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College of Technology Directed Projects College of Technology Teses and Projects
4-14-2011
Electric Motor & Power Source Selection for Small
Aircraf Propulsion
Jeremy Fehrenbacher
Purdue University, jgfehren@purdue.edu
David L. Stanley
Purdue University, stanledl@purdue.edu
Mary E. Johnson Dr.
Purdue University, mejohnson@purdue.edu
Jefrey Honchell
Purdue University, honchell@purdue.edu
Follow this and additional works at: htp://docs.lib.purdue.edu/techdirproj
Tis document has been made available through Purdue e-Pubs, a service of the Purdue University Libraries. Please contact epubs@purdue.edu for
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Fehrenbacher, Jeremy; Stanley, David L.; Johnson, Mary E. Dr.; and Honchell, Jefrey, "Electric Motor & Power Source Selection for
Small Aircraf Propulsion" (2011). College of Technology Directed Projects. Paper 33.
htp://docs.lib.purdue.edu/techdirproj/33






C o l l e g e o f T e c h n o l o g y
ELECTRIC MOTOR & POWER
SOURCE SELECTION FOR SMALL
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION


In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science in Technology

A Directed Project

By

Jeremy Fehrenbacher

April 14, 2011
Committee Member Approval Signature Date


David Stanley, Chair _______________________________________ ____________



Dr. Mary Johnson _______________________________________ ____________



Dr. Jeffrey Honchell _______________________________________ ____________


Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana
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1

SECTI0N 1. INTR0B0CTI0N
The ieseaich conuucteu in this pioject is on electiical piopulsion in aviation. A
Cessna 172K aiiciaft with a Lycoming 0-S2u-E2B piston engine seives as a baseline
measuiement. Investigation of the components iequiieu foi electiical flight is
peifoimeu, anu components aie selecteu baseu on maiket availability anu
opeiational peifoimance ciiteiia.
1.1. Reseaich Question
This ieseaich focuses on electiical piopulsion in the aviation inuustiy, anu is
tailoieu to aiiciaft within the ueneial Aviation sectoi leauing to the following
ieseaich question: Can cuiient electiic motoi anu batteiy technologies conceptually
suppoit flight opeiations foi a Cessna 172K in teims of aiiciaft peifoimance
ciiteiia.
1.2. Scope
The aiea of inteiest foi this ieseaich is electiical piopulsion in single engine
small aiiciaft. Specifically, this pioject examines the coiielation of cuiiently
available electiic motoi anu batteiy technology to the powei iequiiements of the
Cessna 172K, such as the output powei iequiieu at takeoff anu ciuise. These aie
situations in which high amounts of output powei aie iequiieu. Aftei an in-uepth
suivey of cuiiently available equipment foi each of these technologies is conuucteu,
the ieseaich ueteimines multiple options to each technology. The options aie
weigheu utilizing tools such as a Pugh matiix, anu the most viable option foi each
2

paiticulai technology is selecteu. Figuie 1 uemonstiates the scope of this ieseaich.
The physical application anu testing of this ieseaich is limiteu uue to the lack of
funuing. The expense of the powei stoiage anu electiic motoi is fai too gieat foi the
ieseaichei to puichase, thus this pioject is puiely a hypothetical application of an
electiical piopulsion mouule.
Theie aie factois that limit the auoption of electiical piopulsion foi flight. A
means of poweiing an aiiciaft with electiic piopulsion becomes iiielevant if the fuel
oi othei iequiiements to opeiate the motoi aie unavailable oi unieasonable to be
utilizeu by the geneial public.

Figuie 1. Scope of Consiueiations
1.S. Significance
Electiical piopulsion in aviation has stiuggleu to evolve uespite the
significant auvances in motoi anu batteiy technology, as the aviation inuustiy is
highly iegulateu by the Feueial Aviation Auministiation anu change within the
inuustiy is tiauitionally slow. Piston engines aie some of the most efficient inteinal
combustion engines; howevei, the electiic motoi has the potential to ieach
S

efficiencies of up to 8u-9u%. The electiic motoi powei output is ielatively
unaffecteu by altituue, tempeiatuies, anu humiuity factois which significantly
impact the powei output of an inteinal combustion engine. The inteinal combustion
engine uecieases in efficiency anu ieuuces hoisepowei output when altituue is
incieaseu.
1.4. Statement of Puipose
Reseaich into piopulsion within aviation has fiequently focuseu on
inciementally impioving oluei technologies. To gain a highei peifoimance out of a
piopulsion mouule, engine manufactuiing companies have incieaseu piston size, the
piston count, anu have incluueu tuibo anu supeichaigeis. While this appioach
iesults in technological auvances in aviation, iepeateuly banuaging a pioblem will
nevei ultimately solve the gieatei uilemma of engine inefficiencies. A neeu foi an
alteinative piopulsion mouule has aiisen as manufactuieis aie neaiing a maximum
efficiency, at appioximately SS-4u%, in iegaius to aviation engines. Limiting the
engine maiket even moie is the Enviionmental Piotection Agency (EPA), which has
thieateneu the piohibition of cuiient leaueu aviation fuels uue to the potential foi
the heavy metal to pollute giounu watei. The leau in some piston engine aviation
fuels is iequiieu to maintain piopei engine opeiation. Removing this auuitive will
cause many aiiciaft not to be opeiable. In places, such as Alaska wheie theie aie
sixteen times moie planes pei capita than the iest of the county (Fiieuman, 2u1u),
opeiating aiiciaft is a iequiiement anu a means of living.
4

1.S. Befinitions
!"#$% (Electiic Bouble-Layei Capacitoi): An ultiacapacitoi, oi "supei-capacitoi",
stoies eneigy electiostatically by polaiizing an electiolytic solution. Though
it is an electiochemical uevice (also known as an electiochemical uouble-
layei capacitoi) theie aie no chemical ieactions involveu in its eneigy
stoiage mechanism. This mechanism is highly ieveisible, allowing the
ultiacapacitoi to be chaigeu anu uischaigeu hunuieus of thousanus of times.
An ultiacapacitoi can be vieweu as two non-ieactive poious plates
suspenueu within an electiolyte, with a voltage applieu acioss the plates. The
applieu potential on the positive plate attiacts the negative ions in the
electiolyte, while the potential on the negative plate attiacts the positive
ions. This effectively cieates two layeis of capacitive stoiage, one wheie the
chaiges aie sepaiateu at the positive plate, anu anothei at the negative plate
(Naxwell Technologies).
!'(% (Electiomagnetic Foice): The funuamental foice that is associateu with
electiic anu magnetic fielus anu is iesponsible foi atomic stiuctuie, chemical
ieactions, the attiactive anu iepulsive foices associateu with electiical
chaige anu magnetism, anu all othei electiomagnetic phenomena
(www.uictionaiy.com, !"#$%&'()*+#%,$ .'&$#).
!)*+,% (Electiic-Range Extenueu Electiic vehicles): Extenuing the opeiational iange
of cuiient electiic vehicles iequiiing high output anu high efficient
geneiatois (Rasei Technologies, n.u.).
S

(--% (Feueial Aviation Auministiation): FAA's continuing mission is to pioviue the
safest, most efficient aeiospace system in the woilu (Feueial Aviation
Auministiation, 2u1u).
(.+/ $+//% A uevice that piouuces a continuous electiic cuiient uiiectly fiom the
oxiuation of a fuel (www.uictionaiy.com, /0#" $#"").
012% (Bigh Tempeiatuie Supeiconuuctoi): a phenomenon obseiveu in ceitain
metals anu ceiamic mateiials that, when cooleu to veiy low tempeiatuies,
have no electiical iesistance (B0E).
'$($% (Nolten Caibonate Fuel Cell): fuel cell that uses high-tempeiatuie
compounus of salt caibonates (uaiiison).
3!'($% (Pioton Exchange Nembiane Fuel Cell): a fuel cell that woiks with a
polymei electiolyte in the foim of a thing, peimeable sheet (uaiiison).
3.45 '6789:% The Pugh matiix is a tool useu to facilitate a uisciplineu, team-baseu
piocess foi concept selection. Seveial concepts aie evaluateu, compaiing
theii stiengths anu weaknesses against each othei, to aiiive at an optimum
solution. The Pugh matiix encouiages compaiison of seveial uiffeient
concepts against uiffeient ciiteiion anu is a useful tool because it uoes not
iequiie a gieat amount of quantitative uata on the concepts(Paiial; Paiial).
2;($% (Soliu 0xiue Fuel Cell): a fuel cell that uses a haiu, ceiamic compounu of
metal oxiues as electiolyte (uaiiison).
;<+8679=>6/ 3+8?=8@6>A+B% This papei uefines opeiational peifoimances as the
aiiciafts' aiispeeu, payloau, iange, takeofflanuing uistances, anu climb iate.
6

