!e is desi!n. *ince hmAs la" is linear a strai!ht line can be interpolated bet"een these points. 5y mer!in! these ideas a function G2H can be put to!ether for calculations of the anode load line in a !rounded cathode !ain sta!e.
I a (U )= U a U Ra
G2H

#he dashed line in Appendi3 A2 forms an e3emplified load line of a $&&,3 triode !rounded cathode !ain sta!e. #he load line is central in the analysis of a electron tube circuit and hence the triode sta!e. As seen in G2H the anode load line of a triode sta!e can be ad9usted simply by alterin! Ra or Ua. #he load line and the !rid cur(es intersects; see Appendi3 A2. #hese intersections sho"s "hat Ua and Ia "ill be for different Ugc. 2.2.3 The cathode load line +i.e Ra on the anode side of the triode there is a cathode resistor Rc connected on the cathode side. *imilar to the anode load line it is possible to dra" a load line for the cathode. If all current is flo"in! throu!h Rc the (olta!e drop from the !rid to the cathode in the triode can be calculated by hmAs la" G1H. Ad9ustin! the cathode load line is usually done after the set up of the anode load line. #his is assumed here; hence Ia is assumed to be .no"n. A point # F G Ugc F -Ia Rc ; IaFUaIRaH can no" be mar.ed in the static anode characteristics dia!ram in Appendi3 A2. #he cathode load line has a linear part; but it is not linear close to 1 2. #he !rid cur(es in the anode characteristics dia!ram ha(e a "obbly beha(iour at 1 to 51 2; anode (olta!e. #his su!!ests that it is not possible to interpolate a strai!ht cathode load line in this inter(al. hmAs la" is used to calculate a second point $ in the static anode characteristics dia!ram in Appendi3 A2 "ith (alues chosen outside the lo" anode (olta!e ran!e; $ F GUgc F -Ia Rc; IaF1.5H. 5y puttin! to!ether these ideas a "ay of describin! the cathode load line can be defined;

U gc =

U a Rc . Ra

G3H

Craphically the same can be done by interpolatin! a line bet"een point & and 0 in the anode characretistics dia!ram. An interpolation bet"een # and $ forms the cathode load line. #he blue dashed dotted line in Appendi3 A2 e3emplifies a cathode load line. #he intersection bet"een the anode and the cathode loadlines is the bias point. 2.2.# $ias point #he bias point is the operation point of the triode. When the operatin! point is set in an !rounded cathode !ain sta!e it is possible to determine amplification and other features of the sta!e. 5y shiftin! the bias point it is possible to induce more or less !ain. Dote that the bias point of the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is determined by the (alues of Ua Ra and Rc. 2.2.% Stationary amplification 5i9lAs e6uation states that;
=r a g m ;
G4H

"here % is the amplification factor; ra is the inner anode resistance and gm is the transconductance of the triode. 5i9lAs e6uation is con(enient because it states a dependency that ma.e it possible to calculate ra. If ra is .no"n the amplification of the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e can be calculated. % is listed in most electron tube specifications. It can also be deri(ed from a statis anode characteristics dia!ram; = Ua U gc

.
Ia

G5H

#he transconductance gm is an entity that models the triodes ability to con(ert a (olta!e chan!e into a current chan!e. m is to indicate the ma3imum achi(able !ain of the !ain sta!e. If Ua is .ept constant gm is; g m= Ia U gc

G)H

Ua

#he inner resistance ra is deri(en by .eepin! Ugc constant;

r a=

Ua Ia

G%H

U gc

It should be mentioned that these three entities (ary sli!htly dependin! on the triodes bias point. A readin! from the static anode characteristics dia!ram is often a better choise than usin! (alues listed in tube specifications. As mentioned these three entities; %; ra and gm are readable in the static anode characteristics dia!ram. An e3ample; the amplification factor is read by chec.in! "hat &Ua is "hen &Ugc F 1. #he amplification of a !rounded cathode !ain sta!e can be deri(ed by assumin! that the triode is a perfect amplifier "ith the !ain factor %. If the amplifier leads a si!nal current do"n throu!h any impedance present in the !ain sta!e; all these impedances forms a (olta!e di(ider. #he out si!nal in a !rounded cathode sta!e is ta.en across Ra. #o properly calculate the amplification A all impedances do"n to !round has to be considered ?%@; A= R a
i =0

1 Ri .

G,H

*ince the difference bet"een the !rid and the cathode are amplified any impedance placed in series on the cathode side "ill appear to be amplified; %JRc. #hree more impedances forms the total impedanceK Ra; ra; and Rc. #he amplification of the !rounded cathode sta!e is
A= Ra R a + r a + R c + Rc
G-H

