Measuring systems

Lecturer: Andras Kis

In class demo: RTD and photodetector

1.2
USB connector
Arduino UNO board Conditioning circuit
PT 100 Sensor
R
load
U
0
0V
U
out
R
sensor
R
load
=1k

U
0
=5 V
U
out

In class demo: RTD and photodetector
1.3
Arduino UNO board Conditioning circuit
Sensor
R
load
U
0
0V
U
out
R
sensor
U
0
=5 V
U
out

Noise reduction
Acquisition
(Analog digital conversion)
Data analysis (recording, averaging, etc.)
Modeling
Conditioning
Measurement chain
1.4
Modeling
Conditioning Acquisition
Data analysis
Comparison
Sensor
Noise
reduction
and signal
processing
Action
- maybe add photos and more catchy figure for every one of these elements
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Measuring systems
Sensors and their conditioning
Modeling sensors
Noise estimation and reduction
Data acquisition
Data analysis and treatment
Comparison betweeen different measurement results

Measuring Systems 1.5
References
Georges Asch, Acquisition de
donnes, Dunod, 2003
Ph. Robert, TE vol 17, Systmes de
mesure

Transparencies
Exercises + solutions
Measuring Systems 1.6
Organisation
Room BC 01
Exercises
- 11 problem sets
- Discussions during the exercises
- Work at home
Written mock exam (end November or early December )
bonus (max +1 on the final exam)
Written exam
Prerequisits: Electrotechnique 1 and 2
Needed for: TP Measuring systems
Measuring Systems 1.7
Expected work load
1 credit = 30 work hours (source: EPFL, CRAFT)
3 credits x 30 = 90 hours total
- 10 h preparation for the exam
=80h
-3x14 lectures + exercises
=38 h for individual work at home
= 2.5-3 h/week
Measuring Systems 1.8
Chapter 1: Sensors and
conditioning circuits
Sensors and conditioning circuits
Introduction
- Transducer: sensor, actuator
Passive sensors and their conditioning
- Temperature RTD (resistance temperature detector)
- Displacement capacitive sensors
- Displacement inductive sensors
- Light intensity photoconductors
Active sensors and their conditioning
- Temperature thermocouple (thermoelectric effect)
- Light intensity photovoltaic cell photovoltaic effect
- Displacement - piezoelectric gauge

Measuring Systems 1.10
Transducer

A transducer is an element that converts one physical
quantity into another physical quantity
- Mercury thermometer (temperature displacement)
- Accelerometer (acceleration voltage)
- Electrode in a battery (ion electrical charge)
- Motor (electrical current mechanical moment)
- LED (electrical current light)
Transducer
Physical
quantity
Physical
quantity
Measuring Systems 1.11
Sensor - actuator
A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical quantity into
an electrical quantity:
- Resistance thermometer (temperature - resistance)
- Photodetector (light - current)





An actuator is a transducer that converts an electrical quantity
into a non-electrical quantity
- Piezo actuator (charge - displacement)
- Resistive heater (current - heat)
- LED (current - light)
Sensor
Measured
quantity
Electrical quantity
(e, I, U, R, )
Actuator Electrical quantity Physical quantity
1.12 Measuring Systems
Sensors
Sensitivity S: response in magnitude
Transfer function: frequency response
Noise: sensitivity to perturbations (internal and
external)




1.13
Sensor
Electrical quantity
Measured
quantity
Noise
x y = f (x)
dy
S
dx
=
Sensitivity
Measuring Systems
Passive and active sensors
Passive sensors - require an external power source
Examples:
- Resistive thermometer
- Capacitive displacement sensor

Active sensors - generate the electrical signal from the
measured quantity
Examples:
- Thermocouples thermoelectric effect
- Accelerometers piezoelectric effect
1.14
Passive sensors
Passive sensors

Measuring Systems 1.16
Measured quantity Sensitive
characteristic
Device
Temperature Resistance RTD (resistance temperature
detector)
Mechanical (Force,
pression, acceleration,
vibrations, sound,
displacement)
Resistance,
capacitance,
inductance
potentiometer, microphone
LVDT (linear variable differential
transformer), accelerometer,
strain gauge
Light intensity Resistance photoconductor
phototransistor
Resistive temperature sensors (RTD)
Resistance of a metal as a function of
temperature:

Measuring Systems 1.17
( )
0 0
R R f T T =
R Resistance at temperature T
R
0
Resistance at temperature T
0

For platinum (PT100):


( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
0 0 0
1 R T R A T T B T T = + +
T temperature in C
T
0
= 0C
R
0
= 100 O
A = 3.910
-3
C
-1
B = -5.775 10
-7
C
-2

200
160
120
80
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
O
)
300 200 100 0
Temperature (C)
Thin film
Wound wire
Linear but low sensitivity