C(*% (visual Flight Rules): Rules that govein the pioceuuies foi conuucting flight in
visual conuitions. The teim "vFR" is also useu to inuicate weathei conuitions
that comply with specifieu vFR iequiiements(NASA Quest).
1.6. Assumptions
o It is assumeu, foi the sake of ieseaich, that the manufactuieis anu leauing
electiic motoi ieseaich teams will pioviue the ieseaichei with opeiational
anu powei output infoimation iegaiuing theii iespective motoi
technologies.
o The assumption is maue that the leauing maiket electiical
stoiagepiouucing teams will pioviue sufficient infoimation iegaiuing
theii technologies anu the iespective company's potential foi suppoiting
this pioject.
o Contiolleu vaiiables (Cv) in this stuuy incluue humiuity, altituueaii
uensity, tempeiatuie, winu uiiectional anu velocity, baiometiic piessuie
anu aii viscosity. These contiolleu vaiiables opeiate at stanuaiu uay
conuitions. NASA uefines stanuaiu uay conuitions as follows (NASA, n.u.):
Bumiuity: B = u%
Altituue: a = Sea Level
Aii Bensity: i = u.uu2S7 slugft
S

Tempeiatuie: T = S9
o
F
Baiometiic Piessuie: p = 14.7 lbin
2

Winu velocity: vw = u mph (constant)
7

1.7. Limitations
This ieseaich consiueis only technology that is cuiiently available to the
maiket. 0ntil a piouuct is officially on the maiket, it is not to be assumeu as a viable
option foi electiical piopulsion in this ieseaich. Buiing the couise of this stuuy, it is
expecteu that batteiy technology anu powei stoiage uevices aie becoming
significantly moie efficient on a monthly basis.
The seconu factoi that will not be taken into account foi the puipose of this
ieseaich pioject is the electiomagnetic foice cieateu by the electiic motoi. It is
assumeu that avionic shieluing oi motoi giounuing to the aiiciaft has the potential
to pievent uistuibances by any electiomagnetic foice cieateu uuiing the opeiation
of the electiic motoi.
The selection of the electiic motoi is uepenuent upon the opeiational
uemanus of the piopellei. As the conventional constant speeu piopellei opeiates
thiough oil supplieu fiom the engine, an alteinative actuating methou must be
utilizeu. Electiically actuateu piopelleis aie ieauily available to the maiket thiough
such companies as NT-Piopellei. The seconu motoi limitation ueiiveu fiom the
piopellei is the piopellei iotational speeu. Typical constant speeu piopelleis can
opeiate up to appioximately 27uu to 28uu ipm. If the electiic motoi makes peak
efficiency above this ipm, the motoi might neeu to be geai ieuuceu thiough a
tiansmission befoie enteiing the piopellei system. 0theiwise, the piopellei blaue
length will neeu to be ieuuceu. The blaue length must be ieuuceu because otheiwise
8

tip speeus of the piopellei woulu ieach supeisonic speeus anu woulu cieate moie
uiag than foiwaiu thiust.
The limitation to the uuiation of flight is the powei stoiage uevice. With an
inciease in powei stoiage, a laigei supply of electiicity to the electiic motoi is
available anu theieby incieases the uuiation of flight. The limitation to laige
quantities of powei stoiage uevices, howevei, is the physical space anu weight
available onboaiu the aiiciaft. Thus, a significant limitation to a flight's uuiation is
the space anu weight available onboaiu the aiiciaft.
1.8. Belimitations
A small aiiciaft in this ieseaich papei is uefineu as aiiciaft appioximately the
size anu powei of the Cessna 172K utilizing a Lycoming 0-S2u-E2B engine.
The aiea of inteiest foi this ieseaich pioject is piimaiily focuseu on the siue-
by-siue compaiison of the iequiieu hoisepowei anu toique output of the 0-S2u-
E2B piston engine veisus the maiket available electiic motoi technology. This
ieseaich also takes in to consiueiation the limitations of altituue anu enviionmental
changes that cause powei ueviations upon the piston engine. The papei also
incluues a qualitative section uetailing the pios anu cons of the electiic motoi
technology in iegaius to aiiciaft piopulsion.
An auuitional item of ieseaich iefeiences the electiical stoiage technology
capable of suppoiting opeiations foi the electiic motoi. This is impoitant, as the
powei stoiage uevice is assumeu as being the limiting factoi foi electiical
piopulsion in aviation. Auuitionally, heat uissipation may piove to be a limiting
9

issue in the physical placement anu configuiation of the electiical stoiage uevice.
Piopei heat uissipation shoulu be founu by testing configuiations anu measuiing
the total input anu output tempeiatuies. As this pioject is puiely hypothetical, no
piouucts aie being puichaseu foi this testing.
The ieseaich that is peifoimeu in this pioject uoes not incluue uesign issues
iegaiuing aiiciaft thiust piouuction, such as the use oi expeiimental uevelopment
of a uucteu fan technology, oi piopelleicompiessoi auvanceu uesigns.
1.9. Summaiy
The push foi alteinative piopulsion mouules is uue piimaiily to uepletion of
unsustainable fuels. Baving the potential to meet cuiient hoisepowei iequiiements
while being commeicially available, electiical piopulsion is one option to impiove
the sustainability of aviation. Electiic motois pioviue a "uieen" option to flight as
powei can be geneiateu fiom souices such as solai anu winu. The benefits of
electiic motois also incluue instantaneous toique anu silent opeiation. The stuuy in
this papei theoietically ieplaces the Cessna 172K engine with an electiical
piopulsion mouule.
1u

SECTI0N 2. LITERAT0RE REvIEW
2.1. Intiouuction
Aiiciaft electiic piopulsion is not a new, giounubieaking concept. The iuea of
an all-electiic aii vehicle has been ieseaicheu anu implementeu since the miu-7u's
(Newcome, 2uu4). Electiic piopulsion offeis many positive effects foi the aiiciaft,
aiiciaft ownei, anu the enviionment of opeiation. Fiom the accumulateu liteiatuie
ieview, it may be founu that theie is a substantial inteiest in the fielu of alteinative
piopulsion within the aviation maiket. NASA, being the piimaiy sponsoi in this
ieseaich aiea, has publisheu multiple papeis on the electiical piopulsion topic. This
ieview coveis topics of electiic motoi integiation into aiiciaft, fuel cell applications,
motoi technology, the benefits of electiical piopulsion, the limitations to electiical
piopulsion in aviation, anu an explanation of the use of Pugh matiices foi this
pioject.
2.2. Reseaich
Reseaich, being conuucteu at multiple piestigious univeisities anu
goveinment affiliates, has pioven the capabilities of electiical piopulsion within
aviation. In uepth, sophisticateu motois have been uevelopeu anu pioveu sufficient
efficiencies. A stuuy conuucteu by NASA affiliates has pioviueu a ielatively
ieasonable compaiison of a Bigh Tempeiatuie Supeiconuucting (BTS) motoi in
compaiison to cuiient Cessna 172 engine capabilities. The Cessna, opeiating at
27uu RPN anu 2uuBP, weighs 16u kg (~SSS lbs), while the uevelopeu motoi
11

piouuces 22uBP at 27uu RPN anu weighs 28kg (Nasson & Luongo, 2uuS).
The ulenn Reseaich Centei is in the miust of ueveloping a magnetically
levitateu uucteu fan. This integiates the efficiency of the electiic motoi, while
optimizing the thiust output with the uucteu fan. This technology is beneficial, anu
applicable, to electiic motoi piopulsion as it utilizes the motoi foi piopulsion anu
ieuuces beaiing fiiction uiag, which can be a substantial system limitei (Emeison,
n.u.).
Aiiciaft uesign is also a majoi consiueiation with the intiouuction of electiic
motois. The 0niveisity of Notie Bame anu Nanjing 0niveisity of Aeionautics anu
Astionautics collaboiateu to investigate the neeus of such an aiiciaft foi subspace
opeiation. The gioup uesigneu an intiicate fiamewoik foi electiic-poweieu
unmanneu aeiial vehicle. Though this aiticle piimaiily ielates to aeiospace
uynamics, seveial paits aie ielevant to electiic motoi system uesign in which
multiple vaiiables weie iuentifieu anu analyzeu. The papei contains a significant
amount of infoimation that coulu potentially inciease the knowleuge base of those
who wish to implement an electiic motoi into an aiiciaft application (Batill,
Stelmack, & Qing Yu, 1999).
Anothei application of the BTS motoi is coupleu with a high efficiency uucteu
fan in anothei IEEE aiticle. BTS motois aie efficient enough to pioviue powei to the
aiiciaft, but the piimaiy question at that point is, how to change that eneigy into
foiwaiu piopulsion. A logical solution to this inquiiy is the utilization of uucteu fan
technology. As this intiouuces anothei vaiiable to the ieseaich, the authoi uiu not
12