#he minus si!n is a result of the fact that an increased !rid (olta!e "ill lo"er the anode (olta!e. In practice this means that the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e not only amplifies the in-si!nal; the in-si!nal is also in(erted. It is possible to calculate the stationary amplification A by usin! G4H and G-H. 2.2.& 'rid lea( resistor When a triode is operatin! the !rid is indirectly heated by the heated cathode. #he heat leads to emission of electrons from the !rid. #his loss of electrons ma.es the !rid sli!htly more positi(e char!ed. /educed ne!ati(e !rid (olta!e lo"ers the threshold for electrons to 9ump from anode to cathode. #his results in more current flo"in! from the anode to the cathode; hence "orsen the heat problem e(en more. #o maintain the !rid (olta!e at a controlled le(el electrons must be replenished in the !rid. A !rid lea. resistor Rgl connected bet"een !round and !rid "ill pro(ide a lea.a!e path for electrons from the cathode into the !rid. With a !rid lea. resistor in place the bias point "ill be maintained despite heat induced 11

electron emission from the !rid. Rgl has to be lar!e enou!h to hinder the si!nal to be dumped do"n to !round. =ost electron tube ha(e a ma3imum listed siBe of Rgl. Accordin! to >ones; D. to lar!e Rgl "ill induce noise into the triode circuit and is not desirable ?%@. In !uitar tube amplifiers the predominant (alue is Rgl F 1=L. 2.2.) $ypassed cathode A superimposed si!nal on the !rid ma.es the !rid (olta!e Ugc (ariable. If a positi(e !oin! si!nal enters the !rid the current throu!h the triode "ill increase. #his current increases the current throu!h the cathode resistor Rc; "hich in turn increases the (olta!e drop o(er Rc. An increase of current throu!h the triode ma.es the cathode (olta!e hi!her. #his combination of increased (olta!e at the cathode and lo"ered (olta!e at the plate decreases the electrostatic attraction across the triode. #he result is a reduction of !ain. A superimposed si!nal of ne!ati(e direction on the other hand decreases the conduction throu!h the triode. #he current throu!h the cathode resistor Rc decreases; hence the (olta!e drop o(er Rc "ill also decrease; accordin! to hmAs la". #his causes the cathode to become sli!htly more ne!ati(e "hich in turn increases the conducti(ity throu!h the triode; "hich also reduces the !ain. Dot only does these phenomenons reduce the feedbac. of the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e; it also reduces distortion and increases the output impedance. Done of these three features are sou!ht for in an !uitar amplifier and luc.ily there is an easy "ay of cancellin! them out. A capacitor #c at the cathode in parallel "ith the cathode resistor Rc "ill inhibit these phenomenons. #c has the affect that it holds the !rid (olta!e at constant le(el.

2.3 Coupling capacitor

In electron tube amplifiers many parts of the amplifier are po"ered by hi!h (olta!es. ther parts operates at lo" (olta!es. #his means that a "ay of shieldin! 0& (olta!es is needed. &apacitors filters 0& (olta!es and passes A& (olta!es by pre(entin! current flo" throu!h them. A& (olta!es are transmitted by the oscillatin! electroma!netic field induced o(er the capacitor. 5y addin! a capacitor bet"een t"o (olta!e potentials no 0& (olta!e "ill drift by an induced current. Added to the shieldin! of 0& (olta!es the capacitorAs impedance is fre6uency dependent. 0ifferent fre6uencies of the si!nal "ill be attenuated differently. In tube amplifiers each sta!e is normally separated this "ay; by addin! capacitors bet"een sta!es. &apacitors used in this "ay are normally referred to as couplin! capacitors.

2.# *hase in+erter

A phase in(erter splits the si!nal into t"o si!nals. ne of these si!nals is then phase shifted. #he result is t"o indentical si!nals that are out of 11

phase. #he phase in(erter chosen for this pro9ect is the lon! tailed phase in(erter. It is a common phase in(erter in electron tube !uitar amplifiers. #he topolo!y of the ton! tailed phase in(erter is basically t"o !rounded cathode !ain sta!es mirrored a!ainst each other.