Resistive temperature sensors (Thermistors)
Ceramics or polymers

Measuring Systems 1.18
Non-linear but high sensitivity

Generally described by Steinhart-
Hart equation:

| | | |
3 1
ln( ) ln( ) A B R C R
T
= + +
R
T=25C
= 10000 O
A = 1.03210
-3
C
-1
B = 2.20810
-4
C
-1
C = 1.27610
-7
C
-1
Example: Omega 44006

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
O
)
160 120 80 40
Temperature (C)
T Temperature in Kelvin
Semiconducting diode thermometers
Si, Ge, etc.
- pn junctions
- Inexpensive and (mostly)
linear
- Limited temperature range
(-50 150 C)

Measuring Systems 1.19
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

d
r
o
p

(
V
)
400 300 200 100 0
Temperature (K)
I = 10 A
Lakeshore DT 400
Conditioning circuits for resistive sensors
Measuring Systems 1.20
Improve drawings
V
R
load
U
0
U
out
R
sensor
Voltage divider
0
sensor
out
load sensor
R
U U
R R
=
+
For R
load
=R
sensor
=R:

0
2
out
U
U =
Conditioning circuits for resistive sensors
Measuring Systems 1.21
Improve drawings
R
R
R
R
sensor
=
=R+AR
V
U
0
U
out
Wheatstone bridge
0
2
sensor
out
sensor
R R
U U
R R R
(
=
(
+

For R
sensor
=R:

0
out
U =
Displacement sensor - resistive
Potentiometer
- Resistor with a sliding contact
- Acts as a voltage divider
Measuring Systems 1.22
-improve figures and symbol lisibility on them
V
R
R
x
U
0
U
out
0
x
out
R
U U
R
=
Displacement sensor - inductive
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

Measuring Systems 1.23
V
o
=k.V
in
.x
sec2
sec1
Ferrite core
Primary
Magnetic sheld
x
0
Mutual inductance differential transformer
Measuring Systems 1.24
Derive on exercises
dt
di
M M
dt
di
L i R u
2 1
1 1 1 1
) ' ' ' ( + + =
dt
di
M M
dt
di
L L i R R u
1 2
' '
2
'
2 2
' '
2
'
2 2
) ' ' ' ( ) ( ) ( + + + =
2 1 1 1 1
) ' ' ' ( ) ( I M M j I L j R U + + = e e
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
) ' ' ' ( ) ' ' ' ' ' ' ( I M M j I L j L j R R U + + + + = e e e
For R
c
>> i
2
~0
| |
1
1 1
2
) ( ' ) ( ' '
U
L j R
x M x M j
U
e
e
+

=
x
M
M
R
2
u
2
L
1
L
2
L
2
R
1
Pri
sec1
sec2
i
1
i
2
R
c
load
' '
2
R
u
1
Mutual inductance differential transformer
Measuring Systems 1.25
Derive on exercises
x
M
M
R
2
u
2
L
1
L
2
L
2
R
1
Pri
sec1
sec2
i
1
i
2
R
c
load
' '
2
R
u
1
| |
2 1
1 1
2
2
''( ) '( )
( ) (0) ... for 0
( ) (0) ... for 0
j M x M x
U U
R j L
M x M ax bx x
M x M ax bx x
e
e

=
+
'
= + + + >
''
= + + <
( ) ( ) 2 M x M x ax
'' '
=
2
nd
order approximation:
We get a linear relationship:
X
L j R
U a j
U
1 1
1
2
2
e
e
+

=
Capacitive displacement sensor
Capacitance
Measuring Systems 1.26
Microphone: sound (external pressure variations) cause the
membrane to vibrate (displacement dx)
d
A
C c =
dx (sound)
dq
i
dt
=
dq
U R
dt
=
C
x
U
C
U
0
R
Conditioning for capacitive sensors
Measuring Systems 1.27
Pressure sensor
U
AC
C
2
C
1
R
R
V
U
out
C
2
C
1
P
1
P
2
flexible metallic
membrane
Strain gauge
Principle: change in resistance upon mechanical deformation

Measuring Systems 1.28
R resistance
resistivity
l length
S cross-sectional
area
S l l+Al
initial
l
R
S
=
( )
strained
l l
R
S S

+ A
= + A
+ A
Strain gauge

Measuring Systems 1.29
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/BD3/pri
ntall.php
Strain gauge
Measuring Systems 1.30
R l
K
R l
A A
=
2 4 K
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_gaug
e
U
out
=f(U
0
, AR/R)?
Source: Wikipedia
-redo schematics in Illustrator
R
load
U
0
0V
U
out
R
sensor
R
R
R
V
U
0
U
out
R
sensor
=
=R+AR
Strain gauge
Let strain c be the relative change in length and
stress o the force F per cross-sectional area S:


Measuring Systems 1.31
Strain and stress are related through the Youngs
modulus Y and Poisson ratio v
- In the direction parallel to the stress:

- Perpendicular to the stress:


l
l
c
A
=
F
S
o =
Y
o
c =
Y
o
c vc v

= =
Derive during the exercises
Strain gauge
Surface change:


Resistance change:
Measuring Systems 1.32
2
S l
S l
v
A A
=
R l S
R l S

A A A A
= +
( )
1 2
R l
R l

v

A A A
= + +
Derive during the exercises
Dominant terms
Metals: first term (geometry)
Semiconductors: second term
Force sensor
Based on a strain sensor attached to a test object
Measuring Systems 1.33
Force F
Deformation of the
test object
Resistance change
of the gauge
Voltage drop
in the circuit
l
l
=
F
A Y
R l
K
R l
A A
=
U R
I
U R
A A
=
gauge
extension
compression
/ 0 l l A >
/ 0 l l A <
Sensors for force, pressure, acceleration
Measuring Systems 1.34

J
1
J
2
J
4
J 3
J'
1
J'
4
J' 3
J' 2
Force F
Pressure P= P
1
- P
2
Acceleration a
( )
F f c =
( )
P f c =
( )
k
a x f
m
c = A =
MEMS-based accelerometer
Micro-Electro-Mechanical systems: integration of electronics
and mechanical elements: sensors and actuators





www.analog.com
ADXL202 accelerometer
Analog Devices website
1.35
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
Micro-Electro-Mechanical systems: integration of electronics
and mechanical elements: sensors and actuators





www.analog.com
ADXL202 accelerometer
Analog Devices website
Movement of the beam
controlled by springs with
spring constant k
1.36 Measuring Systems
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)





Force on a mass m subject to
acceleration a:
Restoring force from the spring:
So the deflection is:
It is read out by measuring the electrical
capacitace between the fingers
F ma =
F k x = A
m
x a
k
A =
( )
C C x =
1.37
Light intensity measurements
Photoconductor
- Highly resistive semiconductor (for
example CdS)
- Under illumination, electron-hole
pairs are excited and the resistance
decreases
- Requires a voltage source to operate
in a similar way to RTDs

Measuring Systems 1.38
expand
I
V
dark
Increasing
light
intensity
I
c
V
ce
Light intensity measurements
Phototransistor
- npn or pnp junction
- Light absorbed in the base-collector junction
generates electrons that are injected into the
base and amplified by the transistors current
gain
- Higher responsivity (A/W) but longer
response time and higher dark currents than
photodiodes

1.39
expand
dark
Increasing
light
intensity
Active sensors
Measuring Systems 1.40
Temperature Thermoelectric effect
Seebeck effect temperature difference results in a potential
difference
Measuring Systems 1.41
Thomson effect heat transport due to electrical current
T
A
T
B
conductor
T
A
<T
B
e
-
in B are more energetic than in A
e
-
move from B to A more electrons in A
U
AB
> 0

e
-
move from B to A energy loss
temperature increase in the middle of
the conductor

e
-
move from A to B energy is
absorbed temperature decrease in
the middle
T
A
T
B
A B
T
A
T
B
current: I
One slide each
Temperature Thermoelectric effect
Peltier effect
Measuring Systems 1.42
Thermoelectric effect - common name for these three effects
Sensor: thermocouple
Actuator: Peltier element
current I
Conductor 1 Conductor 2
Talk much more about this
Show how to connect thermocouples
cold junction compenstion
and bring along a thermocouple
- The energy of an electron depends on the temperature, work function (type of the
conductor) and local EM field
- By passing from 1 to 2, the energy of an electron is modified, resulting in heat
being absorbed (cooling) or generated (heating)
Thermocouple
Measuring Systems 1.43
S - sensitivity
- characteristic of the AB metal pair
- typically 10-100 V/K
Most common type K:
- chromel (90% Ni, 10% Cr) / alumel
(95% Ni, 2% Mn, 2% Al, 1% Si)
- S = 41V/K at room temperature

Hot junction
Cold junction
( )
h c
V S T T =
Metal A
Metal B
Metal C
Practical devices have built-in cold junction compensation
S-Seebeck coefficient?
Displacement Piezoelectric effect
1.44
Before polarisation After polarisation
q do =
q induced charge
d piezoelectric coefficient
o mechanical stress
contacts
Occurs in materials with no inversion symmetry
Displacement Piezoelectric effect
Sources of mechanical stress
- Force, deformation, vibration,
sound

Materials
- Quartz, ceramics (PZT), PVDF

Applications
- Force and pressure sensors
- Accelerometers
- Microphones
Measuring Systems Chapter 1- 45
Displacement Piezoelectric effect
Measuring Systems 1.46
Accelerometer
Force sensor
I
V
Light intensity measurements - Photodiode
Light is absorbed in a pn junction
Photoexcited charge carriers are
separated in the internal electric field
Voltage is generated
Non-linear response

Measuring Systems 1.47
expand
dark
Increasing
light
intensity
Key Points
There is a large number of sensors and measurement principles
Passive sensors - based on measurements of R, L, C; require a
power supply
Active sensors directly use the measured quantity for generating
the signal
The signal is obtained with the use of a conditioning circuit
When choosing an appropriate sensor, keep in mind the operating
principle, the measurement range, possible sources of errors

1.48