auuiess this topic. Bowevei, this conjoineu technology has enough potential to
opeiate anu suppoit a jumbo-sizeu aiiciaft (Nasson, et al., 2uu9). This potentially
coulu piove the theoiy of electiical piopulsion coupleu with uucteu fan technology
within the veiy Light }et (vL}) sectoi of aviation.
The negative foi these motois, howevei, is the usage of BTS technology.
Though extiemely efficient, the motoi iequiies ueep, ciyogenic cooling. This, in tuin
incieases weight, complicates the system in teims of maintenance, anu ieuuces the
total powei output, as the motoi must also opeiate the cooling agent.
Since the electiic aiiciaft is a ielatively new maiket outsiue of ultialight
aiiciaft, few stanuaius exist foi the inuustiy. Cuiiently, ASTN Inteinational,
foimeily known as the Ameiican Society foi Testing anu Nateiials, is ueveloping
such stanuaius. ASTN Inteinational is a woilu iespecteu oiganization which
uevelops stanuaius foi eveiy aspect of engineeiing anu manufactuiing. ASTN's
committee FS7 is focuseu on light spoit aiiciaft, anu is examining iequiieu
stanuaius foi the uevelopment anu piouuction of all-electiic aiiciaft.
In 2u11, the FAA will examine the necessaiy stanuaius anu iegulations
neeueu foi electiic flight. The FAA has been quoteu saying, "This is all in the
beginning stages. 0ui appioach is to have the companies anu inuustiy piove the
technology fiist anu establish that the technology is viable unuei ASTN stanuaius.
Then the FAA will examine how we will accommouate the aiiciaft fiom the
iegulatoiy anuoi policy siue" (Coppingei, 2u1u).
1S

0thei entities such as Flight Besign, an afteimaiket, light-spoit aiiciaft
mouifiei oiiginating in Euiope, anu the Euiopean Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
have also expiesseu the uigency of ueveloping stanuaius foi an all-electiic aiiciaft
stating, "Sometimes people aie asking foi this |the ceitification of an electiic
enginej, we have some companies in minu. We aie open minueu to new technology
as long as they aie safe enough" (Coppingei, 2u1u).
Cuiiently, an inuustiy-iespecteu entity has begun ueveloping guiuelines foi a
"gieen" aiiciaft by ueveloping a challenge. The CAFE Founuation is a non-piofit
oiganization focuseu on auvancing peisonal aiiciaft technology thiough means of
ieseaich anu euucation. 0iiginating fiom EAA Chaptei 124 in Santa Rosa, Califoinia,
the oiganization has continually challengeu the inuustiy by ueveloping
competitions. Fiom these competitions, CAFE has uevelopeu haiuwaie, chaits anu
softwaie impioving the technological inuustiy of ueneial Aviation opeiatois. Some
of the uevelopments incluue new baiogiaphs anu moie efficient flying technique
(CAFE Founuation; Stoiy).
CAFE has uevelopeu flight test equipment anu softwaie packages known as
CAFE 4uu that iecoiu the following enviionmental factois:
1. Aiiciaft speeus
2. Aiiciaft weight
S. Ambient tempeiatuies
4. Ambient piessuies
S. Fiequencies, anu
14

6. Sounu levels
This softwaie package has been a piominent asset iecognizeu by
oiganizations such as Aiiciaft 0wneis anu Pilots Association (A0PA), Expeiimental
Aiiciaft Association (EAA), anu National Aeionautics anu Space Auministiation
(NASA) (CAFE Founuation; About).
Nost iecently, they have uevelopeu the uieen Flight Challenge, which is a
$1.6SN NASA-funueu contest, piomoting moie efficient fuels anu piopulsion units
within ueneial Aviation. The contest will take place on }uly 11-17, 2u11 in Santa
Rosa, Califoinia. In this papei, ceitain stanuaius fiom the CAFE competition aie
being useu as a mission piofile, which can be founu in the Nethouology
section(CAFE Founuation; uieen).
2.S. Fuel Cell Integiation
Nultiple analytical assessments of fuel cell integiation within the aviation
maiket have pioven beneficial to the inuustiy. The main categoiies of fuel cells with
possible applications foi aviation incluue: Pioton Exchange Nembiane (PEN),
Alkaline, Biiect Nethanol, Phosphoiic Aciu, Nolten Caibonate, anu Soliu 0xiue.
While all of these fuel cells offei inuiviuualistic chaiacteiistics that aie beneficial in
specific situations, they each aie associateu with theii uisauvantages, as well. PEN
fuel cells, being the most pievalent in the automotive maiket, offei a significantly
low opeiating tempeiatuie (8u
o
C) in compaiison to the othei fuel cell
configuiations, but iequiie the use of platinum anu an extiavagant watei
management system. At the othei enu of the spectium, Soliu 0xiue fuel cells opeiate
1S

between 8uu-1uuu
o
C, but utilize nickel insteau of platinum, anu can pioviue
efficiencies up to 8S-9u% efficient (aviation's cuiient, most efficient moue of powei
geneiation ueiives fiom piston engines at appioximately 4S% efficiency (Revankai,
2uu9).
In 2uuS, NASA once again publisheu an aiticle in iegaius of alteinative
piopulsion within aviation. NASA assesseu the potential of a fuel cell-poweieu,
electiic aiiciaft utilizing the Pioton Exchange Nembiane fuel cell. This ieseaich
founu that flight coulu be maue with this fuel cell in a veiy light aiiciaft with
iestiictions anu ieuuctions on iateu speeu, climb iate, iange, anu payloau-caiiying
capability. Also, notable in this aiticle, it is stateu that heat management, hyuiogen
piouuction, anu aiipoit stoiage of hyuiogen aie continuous uilemmas of this
opeiation (Beiton, }oshua, & Timothy, 2uuS). Byuiogen, possessing explosive
chaiacteiistics, poses an economical thieat, as the element is not ieauily founu in
natuie. The hyuiogen must be isolateu fiom compounus, which is a piocess that
involves pooi efficiencies anu a high-eneigy loss.
0n the othei hanu, Soliu 0xiue fuel cells uo not iequiie hyuiogen to opeiate.
This fuel cell becomes moie efficient as the tempeiatuie iises, anu piouuces
hyuiogen natuially as a by-piouuct of the natuial gas fuel that it utilizes. Anothei
aiticle fiom the Ameiican Association foi the Auvancement of Science (AAAS)
illustiates the potential of using a commonly useu hyuiocaibon as the piimaiy
catalyst within a soliu oxiue fuel cell. 0tilizing a high-octane fuel (specific octane
numbei not given), the ieseaich gioup was able to piouuce a ~u.6Wcm
2
output at
16

77u
o
C. In compaiison, opeiating with the common natuial gas with inteinal
iefoiming, efficiencies can ieach peaks of 1.1 to ~1.2Wcm
2
. 0utputs of this
magnituue appeai veiy significant, as with an octane-baseu catalyst, the system
contains few moving paits, fewei enuotheimic ieactions neai the fuel inlet, anu a
moie ieauily available fuel souice foi opeiation (Zhan & Bainett, 2uuS).
2.4. Applicable Notoi Technology
Notoi technology has been a key factoi in the limitation of aiiciaft
opeiations with an electiical poweiplant stiuctuie. Recent uevelopments have
alteieu these limitations, howevei. Though BTS motois aie capable of piouucing a
significant powei to weight iatio, as uemonstiateu by Nasson anu Luongo (Nasson
& Cesai, 2uuS), majoi uiawbacks in consiueiation foi ciyogenic opeiations pievent
the use of this technology in aiiciaft, at the piesent time.
Electiic motois have auvanceu in the last seveial uecaues. Electiic motois
now have the capabilities to ieach moie than Suu hoisepowei anu can uiiectly
compete with the inteinal combustion engine. Theie aie many options when
selecting an electiic motoi that aie all application uepenuant (i.e. AC vs. BC, single
vs. multi phase, biush vs. biushless, etc).
Foi an electiical piopulsion application, this consiueis the following motoi
chaiacteiistics:
1. Biiect Cuiient (BC)
2. Biushless
S. Pancake Configuiation
17