2.% *o!er stage

In amplifiers "ith multiple !ain sta!es the sta!e that deli(ers the hi!hest amplitude attenuation is often referred to as the po"er sta!e. #his sta!e is also used to deli(er the amplified si!nal to the spea.ers. #here are different .inds of po"er sta!es. In !uitar amplifiers a hi!h amplification rate is often desired and for this purpose a push-pull po"er sta!es is suitable. In this paper the electron tube in the po"er sta!e is set up (ery similar to the triodeAs !rounded cathode !ain sta!e. #he po"er sta!e differes in the "ay that the !rids are used. Instead of one !rid three !rids are a(aliable in a pentode. #he !rid closest the cathode is used as control !rid. #he (olta!e ran!e of the !rid is !enerally on the ne!ati(e side; "ith pea.s up in the positi(e (olta!e ran!e. De3t !rid is the screen !rid; it is focusin! the electron beam from the cathode in a "ay that more electrons 9umps to the anode. #he (olta!e at the screen !rid is sli!htly lo"er than the anode (olta!e. #his is to hinder electron from 9umpin! bac. to the focusin! !rid from the anode. #he !rid closest to the anode is connected to the control !rid. #he ne!ati(e to lo" positi(e (olta!e ran!e is pre(entin! electrons from bein! emitted from the anode. 2.%.1 *ush pull class ,$ In a class A amplifier a !ain de(ice amplifies a si!nal o(er the entire period. 5y addin! a mirrored !ain de(ice the amplification of the si!nal can be de(ided bet"een the t"o !ain de(ices. ne de(ice amplifies to upper part and the other amplifies the lo"er part of a si!nal. #his is .no"n as a push pull set up. In a push pull confi!uration it is possible to push amplification de(ices more. 0ue to the partition of the amplification "or.; each !ain de(ice only ha(e to be acti(e durin! the desi!nated part of the si!nal. 5y pushin! each !ain de(ice so that they amplifie a little more than half of the si!nal amplitude the amplification is in class A5 mode. Dote that class A5 is a combination of class A and 5. &lass 5 is "hen an amplification de(ice amplifies stric.ly the upper or lo"er half of a si!nal. #he splittin! of the si!nals is done in the phase in(erter; see the section 'hase inverter for further details. #he metaphoric term pull describes the situation "hen the electrical potential of the t"o si!nals are furdest apart. *imilarly push describes the situation "hen they are close to each other. In a class A5 set up "ith t"o si!nals out of phase the potential effect increases by raisin! the ma3imum (olta!e s"in! !oin! to the output transformer.

12

2.%.2 Output transformer In electron tube amplifiers the si!nal is of hi!h (olta!e and lo" current in a hi!h impedance en(iroment. #his is due to the functionallity of the electron tube; see the section The triode for details. +oud spea.ers are lo" inpedance de(ices not suitable for hi!h (olta!e lo" current si!nals. A "or.around to this mismatch is the output transformer. An output transformer steps do"n the (olta!e to more reasonable le(els. Dormal (alues in electron tube circuits are in the realms of 311 to 511 (olta!es. 2olta!es as hi!h as this is not suitable for spea.ers "ith lo" internal impedance; normal (alues are 4 to 1) L. &onnectin! an out si!nal from a electron tube strai!ht into a spea.er leads to (ery hi!h currents trou!h the spea.er. Accordin! to hmAs la"; I= U 400V =example = = 50 A . R 8
G11H

In a push pull po"er section the output transformer has !ot t"o si!nal connections. $ach si!nal connection should ha(e e6ual impedances to the a (olta!e connection. A hi!h (olta!e connection is used to raise the (olta!e potential of the circuit. #he fact that the t"o si!nals are out of phase !i(es an e3tra potential difference in the output transformer. Hence the ma!nitude of the transformerAs ma!netic field is proportionally to the electric potential in the pulsatin! (olta!e in the inducin! coil.

2.& Tone control

2.&.1 -re.uency span of guitars Cuitar tunin! has altered throu!hout history. #he last hundreds of years the most popular tunin! is; $; A; 0; C; 5; e. #his tunin! is simply .no"n as standard tunin!. #he lo" end of the fre6uency span in standard tunin! is the $ strin! "ith a fre6uency of ,2 HB. #he hi!hest number of frets on standard !uitars is 25. #he tone of the hi!h e strin! at the 25Eth fret is appro3imately 1.4 .HB. Apart from standard tunin! there are many different "ays of tunin! !uitars. Ho"e(er; most alternati(e tunin!s render appro3imately the same fre6uency span as standard tunin!. #here are !uitars "ith an e3tra lo" b-strin!. #his strin! is about )1 HB; "hen played open. It should be mentioned that there are o(ertones created by !uitars. #his is due to the fact that some (ibrations in the strin!s ha(e nodes that are pi(oted alon! the len!th of the strin!. With o(ertones ta.en into account the span in focus should !o up at least a couple of .HB o(er the hi!hest tone on the fret board of the a !uitar. #he hi!hest fre6uency audiable by a human ear is ho"e(er appro3imately 22.HB. #his "ould imply that a !uitar amplifier "ith a band pass inter(al of G51; 22.H HB "ould amplify all possible fre6uencies that mi!ht be desirable. #he aim of this paper is to present a circuit suitable for a electric !uitars. 13