The fiist choice foi optimal electiic flight is Biiect Cuiient (BC) ovei
Alteinating Cuiient (AC). Table 1 compaies the positives anu negatives of each
system.
Table 1. ACBC Notoi Compaiison
AC Motor DC Motor
Higher Torque/Horsepower
Capabilities Less Rotor Heat
No Permanent Magnet Wide Spectrum of Optimal Power Setting
Magnetic Field Strength Adjustable
No Efficiency Losses due to DC to AC
Conversion
Cost Advantage
Pros

Cons Optimal Power Factor: 85 percent Permanent Magnet Expensive
Cumbersome to Control

BC motois iequiie at least two peimanent magnets that geneiate a magnetic
fielu, wheieas the AC motoi has no magnets but stacks of steel laminations with
seconuaiy conuuctois. These peimanent magnets cause the constiuction of the BC
motoi to be moie expensive than the AC motoi. The BC motoi, howevei, can opeiate
unifoimly acioss a wiuei spectium of powei settings, while the optimal powei
setting foi the AC motoi is appioximately 8S peicent of the motoi's total capability.
Even though the AC motoi has a cost anu a maximum toique auvantage ovei the BC
motoi, the efficiency loss of conveiting the BC batteiy powei to AC cuiient foi an
aiiciaft application is a piimaiy ieason that a BC motoi is selecteu foi this pioject
(Rippel, 2uu7).
Single phase vs. multi phase constiuction aie chaiacteiistics of an AC
inuuction motoi. In this stuuy, a BC motoi has been selecteu, so these phase
chaiacteiistics aie not applicable to the papei. The BC motoi has a biusheu vs.
18

biushless constiuction. Table 2 compaies the positives anu negatives of each
system.

Table 2. BiusheuBiushless Notoi Compaiison
Brushed Motor Brushless Motor
Simplicity of Control Less Maintenance
Simplicity of Maintenance
More Controllable Speed/Torque
Settings
Lower Cost of Construction No Voltage Drop Across Brushes
Simpler Control Unit High Output Power
Extreme Environmental Operation Small Frame Size
High Speed Range
Pros
Low Electromagnetic Forces

Higher Electromagnetic Force High Cost of Construction
Poor Heat Dissipation Complexity/Expense of Control Unit
Continuing Maintenance
Lower Operating Speed
Cons
Speed/Torque Less Optimized

The biusheu motoi offeis a simplicity factoi ovei the biushless motoi uue to
the fact that a biushless motoi iequiies thiee phases of uiiving coils, one oi moie
Ball effect sensois to uetect iotoi position, anu an exteinal iotoi. An auvantage of
the biushless motoi ovei the biusheu motoi is lack of touching paits. The biusheu
motoi contains caibon blocks that tiansfei powei to the commutatoi on the
spinning iotoi. These blocks weai out, inuuce fiiction heat, ieuuce the oveiall
opeiating speeu of the motoi, ieuuce the useful toique, iequiie peiiouic
maintenance of these biushes, anu cause aicing which leaus to electiomagnetic
inteifeience (Bynetic Systems). Foi these ieasons, a biushless BC motoi is the
motoi chosen foi the papei.
19

The choice of a pancake motoi ovei a conventional motoi is uue to the natuie
of the motoi's physical uimensions. Size is a factoi uue to aiiciaft cowling size. A
pancake motoi woulu be an optimal choice; howevei, this is not a iequiiement. The
iequiiement is that the motoi physically fits within the aiiciaft engine
compaitment.
Baseu on the selection ciiteiia, BC, biushless motoi is naiioweu uown to the
following alteinative motois:
1. Rasei Technologies: u-1uu ueneiatoi
2. Lange Aviation: EA42 Electiic Notoi
S. Tesla Notois: Roaustei Notoi
4. 0.S. Bybiiu: BPN 4Su Notoi
Anothei leauei in electiic motoi technology is the Baluoi Electiic Company.
Baluoi is a self-pioclaimeu, "leauei in eneigy efficient electiic motois, lineai motois
anu aujustable speeu uiives"(Baluoi Electiic Company; Piouucts). This inuustiy-
iespecteu entity pioviues well ovei Suu BC motois ianging fiom u hoisepowei to
Suu hoisepowei. While the supplieu hoisepowei is quite auequate foi the Cessna
172K, the motois aie not uesigneu foi tianspoitation applications. Foi example,
without a contiollei, the 1Su hoisepowei BSu1SuP-Bv motoi has a shipping weight
of 1S19 lbs anu a piice tag of $4u,284 (Baluoi Electiic Company; Piouuct 0veiview).
These motois piove to be not viable foi an aiiciaft application at the piesent time.
Noie iecently, howevei, an innovative, 0tah-baseu company has cieateu an
efficient alteiative to the cuiient iecipiocatingpiston engine poweiplants. The
2u

company, Rasei Technologies, has uevelopeu a motoi that weighs 172 lbs, cieates
gieatei than 4u6 ft-lb of toique, anu a 1S4 continuous hoisepowei output with a
~161 peak hoisepowei, all of which is conuenseu to a 9.S x 1S.S inch housing (Rasei
Technologies, n.u.). This motoi has been uesigneu foi the puipose of integiation into
Bummei BS E-Rev applications; howevei, the motoi is not necessaiily limiteu to
this application. The company has focuseu piimaiily within the automobile
inuustiy; howevei, they have shown an inteiest in auvancing into othei maikets
incluuing, but not limiteu to, aeiospace. Aftei extensive conveisations with the
company, the eviuence is quite cleai that the company has inteiests, but a lack of
unueistanuing of aviation maiket iequiiements. Shoulu Rasei Technologies begin
ieseaich anu motoi application into seveial aiiciaft test beus, the potential foi
electiical piopulsion coulu be beneficial to both inuustiies.
Lange Aviation umbB is a ueiman company that has uevelopeu the fully-
electiic self-launching Antaies 2uE sailplane. While this aiiciaft is not an equivalent
of the Cessna 172K, it is one of the only commeicially available fully-electiic aiiciaft
in the inuustiy. This papei analyzes the 42kW electiic motoi employeu on the
aiiciaft in the motoi selection Pugh matiix.
The next motoi analyzeu in the motoi selection Pugh matiix is the Tesla
Notois Roaustei motoi. The Tesla Roaustei is a fully-electiic automobile anu not an
aiiciaft, but it still commeicially available. The motoi, contiollei, anu batteiy system
have pioven viability as these piouucts have been utilizeu in ovei 1,Suu Tesla
Roausteis that have been manufactuieu in the last thiee yeais(Tesla Notois).
21

The last motoi in consiueiation is the 0.S. Bybiiu BPN 4Su motoi. Founueu
in 2uuu, 0.S. Bybiiu specializes in the uesign anu manufactuiing aspects of powei
components foi vehicles iequiiing high amounts of electiical powei. 0.S. Bybiiu has
uevelopeu two motois applicable to aviation that incluue the BPN 4Su anu the BPN
1uuu. While both motois shaie similai chaiacteiistics incluuing maximum powei,
input voltages, anu efficiencies, the BPN 4Su is moie applicable to the Cessna 172
aiiciaft uue to the motoi's highei toique anu lowei ipm. The BPN 1uuu motoi is
appioximately 66 lbs heaviei than its counteipait, anu both of the motoi's 2Suu
ipm matches the piopellei useu on the Cessna 172. (0.S. Bybiiu Inteinational). 0.S.
Bybiius has iecently uevelopeu an electiic motoi system foi Sikoisky, a subsiuiaiy
of 0niteu Technologies Coip. In }uly of 2u1u, 0shkosh, Wisconsin, a netwoik of
Sikoisky employees known as Sikoisky Innovations uevelopeu the pioof of concept
helicoptei, Fiiefly. The team ieplaceu the inteinal combustion components of a S-
SuuC
TN
with a 0.S. Bybiius motoi anu uaia batteiy system (Sikoisky, 2u1u).
2.S. Applicable Batteiy Technology

Whethei iefeiencing automobile oi aiiciaft, batteiy technology is commonly
consiueieu the gieatest limitation to electiical piopulsion. In iecent yeais, batteiy
technology has steauily impioveu. With the uevelopment of the lithium-ion, the
batteiy inuustiy was ievolutionizeu. Since that time peiiou, vaiiations of the Li-ion
batteiy have piouuceu some vaiieu iesults.
1'20")& 3$,#+$# pioviues the following explanation of Li-ion technology anu
Li-ion auvancements:
22

Li-ion batteiies woik by tiansfeiiing lithium ions between a
cathoue anu an anoue thiough a liquiu electiolyte. The capacity
of a batteiy is ueteimineu by the numbei of ions it can contain
anu how quickly those ions can be exchangeu. Silicon is an
iueal mateiial foi anoues because it allows lithium ions to pass
in anu out of the electioue veiy quickly. But the expansion anu
contiaction of silicon paiticles as the ions entei anu leave
uegiaues the silicon in shoit oiuei, iuining the batteiy. Insteau,
neaily all li-ion batteiies contain giaphite anoues that can
withstanu iepeateu chaige cycles. 45,""'67 89:9;
While lithium-ion batteiies aie not the only selection available foi electiic
flight, they uo pose the laigest electiic capacity to weight iatio than any othei
electiical stoiage solution. Foi a complete analysis of available batteiy solutions, see
Appenuix A.
Lithium-ion batteiies uo pose a pioblem in aviation. 0n Febiuaiy 7, 2uu6, a
0niteu Paicel Seivice (0PS) BC-8 aiiciaft, Flight 1Su7 iepoiteu a caigo smoke
inuication. Insteau of pioceeuing on to the Atlanta, ueoigia uestination, the ciew
lanueu at Philauelphia Inteinational Aiipoit anu evacuateu the aiiciaft. Soon
theieaftei, the aiiciaft became engulfeu in flames. Aftei iefeiiing to similai
inciuences in 1999, 2uu4, anu 2uuS, the National Tianspoitation Safety Boaiu
(NTSB) iepoiteu that the piimaiy factoi of the fiie weie the lithium-ion batteiies in
the caigo holu (Billuiup, 2uu6). As the aiiciaft climbs, the ambient piessuie changes
2S

with altituue. Lithium-ion batteiies, stoieu in unpiessuiizeu poitions of aiiciaft,
much like that of the 0PS flight, oveiheat with these piessuie changes anu can even
cause suiiounuing mateiials to ignite. It shoulu be noteu that lithium-polymei
baseu batteiies uo not have similai chaiacteiistics, anu thus aie still in
consiueiation foi electiical stoiage onboaiu aiiciaft.
2.6. Aiiciaft Integiation
The most pievalent foim of electiical piopulsion within aviation occuis
within the sailplane sectoi. Both Pipistiel anu Lange Aviation have cieateu aiiciaft
that aie capable of flying significant uistances on electiical powei uue to theii light
weight aiifiame anu the aiiciafts' low amount of uiag. A majoi uiawback howevei is
the cost to pioviue powei. Whethei utilizing a batteiy, fuel cell, oi ultia capacitoi,
the piice of the item is gieatei in compaiison to the cuiient fuel supply. Aviation
gasoline is capable of piouucing appioximately 6.u kWlb of fuel, wheieas lithium-
ion batteiies aie the next most efficient souice of eneigy at a miniscule u.2SkWlb
of fuel (Collum, 2u1u).
Noie iecently, companies such as Lange Flugzeugbau, have integiateu
existing electiic piopulsion mouules with sailplanes that can give an accuiate
estimate of cuiient motoi technology in iefeience to opeiational peifoimances.
With a maximum weight of 14SS lb, the aiiciaft is capable of a maximum climb iate
of 866 ftmin on a 42kWS7 hoisepowei BC biushless motoi with a 17uu RPN
(Euiopean Aviation Safety Agency, 2uu6). Relating this hoisepowei to the
24

pieviously mentioneu Rasei Technologies motoi, it becomes eviuent that ieseaich
neeus to be conuucteu with a laigei scale aiiciaft using cuiient powei supplies.
Noie iecently, howevei, Boeing has enteieu the maiket with a woilu-fiist
fuel cell poweieu aiiciaft. The aiiciaft, Biamonu Bimona, is a motoigliuei that maue
its maiuen voyage in eaily 2uu8. The aiiciaft is capable of ieaching 6S mph foi at
least 2u minutes (Boeing, 2uu8).
Competing uiiectly alongsiue of Boeing is the Italian aiiciaft, SkySpaik. The
completely batteiy-poweieu aiiciaft is capable of ieaching speeus up to 1S4 mph on
a 7S kW biushless motoi anu lithium polymei batteiies (uiauy, 2uu9). The aiiciaft
affiliates, consisting of Bigisky anu Tuiin Polytechnic 0niveisity, now aie woiking
togethei to cieate a hyuiogen fuel cell aiiciaft anu a solai-poweieu aiiplane.
0ne of the moie iecent uevelopments in electiical piopulsion is an
expeiimental electiically poweieu aiiciaft coupleu with hovei capabilities at NASA.
NASA's Puffin aiiciaft woulu be capable of ciuising at 149 mph with a top speeu of
298 mph. With a theoietic iange of 8u kilometeis, the motois have the capability of
piopelling the aiiciaft anu single pilot with just 6u hoisepowei (Bainstoiff, 2u1u).
Bye Eneigy is committeu to the commeicialization of alteinative eneigy
technologies. Cieating a Stiategic Auvisoiy Council, Bye Eneigy focuses on
alteinative aviation biofuels anu electiical piopulsion. In Novembei of 2u1u, Bye
Eneigy announceu theii newest pioject, an electiic Cessna 172. Bye Eneigy is
utilizing a 4u to 4S pounu electiic motoi to gain appioximately one houi's woith of
flying time in Phase 1. The company will then initiate Phase 2, which is the
2S

implementation of a six-blaueu piopellei, solai panels, anu iegeneiative ciicuitiy
incieasing the Cessna's flying time to appioximately two houis(Tiescott, 2u1u). This
pioject auus eviuence suppoiting the viability of a fully-electiic Cessna 172 aiiciaft.
Nost iecently, Yuneec Inteinational, a Chinese company, has uevelopeu the
Yuneec e4Su twin seat, single engine electiic aiiciaft. Besigneu foi the Light-Spoit
Aiiciaft (LSA) class, this fully-electiic aiiciaft has a potential flight time between 1.S
to S.u houis, uepenuing on the configuiation of the aiiciaft. Expecting to be
commeicially available in 2u11, the e4Su will have a piice tag of $89,uuu 0SB. The
aiiciaft specifications can be founu in table S (Yuneec Inteinational, 2u1u)
Table S. Yuneec e4Su Specifications (Yuneec Inteinational, 2u1u)
Yuneec e430 Specs
General Batteries
Seat Quantity 2 Type Li-Po
Empty Wt w/ Batteries 561 lbs Weight 184 lbs
Useful Load 385 lbs Voltage 133.2V
Flight Time (hours)
1.5 to
3.0 Amperage 100 Ah
Motor Flight Characteristics
Output 40 kW Maximum Speed 95 mph
54 hp Cruise Speed 60 mph
Size (diameter) 9.45 in Glide Ratio 24:1
Weight 42 lbs
Controller Weight 15.4 lbs
2.7. Benefits of Electiic Piopulsion
The application of electiic motois in aviation intiouuces multiple benefits to
the inuustiy. Electiic motois have the potential foi 9S% efficiency. In compaiison,
the inteinal combustion engine may opeiate at appioximately 18-2S% efficiency
(Choi, 2u1u).
26

Fiom an auuible stanupoint, at 1Su meteis, electiic motois typically opeiate
at peaks of Su uecibels, which may ioughly be compaieu to the volume level of a
conveisation. Cuiiently, flight opeiations aie heavily iegulateu uuiing houis that
may affect suiiounuing neighboihoous. As some aiipoits aie technically a public
uomain, the citizens suiiounuing the aiipoit have an input on the opeiations. Thus,
as many aiiciaft piouuce noise that may be founu unuesiiable to some, aiiplanes
must sometimes follow a stiict flyno-fly scheuule.
Anothei majoi factoi is that motois piouuce significantly less heat than uo
inteinal combustion engines. This uiamatic ieuuction in theimal heat may ieuuce
an aiiciaft signatuie, thus impioving pilot anu aiiciaft safety while opeiating in
hostile teiiitoiies (Choi, 2u1u).
Electiic piopulsion systems aie beneficial in the sense of maintenance. With
cuiiently utilizeu engines, the systems aie a conglomeiate of multiple moving paits,
heat contiols, fuel contiols, staiteis, all of which iequiie maintenance. With electiic
motois, the only systems iequiieu foi opeiation aie the thiottle, batteiies, a
contiollei anu a motoi. This ieuuces the iequiieu oveiall moving paits, thus fewei
beaiing ieplacements, fewei contiols, fewei weai points, anu a ieuuction in the
potential foi system failuie. Also, even though engines may be iuentical makes anu
mouels, each engine opeiates uiffeiently fiom each othei, thus the contiols, gauges,
anu computeis must be auueu to the system to maintain synchionous opeiation. In
contiast, with piopei ciicuitiy, a single voltage iegulatoi can contiol multiple
electiic motois. Thus, electiic motoi opeiation ieuuces the iequiieu amount of
27