#he characteristics of the amplifier "ill be fitted to this; solely. 5ut as it happens; most of the commonly used instruments in the "orld has (irtually the same fre6uency span as !uitars. #his "ould imply that in spite of the intention of constructin! a !uitar amplifier "ith suitable distortion and fre6uency response. #he amplifier "ill be suitable for amplifyin! other instruments to; althou!h; in a !uitarish "ay. Amon! different .inds of !uitars there are a "ide tonal ran!e; often referred to as (oicin! of the amplifier; or "hich tonal ran!e different !uitars emphasiBes. If the user of an amplifier is able to chan!e the tonal response of the amplifier it is possible to emphasiBe or suppress tonal ran!es. ne "ay of controllin! the (oicin! of the amplifier is to incorporate filters for different fre6uency ran!es. #hese filters are often ad9usted so they o(erlap each other in a "ay that they to!ether co(er the normal fre6uencies of !uitars. 2.&.2 Tone stac(s #he Fender; =arshall and 2 M tone stac.s; commonly .no"n as the F=2 tone stac.s are often referred to as the most "idely spread tone stac.. Do statistics ha(e been found pro(in! this assertion; but many tone stac. are are unar!uably spin-offs or plain copies of these. #he F=2 tone stac.s in turn are spin-offs or deri(ati(es of the Williamson; 0. #. D. tone stac. ?,@. #he Fender A5%)3 tone stac. in the Illustration 3 consists of t"o main thin!s. #hree capacitors "or.in! as couplin! capacitors and passi(e filters formed by the potentiometers and the capacitors. #echnically spea.in! these three filters are passi(e filters; made up by resistors and capacitors. #he basic buildin! Illustration 3. The A"()3 *ender tone bloc.s are the hi!hpass and the stac+. A refined version of the ,illiamson! $.T.-. tone stac+. lo"pass filters. Hi!hpass filters attenuates lo" fre6uency si!nals and (ice (ersa a lo"pass attenuates hi!h fre6uency si!nals. #he limit "here a filter suppresses 3 d5 of the si!nal is called cut-off; or cut-off fre6euncy. 5y combinin! these t"o filter types a band-pass filter can be constructed. #he fre6uency span bet"een the lo"- and hi!h-cut fre6uencies is called band "idth. 5oth lo"pass and hi!hpass cut-off fre6uencies are calculated in the same 14

"ay e(en thou!h the topolo!y differs; accordin! to 'hysics Handboo.; f= 1 2 R C

G11H

2.&.3 Treble #he capacitor &2 and the potentiometer '1 in Illustration 3 isolated forms a hi!h-pass filter. *i!nals "ith fre6uencies lo"er than the cut-off fre6uency are suppressed by &2. '1 forms a (ariable resistor bet"een &2 an ut. 5y alterin! the settin! of '1 the fre6uencies !oin! throu!h &2 are attenuated. If &2 is chosen in such a "ay that the cut-off fre6uency is in the hi!her part of the amplifiers ran!e; '1 !i(es the user a "ay to ad9ust le(el of the hi!h fre6uency ran!e of the amplifier. A side effect of the fact that '1 (aries the resistance in the hi!h-pass filter is that the cut-off fre6uency is sli!htly altered. Althou!h this effect is reduced si!nificantly by '2 and '3. #hese t"o potentiometers form a resistance to !round in the #reble lo"-pass filter. If the hole tone stac. circuit is considered; '1 forms a blender for hi!h fre6uencies and middle; bass fre6uencies. In fact raisin! the le(el of the '1 potentiometer "ill reduce the =iddle and 5ass le(els sli!htly. 2.&.# $ass nce a!ain the circuitry in Illustration 3 is analysed by isolation some components. #he resistor /5 and the capacitor &4 forms a lo"-pass filter at the node bet"een them. At this node the potentiometer '2 and the capacitor &3 forms a hi!h-pass filter. It is this lo"-pass filter that ma.es it possible for the user to control the fre6uencies in the bass span. #he hi!hpass filter &3 and '2 is not used to alter the fre6uency response of the tone stac.. #he main purpose of &3 is to shield 0& (olta!es from lea.in! throu!h the tone stac.. 2.&.% /iddle #he potentiometer '3 in Illustration 3 is a shunt to !round. #his implies that the =iddle control needs bass and treble fre6uencies to be able to alter the middle fre6uency response of the tone stac.. An analo!y could be to ima!ine bass and treble as t"o hills. #he =iddle potentiometer can only fill the "ally; not build a hill of its o"n.