contiols, gauges, anu computeis. Notois aie simplistic in opeiation ielative to
engines. 0nce again, as the applieu voltage is the only vaiiable intiouuceu into a
system to iegulate the opeiation of the motoi, the only iequiieu component is a
thiottle contiol. This, once again, ieuuces the iequiieu systems foi engine opeiation,
ieuuces the potential foi failuie, anu ieuuces the oveiall cost of the system in teims
of both maintenance anu initial investment.
0nlike combustion engines, wheie the efficiency of the system is impacteu by
fuel input, altituue, humiuity, aii tempeiatuie, aiiciaft speeu, anu othei atmospheiic
conuitions, the electiic motoi geneiates iateu powei thioughout a ielatively wiue
iange enviionmental changes. This can be accomplisheu uue to the fact that the
motoi opeiates the same thioughout the vaiiety of enviionmental changes that
occui uuiing flight. The motoi is a closeu system that uoes not consume aii, thus the
vaiiables mentioneu at the beginning of this paiagiaph uo not have an effect on the
motoi.
Nultiple othei factois piomoting electiic integiation in compaiison to
cuiient inteinal combustion engine technology incluue impioveu ieliability,
impioveu safety, anu a lowei oveiall cost in teims of initial puichase anu opeiation.
Electiic piopulsion is, in compaiison to inteinal combustion engines, cleanei,
economical, anu has the wiuei hoiizon foi innovative technology (Bye, 2uu9).
Finally, the majoi push foi alteinative piopulsions is uue to the leau
emissions issue within the aviation inuustiy. The fuel utilizeu in some aiiciaft
applications still iequiies a leau auuitive to pievent the engine fiom uetonating. The
28

tetia ethyl leau (TEL) is useu to inciease iesistance to uetonation, anu allows foi a
highei compiession. With this leau auuitive, howevei, the FRIENBS 0F TBE EARTB,
an woilu iespecteu piogiessive enviionmental auvocate oiganization, have
petitioneu the Enviionmental Piotection Agency (EPA) to foice an elimination of
leau founu in the atmospheie is causeu by aviation(FRIENBS 0F TBE EARTB, 2uu6).
This will cause the aiiline maiket in extieme conuitions wheie aiiplanes aie the
only moue of tianspoitation, such as Alaska anu Bawaii, to suffei anu even
potentially uestioy maikets.
2.8. Reasons foi Belay
A piimaiy issue iegaiuing the maiket uelay in the integiation of electiic
motois within aviation is paitially uue to the lack of powei supply technology. While
companies such as EEStoi have utilizeu auvanceu ultia capacitoi technology to
supply a gieat amount of powei in compaiison to weight, few cutting euge powei
supply technologies have emeigeu foi public application. EEStoi, foi example, have
supposeuly uevelopeu an innovative ultia capacitoi system capable of supplying
powei foi houis of electiic motoi use, howevei all of theii woik has been veiy
secietive anu has been puichaseu by goveinment affiliateu companies such as
Lockheeu-Naitin (vanbebbei, 2uu8).
Leau-aciu batteiies continue to be extiemely heavy in compaiison to othei
batteiy technology; howevei, lithium-ion batteiies aie ielatively expensive anu aie
iepoiteuly haimful foi the enviionment to even manufactuie. 0ltia capacitoi
technology, while having a typical thiee to five minute chaige time anu light weight,
29

intiouuce maintenance hazaius such as electiocution anu consume foui to five
times as much physical aiea as leau-aciu batteiies foi the equivalent powei output.
In 2uu9, Populai Nechanics authoi Baviu Nolan suggesteu that the Feueial
Aviation Auministiation (FAA) was also a piimaiy ieason that the electiic aviation
maiket has not taken off. As explaineu in the aiticle, the FAA, which iegulates all
aviation issues within the 0niteu States, has piohibiteu electiic motoi
implementation within the light spoit aiiciaft sectoi. Nolan also mentioneu that
othei countiies, which have moie lenient aviation authoiities, aie taking auvantage
of this situation anu aie piouucing electiic aiiciaft to be solu within the 0niteu
States. The FAA obviously opposes this theoiy stating, "We neeu to get some moie
flight expeiience with electiic motois" (Nolanu, 2uu9, p. 16).
2.9. Pugh Natiices
The Ciiteiia Baseu Natiix, also known as a Pugh Natiix, is implementeu in
Six Sigma anu is a methou of evaluating options against one anothei. This methou is
commonly useu with the Quality Function Beployment, also known as a Bouse of
Quality. 0iiginally uevelopeu by Ni. Stuait Pugh at the 0niveisity of Stathclyue in
Scotlanu, the matiix iuentifies usei iequiiements, the impoitance (oi weight) of
each iequiiement, anu compaies each option against a pieueteimineu baseline. The
baseline is typically uefineu as the system being ieplaceu. The output of this analysis
is a piioiitization between the options, uemonstiating the significance of one ovei
anothei (Thompson, 2uu7).
Su

SECTI0N S. NETB0B0L0uY
This section incluues the stuuy uesign, the hypothesis anu the means of
collecting the ielevant uata.
S.1. Stuuy Besign
The ieseaich methou chosen foi this stuuy is a quantitative compaiison
appioach. Quantitative iesults suppoit oi negate the hypothesis that electiical flight
in ueneial Aviation aiiciaft such as the Cessna 172K is possible using existing
technology.
The fiamewoik foi this stuuy is a uesciiptive compaiison between the 0-
S2u-E2B inteinal combustion engine anu a compaiable electiical motoi. The Cessna
172K with the existing 0-S2u engine, seiving as a baseline case, is compaieu siue-
by-siue to the electiic motoi anu suppoiting technology in both a numeiical anu a
qualitative foim. Engine to the motoi output powei capabilities, empiiical uata foi
ciucial opeiations, such as lanuing, take-off, ciuise, climb iate, maximum payloau,
anu aiiciaft iange is analyzeu in a siue-by-siue, giaphical foim.
A selection of the motoi anu suppoiting technology is maue using a Pugh
matiix analysis foi each technology. The selection methou foi each technology is as
follows:
1. Analyze commeicially available potential motois anu powei stoiage uevices
to gain a thoiough knowleuge iegaiuing the cuiient technology.
2. Befine the feasible iange foi paiameteis. Filtei out options that uo not fall
within the feasible iange foi this ieseaich.
S1

S. Besign a Pugh Natiix to evaluate the following ciiteiia foi each technology
a. Notois:
i. Naximum continuous hoisepowei,
ii. Naximum toique vs. RPN,
iii. Physical weight,
iv. Physical uimensions,
v. Cooling techniques,
vi. Requiieu contiollei,
vii. ueai ieuuction
b. Powei Stoiage:
i. Physical weight,
ii. Physical uimensions,
iii. Continuous voltage capability,
iv. Naximum voltage capability
v. Continuous ampeie-houi capability,
vi. Naximum ampeie-houi capability
vii. Capable of high altituues
4. Beciue a motoi solution. The ieasoning foi this is that the motoi capabilities
aie the piimaiy uiivei of the electiical piopulsion solution.
S. Iuentifiy the batteiy solution, which ultimately limits the aiiciaft iange. The
selection of batteiy is limiteu by the amount of physical space anu weight
S2

available aboaiu the aiiciaft, once all of the inteinal engine anu associateu
components aie iemoveu anu the motoi is implementeu.
S.2. Neasuiement anu Instiumentation
Aiiciaft manufactuieis publish uata foi each aiiciaft iegaiuing iequiieu
flight opeiations anu engine peifoimances foi a given situation. These aie usually
ueliveieu in a giaphical foim anu can be utilizeu as the piimaiy uata foi the 0-S2u-
E2B engine, ielative to the Cessna 172K. Infoimation can also be obtaineu via the
Naintenance Nanuals anu Paits Catalogs in oiuei to finu component weights, centei
of giavity ianges, anu specific component placements.
Electiic motois uo iely on oxygen foi opeiation, as inteinal combustion
engines uo, theiefoie atmospheiic conuitions uo not impact motoi peifoimances.
Notoi peifoimance factois uo not vaiy in ielation to humiuity, altituue, aii uensity,
baiometiic piessuie, aii viscosity, aiiciaft velocity oi tempeiatuie, as motois uo not
opeiate on the piinciples of combustion, which iequiie oxygen. Thus, a change in
altituue will have little to no effect on the motoi. These contiolleu vaiiables will
affect the efficiency of the piopulsoi, such as a piopellei, anu is taken into account
uuiing flight opeiations. The piimaiy measuiement foi the motoi is the maximum
hoisepowei anu toique outputs.
S.S. Nission Piofile
The CAFE Founuation's uieen Flight Challenge is being useu as the piimaiy
stanuaiu to measuie the success of the fully-electiic aiiciaft uevelopeu in this papei.
This stanuaiu is utilizeu because of seveial factois incluuing the oiganization's
SS

piestige, the accessibility of the iegulations, anu the uieen Flight Challenge's
acceptance in the inuustiy (CAFE Founuation). The peifoimances aie as follows:
1. Range: 2uu statute miles, with Su minute ieseive, uay vFR at > 4uuu feet
2. Speeu: > 1uu mph aveiage on each of two 2uu mile flights
S. Takeoff Bistance: < 2uuu feet fiom biake ielease to cleai a Su foot obstacle
The FAA uefines the stanuaiu weight of a pilot to be 17u lbs in the FAA
appioveu Aiiciaft Weight anu Balance Banubook(Feueial Aviation Auministiation).
Stanuaius foi the Cessna 172K with Lycoming 0-S2u-E2B engine aie as
follows:
1. Climb Rate: 721 feet pei minute
2. Ciuise: 112.S Boisepowei at 1Su mph
S. Lanuing Bistance: 1Suu feet ovei a Su foot obstacle (Suu feet lanuing ioll)
The following CAFE Founuation uieen Flight Challenge iequiiements aie
being uisiegaiueu foi this papei:
1. Efficiency anu Fuel Eneigy 0seu: This is being uisiegaiueu as this uiiecteu
pioject aims to evaluate electiical possibilities given touay's available
technology foi a common ueneial Aviation aiiciaft, anu will not evaluate the
efficiency of the system.
2. Ninimum Speeu, Banuling Qualities, Wingspan, Fielu of view, Contiol
System, Flightwoithiness: This is being uisiegaiueu because the Cessna 172
aiiciaft being mouifieu will maintain the manufactuiei's centei of giavity
envelope, thus the aiiciaft will geneially meet the CAFE manuateu
S4

iequiiements. The electiical piopulsion mouification has little to no effect on
these factois in compaieu to the oiiginal uesign of the aiiciaft.
S. Community Noise: The electiical piopulsion mouification will have a lowei
uBA than its inteinal combustion engine counteipait.
4. Passengeis anu Seating Configuiation: In oiuei to achieve a longei flight, the
electiic Cessna 172 is uesigneu foi a single pilot at the weight uesciibeu by
the FAA.
S. vehicle Weight: The maximum weight of the Cessna 172 is uefineu in the
aiiciaft's Type Ceitificate Bata Sheet (TCBS). This weight is the maximum
weight allowable foi this papei.
S.4. Sampling Appioach
0pon acquiiing the 0-S2u-E2B peifoimance chaits anu obseiving the
selecteu motoi's opeiational chait, a uiiect compaiison is maue foi each vaiiable.
0veilaying the chaits upon each othei piouuces numeiical uata to help suppoit oi
uispiove the hypothesis.
The qualitative analysis also incluues the benefits anu uiawbacks of the
electiic motoi veisus the piston engine in teims of the contiolleu vaiiables. This
section also incluues the maiket tienu causing the push foi alteinative piopulsion
mouules. The qualitative analysis also intiouuces the ieauei to the auvantages anu
uisauvantages of electiic motois anu piston engines.
SS

The final section uemonstiates the potential integiation of the fully electiic
system into the Cessna 172K incluuing weight & balance uata anu specific
component costs.
S.S. Beliveiables
The final outcome of this ieseaich is to pioviue a potentially viable option foi
electiical piopulsion in aviation utilizing cuiient maiket available technologies foi
the Cessna 172K. The ieseaich shall explain the capabilities of selecteu electiic
motois anu the auvancements of powei stoiage uevices such as batteiies.
In auuition, the anticipateu effects on the Cessna's centei of giavity is
analyzeu. A viable solution foi electiical piopulsion must take into account the
location of the centei of giavity such that it is within the accepteu iange.
S6

SECTI0N 4. RES0LTS
4.1. Pugh Natiix Results
The electiic motoi Pugh Natiix can be founu in table 4. The total scoie foi
each motoi can be calculateu as:
Total = (Weight1*Impoitance1) + (Weight2*Impoitance2) + .
(Weightn*Impoitancen)
As uemonstiateu in this table, the 0.S. Bybiiu BPN 4Su appeais to be the
most suitable foi an electiical piopulsion application. The BPN 4Su was selecteu
because of its customizable hoisepowei to ipm settings, low weight, anu maximum
hoisepowei capability. Table S uemonstiates the weight scaling useu in the motoi
selection Pugh matiix.
S7

Table 4. Electiic Notoi Pugh Natiix
8ASLLlnL
Scale: (0) Lo (10)
Lycomlng C-320-L2u 8aser 1ech C100 Lange LA42
CrlLerla lmporLance Measured WelghL Measured WelghL Measured WelghL
Porsepower 10.0 130.0 .0 160.0 10.0 31.6 3.0
8M [ Max Porsepower 8.0 2700.0 .0 4000.0 0.0 1800.0 3.0
ower ConsumpLlon
(Amp-hour)
7.0 n/A .0 160.0 9.0
133.0
Lo 202.0
10.0
WelghL (lbs) 9.0 268.0 .0 172.0 10.0 64.2 10.0
volume/ L x Cu (ln
3
) 7.0
29.6
x 32.2
x 23.2
.0
9.3
x 13.3
10.0
10.7
x 9.8
10.0
1C1AL .0 323.0 284.0

8ASLLlnL
Scale: (0) Lo (10)
Lycomlng C-320-L2u 1esla MoLors u.S. Pyrbld PM 430
CrlLerla lmporLance Measured WelghL Measured WelghL Measured WelghL
Porsepower 10.0 130.0 .0 288.0 10.0 161.0 10.0
8M [ Max Porsepower 8.0 2700.0 .0
3000.0
Lo 6000.0
0.0
2300.0
Lo 4000.0
10.0
ower ConsumpLlon
(Amp-hour)
7.0 n/A .0 373.0 0.0
171.0
Lo 267.0
9.0
WelghL (lbs) 9.0 268.0 .0 113.0 10.0 143.0 10.0
volume/ L x Cu (ln
3
) 7.0
29.6
x 32.2
x 23.2
.0 <C-320 10.0
7.0
x 17.0
10.0
1C1AL .0 260.0 403.0


Table S. Electiic Notoi Pugh Natiix Scale
8M [ Max Porsepower
WelghL Porsepower
Plgh Scale Low Scale
ower ConsumpLlon
(Amp-hour)
WelghL (lbs)
0 0 1300 3900 330 470
1 13 1600 3800 490 430
2 30 1700 3700 430 430
3 43 1800 3600 410 410
4 60 1900 3300 370 390
3 73 2000 3400 330 370
6 90 2100 3300 290 330
7 103 2200 3200 230 330
8 120 2300 3100 210 310
9 133 2400 3000 170 290
10 130 2300 Lo 2900 130 270
S8

The BPN 4Su motoi has an input voltage of 4Suvuc to 7uu vuc, a weight of
14S lbs, anu an efficiency of > 96%. Cuiiently utilizeu in the Sikoisky Fiiefly
helicoptei, the motoi has a 12u kW maximum powei anu a 4Su Nm maximum
toique at 2Suu ipm.
The batteiy selection Pugh Natiix can be founu in table 6. The batteiy
selection was moie complicateu than the motoi selection uue to the abunuance of
innovative batteiy companies. As uemonstiateu below, the Teneigy Li-S0Cl2 batteiy
was selecteu piimaiily because of the massive powei-to-weight iatio in compaiison
to the othei batteiy solutions. The batteiy technology is the limiting factoi to
electiical piopulsion in aviation, uue piimaiily to the significant weight
iequiiements as the aiiciaft can lift a limiteu amount of weight. The piimaiy fuel foi
the Lycoming 0-S2u engine is 1uuLL. The batteiy acts in a similai fashion as the
1uuLL, as it supplies the eneigy to the piopulsion mouule. The 1uuLL cannot seive
as a baseline, howevei, because the fuel is significantly moie eneigy iich pei volume
than the batteiies. All batteiies in compaiison to the 1uuLL fuel woulu become
negative numbeis. Theiefoie, the batteiies aie compaieu to each othei. Table 7
uemonstiates the weight scaling useu in the motoi selection Pugh matiix.
S9