3 Simulation and design

3.1 "lectron tubes in 0Tspice
In this paper three different libraries of electron tube spice models is tested. All can be found on internet; the /ydel; 0uncan and Noren electron 15

tube spice models. For the interested reader; search for spice electron tube models in some search en!ine to find them. #he #+spice user adds a reference to the search path to the do"nloaded library so that +#spice can access the library. #hen the propper component symbol is added by the user of the circuit editor. With these t"o steps the models are ready to be used. A "ide ran!e of different analysis can be made "hen a simulation is done. #o assess the 6uality of the electron tube models used in this paper the anode characteristic is e3amined. 5y incrementin! the anode and !rid (olta!e in the same inter(als as those presented in a static anode characteristics dia!ram the anode characteristics of the spice models is determined. #he three models clippin! beha(ior is e3aminde by settin! up a test "here they are pushed into clippin!. #he electron tube models are also tested by settin! them up in a test "here a "a( file is created from the out si!nal. #his output file is used as a audio reference to a real electron tube. In the audio tests the main focus is to establish "hether the electron tube models are able to mimic the clippin! in a real electron tube. Done of these audio tests can be presented in this paper; ob(ious reasons. 3.1.1 Tests of the "CC13 tube models #he electron tube chosen for the !rounded cathode !ain sta!es is the $&&,3. A "ide ran!e of $&&,3 models are initially tested; each electron tube model library contains se(eral spice models of each electron tube type. #he tested models are assessed and three candidates are chosen for further studies. #he anode characteristics of the three tested models are presented in Appendi3 A4. #he data of the real $&&,3As static anode characteristics dia!ram from 2al(eWiBardAs +oad+ine'lotter. #he clippin! beha(iour of the $&&,3 is tested and presented in Appendi3 A5. In this paper the /ydel; &. $&&,3 model is chosen for the desi!n "or. in +#spice. #he reason for this is that the /ydel modelAs anode characteristic is considered closest to the real $&&,3. #his assessment is done by !raphically e3amine the plot in Appendi3 A4. Further; the clippin! beha(iour is considered to be the closest one to a real $&&,3 electron tube. If these three electron tube models are to be ran.ed the ne3t best after /ydelAs model "ould be the 0uncan model. >ud!in! by Appendi3 A4 and A5 the "orst of the three is the Noren model. 5oth /ydelAs and 0uncanAs electron tube model are fairly close appro3imities in the anode characteristics. /ydelAs spice model is a closer appro3imation than 0uncanAs in terms of clippin! beha(iour. Althou!h the $&&,3 models clearly differ in the obtaind data it is not possible to distin!uish them from each other by listenin! to audio simulations. #his disco(ery lo"ers the e3pectations that a !ood simulation can be made of a electron tube amplifier. Cood in the sense that the simulated amplifier "ill reproduce all the properties in a credible "ay. In spite of this lac. of di(er!ence and "ea.ness in clippin! situations the "or. of desi!nin! a tube amplifier in +#spice is far from "asted. #he 1)

performance in linear situations still pro(ides a (ast insi!ht in the circuitry and the feature of it. 3.1.2 Tests of the "01# tube models $+,4 electron tubes are used for the po"er section of the simulated amplifier. $+,4 is a pentode "ith a different .ind of anode characteristics than the $&&,3 electron tube. As for the $&&,3 electron tube the anode characteristic is plotted by the aid of +#spice analysis tools. For this assessment no di!ital (ersion of the measured anode characteristics from a real $+,4 is used; the reason bein! that no di!itiBed (ersion is found. Done of the electron tube models found differed in the anode characteristics assessment. In Appendi3 A3 the anode caracteristic for the /yden $+,4 model is presented. #he $+,4 model used differs from the characteristics of a real $+,4 in the sense that the anode characteristics of a real $+,4 is a bit indistinct; or "obbly in the lo" anode (olta!e ran!e; 1 to 111 2. Done of the models tested in this paper emulates this beha(iour.

3.2 The grounded cathode gain stage

A !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is set up in +#spice accordin! to the section The grounded cathode gain stage. With initial (alues of Ra; Rc; Rgl and #c the circuit is tested. After testin! and tin.erin! in +#spice a stabile (ersion is set up. #he fre6uency response of the !ain sta!e is monitored to determine "hether a linear fre6uency response is achie(ed. #he final (alues of the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is presented in #able 1.
#able 1. #he components in the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e

Ua Rgl Ra Rc #c

331 2 1 =L 221 .L 1.5 .L 4.% OF

All (alues are chosen so that they are from the standard ran!e of electric components. #he anode (olta!e is set to 331 2 due to the fact that a lon! term !oal of this "or. is to actually build the amplifier simulated in this paper. It happens to be that I ha(e a transformer that !i(es appro3imately 331 2 after rectification. #he fre6uency response of the modeled !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is presented in Appendi3 51. Dote the plateau bet"een P111 to P51 .HB. #he fre6uenies of interest; see section *re.uenc/ span of guitars; are satisfactory amplified. In Appendi3 A) the loadlines of the +#spice simulation of the !rounded cathode sta!e is presented. #he circuit of the modeled !rounded cathode !ain sta!e is outline in Appendi3 &1.

1%

3.3 *re amplifier

#he pre-amplifier is constructed by addin! a tone stac. inbet"een t"o !rounded cathode !ain sta!es; see Appendi3 &2 for details. In the set up of the tone stac. the free"are #one *tac. &alculator is used to set up initial (alues of the tone stac.. #hese initial (alues are chosen in a "ay that a; some"hat; linear fre6uency response of the tone stac. is obtained. With the tone stac. settin!s from the #one *tac. &alculator the pre amplifierAs fre6uency response is monitored. In Appendi3 52 the fre6uency response of the pre amplifier is presented. Dote that the fre6uency response of the pre amplifier is not linear; rather it has !ot t"o distinct humps. #his is not alarmin! as the po"er section can be balanced in a "ay that e(ens out this.

3.# *o!er section

A po"er section is constructed by mer!in! the in(erter; the set up of the po"er electron tubes and the transformer. #his time +#spice "as used in a more acti(e "ay than in the desi!nin! of the pre amplifier. Instead of predetermine the (alues based on charts etc. all "or. is done +#spice. All parts are monitored durin! the desi!n process by the aid of tools a(aliable in +#spice. #he circuit of po"er section of the amplifier in this paper is presented in Appendi3 &3. 3.#.1 *hase in+erter #he phase in(erter in the desi!ned electron tube amplifier is a re(ised (ersion of the lon! tail phase in(erter commonly used in Fender amplifier. #he Fender lon! tail phase in(erter is in turn a (ersion of the *chmitt phase in(erter. #he main difference bet"een the desi!ned phase in(erter and the Fender lon! tailed phase in(erter is the triode used to dri(e it. Fender uses a $&&,1 triode to dri(e the phase in(erter; here a $&&,3 is used. #he components &- also differs; see Appendi3 &3 for details. #he &capacitor is a shunt capacitor used to suppress hi!h fre6uencies ?-@. >ud!in! by the plot in Appendi3 51 the cut-off fre6uency in the preamplifier (ery hi!h; much hi!her than "hat is audible by a human ear. *uppressin! fre6uencies out of the audible ran!e is a "ay of pre(ent undetectable hi!h fre6uencies oscillation. 3.#.2 Output section #he output transformer of this amplifier is set up by mer!in! three coil components; 01; 02 and 01 in the +#spice circuit; see Appendi3 &3 for details. #he impedances of these components are arbitarly set to; 01 F 02 F 4 .L and 01 F , L modeled after a A&311 amplifier. Dormally an output transformer has more than one output impedance connection; not 9ust one as in this e3ample. #he impedance of a normal spea.er is 4; , or 1) L "hich has to be matched a!ainst the out impedance of the output
1 A&31 is a 2o3 electron tube amplifier "ith 4 $+,4 in the po"er section.

1,

transformer. #he primary ad9ustment of the output section is done by usin! a "a( file as input si!nal and assess the result; or sound of the amplifier. When the output "a(-file is 9ude!ed to be "ell balanced; in other "ords the sub9ecti(e assessed to sound !ood; an anode characteristic analysis is done. In Appendi3 A% the anode characteristics for the po"er tube set up is displayed. 3.#.3 *o!er tubes #he set up of the po"er tube is (ery similar to a !rounded cathode !ain sta!e. #he pentodes; $+,4; are biased ne!ati(ely by superimposin! a ne!ati(e (olta!e at the control !rid. In Appendi3 &3 22 pro(ides ne!ati(e bias (olta!e.

3.% ,mplifier
In the mer!in! of the different parts of the amplifier e3tensi(e testin! is made. *e(eral fre6uency s"eeps are made "ith different tone stac. settin!s. #he fre6uecy response of these s"eeps are presented in Appendi3 53. #he (olume control is constant throu!h this analysis. #he simulations sho"s that the tone stac. is able to alter the fre6uency respons. #o ad9ust the tone stac. to the final (ersion of the amplifier a calibration is made.

3.& Calibrating the tone stac(

In an attempt to ma.e each tone control affect the amplification of the correspondin! fre6uency ran!e e6ually much the ran!e of the controls "ere matched. #he "ay of achie(in! this is to plot the amplification in the bass; middle and treble ran!e for the correspondin! control. #he matched plot is presented in Appendi3 01. #he lo!arithmic pro!ression of the cur(es are due to the lo!arithmic potentiometers used in the tone controls in the +#spice simulation.

# 2esults
An electron tube amplifier "as desi!ned in the soft"are +#spice. #he amplifier has 4 $+,4 electron tubes in po"er section and 2 $&&,3 electron tubes in the pre amplifier. #he simulated amplifier is balanced to !i(e a minor brea. up and a linear fre6uency response. #he ma3imum output is 31 to 35 W.

1-

% 3esign soft!are
%.1 Tone Stac( Calculator 1.3
#one *tac. calculator is a soft"are that simulates some of the most common tone stac.s found in electron tube !uitar amplifiers. #he topolo!y of each tone stac. is presented alon! "ith the possibility to alter the (alues of components in each circuit. #he user can alter the control potentiometers and see the result instantaneously. &ompared to de(elopin! and testin! tone stac.s in +#spice the #one *tac. &alculators approach is much faster. It is ho"e(er not possible to alter the topolo!y in #one *tac. &alculator. #he user is confined to the tone stac.s a(ailable in the soft"are. #one *tac. &alculator is de(eloped by 0uncan Amplification. It is a free"are and can be found and do"nloaded on the internetE httpEII""".duncanamps.comItscIdo"nload.html. #he only dra"bac. is that it is confined to Windo"s.

%.2 0oad0ine*lotter
#he +oad+ine'lotter is a spreadsheet holdin! data of electron tubes. #his data is presented in static anode characteristics dia!rams. #he user can insert (alues of anode; cathode resistors and anode (olta!e. 5y doin! this the anode and cathode loadlines are presented in the static anode characteristics dia!ram. #he +oad+ineplotter is constructed by the 2al(eWiBard; and can be do"nloaded at; httpEII""".(al(e"iBard.co.u..

%.3 0Tspice I4
In this paper most simulations of circuitry are done in the soft"are +#spice. +#spice offers many different analysis tools to be used on simulated circuitry. #he user inserts a circuit "ith electronic components and sets up the premisses for the simulation. When an simulation is done data can be obtained by usin! +#spice e3tract tool. In this paper all data from the simulations is inserted direct into a chart editor in the "ord processor used to "rite this paper. 'ictures of circuitry is e3tracted by usin! +#spiceAs bitmap format e3tractor. #he e3tracted bitmaps are sli!htly edited in a ima!e editor before thay are pasted into this document. &ircuitry is inserted by the usa!e of the +#spice circuit editor; components are dra!!ed and dropped in place. ne of the a(aliable analysis tools is fre6uency s"eeps. 5y settin! up start and end fre6uency etc. the user can one clic. to !et a 5ode plot of a circuit Gone clic.; in the sense that the user left clic.s on a point in the of interest and !ets a 5ode plotH. #his tool is used on se(eral parts of the circuit in this paper. #he phase plot is ho"e(er left out in most of the plots since shifts in phase is not audible. Audio tests are made by usin! an other feature of +#spice. +#spice can ta.e "a( files as input and create "a( output files. #his feature !i(es the user the ability to create simulations of ho" the circuit; for instance an amplifier; mi!ht 21

sound. A third feature of +#spice is that it is possible to monitor (olta!es and currents in circuitry. #his feature is used to render anode characteristics dia!rams of the electron tube models. +#spice is a free-"are and can be do"nloaded from +inear #echnolo!ies. #here are no opted (ersions for usa!e on +inu3 or mac. +inu3 and =ac users ha(e to run +#spice in "ine. #he curious reader is encoura!ed to test the free"are. It can be found and do"nloaded fromE httpEII""".linear.comIdesi!ntoolsIsoft"areI

& ,c(no!ledgement
I li.e to than. N9ell *taffas for embar.in! on an e3pedition bac. in time "ith me. A time "hen there "ere no the transistors. A bi! hu! to my parents for all the fun and !ames "ith my .ids "hen I "rote this paper. A bi! than.s to my family for lettin! me see "hat really matters in life.

) 0iterature list
?1@ =a3"ell; >.&. G1,%3H A #reatise on $lectricity and =a!netism ?2@ HertB; H. G1,,%H $lectric "a(esE bein! researches on the propa!ation of electric action "ith finite (elocity throu!h space ?3@ =arconi; C. G1,-5H In(ented and demonstrated a transmitter Do publication ?4@ Forest; 0. G1-1%H #he Audion; a De" /ecei(er for Wireless #ele!raphy ?5@ 5ell +abs. G1-4,H 'ress conference ?)@ .asura; *. et. al. G1--4H History of electron tubes ?%@ >ones; =. G2112H 2al(e Amplifiers ?,@ Williamson; 0. #. D. G1-4-H 0esi!n of #one &ontrols Q Au3iliary Cramophone &ircuits ?-@ >ones; =. G2114H 5uildin! 2al(e amplifiers

21

1 ,ppendi5
1.1 , 6 ,node characteristics diagrams
1.1.1 ,1 A di!ital (ersion of a static anode characteristics dia!ram.

$&&,3
Anode characteristics dia!ram 5 12

-12

3 -22
Ia mA

1 1 51 111 151
<a 2

211

251

311

351

The anode characteristics diagram of the 2"#31 triode! one of the t4o triodes in an 2##53 electron tube.

22

1.1.2 ,2 $3amplified loadlines of a $&&,3 !rounded cathode !ain sta!e.

$&&,3 I 12AM%
Anode characteristics dia!ram 5 12

5
3

-12

-22
Ia mA

&
2

0 A

1 1 51 111 151
<a 2

211

251

311

351

The dashed red line is a anode loadline and thr dashed dotted line is an e emplified a cathode load line of a 2"#31 triode.

23

1.1.3 ,3 #he $+,4As static anode characteristics dia!ram is rendered in +#spice by the use of /ydelAs $+,4 model. $+,4
Anode characteristics for the $+,4 spice model

1;3

1;25

1;2

Ia mA

1;15

1;1

1;15

1
1 21 41 )1 ,1 111
<a 2

121

141

1)1

1,1

211

The anode characteristics for the R/del 2051 model used in this paper. The curved lines are the control grid voltage for different bias levels on the control grid.

24

1.1.# ,# *tatic anode characteristics for the $&&,3 spice models tested. $&&,3 models
Anode charactristics for electron tube models

Noren; D. /ydel; &. 0uncan

3
Ia mA

1 1 51 111 151
<a 2

211

251

311

351

The anode characteristics for the 2##53 models tested in this paper compared 4ith the dashed lines from the static anode characteristic diagram. The tested electron tube6s grid voltage is incremented b/ -1 to prevent the plot from being to bloated.

25

1.1.% ,% &lippin! in spice electron tube models.

$&&,3 models
#he clippin! of different spice $&&,3 models
)11 Noren; D; /ydel; & 0uncan /eference

411

Amplitude 2

211

1 1;12

-211
#ime s

The 2##53 spice models are pushed into clipping. -otice ho4 the tube models mimic+ clipping in real electron tubes. #lipping in real electron tubes are soft! e.i. no hard edges in the out signal.

2)

1.1.& ,& +oadlines for the modeled !rounded cathode !ain sta!e. $&&,3 model
Anode characteristics of $&&,3 model
5

3
Ia mA

1 1 51 111 151
<a 2

211

251

311

351

The anode and cathode loadlines sho4s 4here the bias point of the modeled grounded cathode gain stage is.

2%

1.1.) ,) #he loadlines for the po"er tubes in the output section.

$+,4
&haracterisctics of the pushpull sta!e
1;5 1;4 1;3 1;2 1;1
Ia A

1 1 -1;1 -1;2 -1;3 -1;4 -1;5

<a 2

111

211

311

411

511

)11

The anode characteristics of a pushpull po4er stage 4it h1 2051 pentodes. The blue bold lines are the loadlines of each side of the po4er stage.

2,

1.2 $ 6 -re.uency responses

1.2.1 $1 #he fre6uency response of the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e modeled in +#spice. Fre6uency respose
Fre6uency response of the !rounded cathode !ain sta!e 3, 3%
Amplitude d5

3) 35 34 33 32 1 111
Fre6uency HB

11111

1111111

The fre.uenc/ response of the simulated grounded cathode gain stage.

1.2.2 $2 #he fre6uency response of the pre-amplifier modeled in +#spice. 're amplifier
#he fre6uency response of the pre amplifier
)5
Amplitude d5

)1 55 51 45 21 211
Fre6uency HB

2111

21111

The fre.uenv/ response of the pre amplifier. The fre.enc/ response reveals t4o bumps! one in the bass range and one in the treble range of the spectrum.

2-

1.2.3 $3 #he fre6uency response for the amplifier "ith different tone stac. settin!s. Fre6uency response
Fre6uency s"eeps "ith different $6ualiBer settin!s %1 )1
Amplitude d5

51 41 31 21 11 11 111
Fre6uency HB

1111

11111

*re.uenc/ response of the amplifier. $ifferent tone stac+ settings is used to chec+ that the attenuation of different fre.uenc/ intervals are some4hat similar. The volume control is set to 5 in all s4eeps.

1.3 C 6 Circuitry
1.3.1 C1 #he !rounded cathode !ain sta!e as it is modeled in +#spice.

The grounded cathode gain stage set up from the 0Tspice simulation.

31

1.3.2 C2 're-amplifier modeled in +#spice.

31

1.3.3 C3 'o"er section modeled in +#spice

32

1.# 3
1.#.1 31 #he calibration of the tone controls in the tone stac.. &alibration
&alibration of the tone stac. controls
%5 5ass %1 =iddle #reble )5

Amplification d5

)1

55

51

45

41 1 1 2 3 4 5 ) % , 11

*ettin! of tone potentiometer The calibration of the tone stac+. The amplitude interval of all three fre.uenc/ bands are of the same magnitude! 17 to (7 d". The potentiometers for this set up is! bass 8 297 +:! middle897 +: and treble8177 +:.

33