Table 6. Batteiy Selection Pugh Natiix

Scale: (0) Lo (10)
1energy A123 SysLems
Ll-olymer Ll-SCCl
2
rlsmaLlc
CrlLerla lmporLance
Measured WelghL Measured WelghL Measured WelghL
ower CapaclLy/WelghL
(WaLL-hour/lbs)
10.0 64.300 2.0 230.000 10.0 62.300 2.0
ower uellvery CapablllLy
(1 = ?es/0 = no)
7.0 1.000 10.0 1.000 10.0 1.000 10.0
ower CapaclLy/volume
(WaLL-hour/ln
3
)
7.0 .003 2.0 .024 10.0 .001 0.0
1C1AL 104.0 240.0 90.0


Scale: (0) Lo (10)
valence SafL
Llle MalC
4
vL43L le vL32L
CrlLerla
lmporLance Measured WelghL Measured WelghL Measured WelghL
ower CapaclLy/WelghL
(WaLL-hour/lbs)
10.0 41.100 1.0 68.700 2.0 84.900 3.0
ower uellvery CapablllLy
(1 = ?es/0 = no)
7.0 1.000 10.0 1.000 10.0 1.000 10.0
ower CapaclLy/volume
(WaLL-hour/ln
3
)
7.0 .004 1.0 .006 2.0 .008 3.0
1C1AL 87.0 104.0 121.0


Table 7. Batteiy Selection Pugh Natiix Scale
WelghL
ower
CapaclLy/WelghL
(WaLL-hour/lbs)
ower CapaclLy /
volume
(WaLL-hour/ln
3
)
0 30 0.001
1 30 0.0033
2 70 0.0036
3 90 0.0079
4 110 0.0102
3 130 0.0123
6 130 0.0148
7 170 0.0171
8 190 0.0194
9 210 0.0217
10 230 0.024

4u

As each of the batteiies have uiffeient voltage anu ampeie-houi outputs, this
uiiecteu pioject calculates the watt-houi of each batteiy which is founu by the
following equation Watt-houi = voltage x Ampeie-houi. Aftei this calculation, all the
batteiies can be uiiectly compaieu against one anothei.
The S.6v, 19Ah Teneigy Li-S0Cl2 batteiy has an eneigy uensity of 92S.94
Watt-Bouilb. In oiuei to meet the BPN 4Su powei iequiiement foi two houis of
opeiation, a total of 2,6S7 Li-S0Cl2 batteiies aie neeueu. The total weight of these
batteiies is appioximately 622 lbs. These batteiies have an opeiating iange of -4u
o
C
to +8S
o
C, a shelf life of 1u+ yeais, anu aie uesigneu specifically foi
aeiospaceaviation applications wheie impacts aie expecteu (Teneigy) .
The volume of the batteiies is 6.99 ft
S
. The wing is uesigneu to suppoit
appioximately 2SS lbs of fuel acioss the Cessna's S6' 2" wingspan. The uensity of the
batteiies is laige enough to cause uamage to the aiiciaft's wing, shoulu the batteiies
be spieau acioss the entiie wingspan. Bowevei, the batteiies can be split up anu
placeu in the wings, unuei the pilotco-pilot seats anu in the caigo holu.
As mentioneu in the liteiatuie ieview, altituue changes pose a thieat to
oveiheating lithium-ion baseu batteiies. The mission piofile states that an altituue
of 4,uuu feet oi gieatei must be maintaineu uuiing the uuiations of the flight. With
this low altituue, piessuie changes shoulu have little to no effect on the Li-S0Cl2
batteiy.
A benefit of the lithium-baseu batteiies is that the voltage loss ovei time foi
the Li-S0Cl2 batteiy is minimal in compaiison to leau-aciu anu NiCu batteiies. The
41

uischaige iate of the Li-S0CL2 batteiy pioviues a constant flow of voltage until the
powei is completely uiaineu fiom the batteiy. The leau-aciu anu NiCu batteiies
typically useu in the aviation inuustiy continuously loss potential voltage as the
batteiy is uiaineu.
4.2. Nission Piofile Results
The BPN 4Su motoi anu the Li-S0Cl2 batteiies weie then hypothetically
installeu on the Cessna 172K aiiciaft, while unnecessaiy equipment such as the
Lycoming 0-S2u-E2B weie iemoveu. The entiie flight piofile log can be founu in
Appenuix B. Naintaining a constant voltage; the ampeiage was vaiieu so as to
appiopiiately appioximate the length of a flight. The batteiy system supply is 6uuv,
4uu amp-houi oi 24,uuu amp-minute. Table 8 uetails the flight.
Table 8. Electiic Flight Piofile Bieakuown
LlecLrlc lllghL roflle 8reakdown
I||ght Cperat|on Amps Used nours Amp-nour
1akeoff 200 0.10 20.0
Crulse 130 1.82 273.0
Landlng Approach 128 0.10 12.8
Landlng Approach 112 0.13 13.6
1axl 64 0.03 3.2
30 MlnuLe 8eserve 130 0.30 73.0
1C1AL 399.6
Amp-Pour Avallable Amps ln 8ange?
400 ?es

The total amp-houi of S99.6 is below the 4uu amp-houi capacity of the
electiic aiiciaft. Table 8 uefines the speeu anu uistance tiaveleu uuiing this mission
piofile.


42

Table 9. SpeeuBistance Analysis
Speed (Mn) nours D|stance 1rave|ed
1akeoff 87.30 0.10 8.73
Crulse 140.00 1.82 234.33
Landlng Approach 102.00 0.10 10.20
Landlng Approach 89.00 0.13 11.87
1C1AL 2.1S 28S.1S
Average Speed 132.63

The mission piofile uetails the noimal flight of the aiiciaft. Theiefoie, the
'Taxi' anu 'Su Ninute Reseive' flight opeiations aie not taken into consiueiation foi
this table. Table 1u uetails the electiic Cessna 172K veisus the mission piofile
iequiiements.
Table 1u. Nission PiofileElectiic Solution Compaiison
8equlremenLs LlecLrlc SoluLlon
8ange (mlles) 200.0 28S.0
luel 8eserve (mln) 30.0 30.0
AlLlLude > 4000.0 4000.0
Average Speed (mph) > 100.0 132.6
1akeoff ulsLance (fL) < 2000.0 1683.0
Clear 30 fL obsLacle? ?es ?es
lloL WelghL (lbs) 170.0 170.0
Cllmb 8aLe (fL/mln) 721.0 721.0
Crulse (hp) 112.3 120.6
Crulse (mph) 130.0 140.0
Landlng ulsLance (fL) 1300.0 1340.0
Clear 30 fL obsLacle? ?es ?es

The electiic solution above is ueiiveu paitially fiom the manufactuiei's
publisheu uata. Foi example, the maximum stiuctuial ciuise speeu foi this aiiciaft is
14u mph, which is appioximately 7S% of maximum powei. Thus, 7S% of the
maximum motoi hoisepowei equates to appioximately 121 hoisepowei. While
opeiating within the manufactuiei's appioveu weight anu balance, the Cessna 172K
has a 168S foot takeoff uistance, a 721 foot pei minute climb iate, anu a 1S4u foot
4S

lanuing uistance (Feueial Aviation Auministiation, TCBS, 2u1u). As the electiic
solution opeiates within the manufactuiei's allowable weight anu balance, these
numbeis aie assumeu as the aiiciaft's capabilities. As noticeu in table 1u, the
electiic aiiciaft meets all of the iequiiements anu exceeus the minimum iange,
aveiage aiispeeu, anu aveiage ciuise chaiacteiistics. A giaphical iepiesentation of
the flight can be ievieweu in figuies 2 anu S. The hypothetical flight-testeu the woist
case scenaiio to analyze viability (i.e. maximum continuous ciuise speeu, maximum
climb iate, etc.). The aiiciaft coulu potentially be opeiateu in a moie efficient
mannei to impiove the iange.

Figuie 2. Powei ConsumptionSpeeu ovei Time
u
Su
1uu
1Su
2uu
2Su
u Su 1uu 1Su
19@+ DBE
3=F+8 $=>B.@<79=>G-98A86?7
2<++H =,+8 19@+
Powei Consumption
(kW)
Powei Consumption
(Amp)
Aiiciaft Speeu (mph)
44


Figuie S. NotoiAltituue Peifoimance ovei Time
4.S. Centei of uiavity Analysis
The centei of giavity calculations can be founu in Appenuix C. Figuies 4 anu
S pioviue a visual iepiesentation of the aiiciaft mouifications. The aiiciaft Batum
location anu empty weight centei of giavity location is 1S86.48 lbs at +S8.96". The
gioss allowable weight of the Cessna aiiciaft is 2Suu lbs.
Figuie 4 uesciibes the components being iemoveu fiom the aiiciaft anu each
component's associateu moments. Notice that once these items have been iemoveu,
the centei of giavity location is moveu in the aft uiiection. The final location of
+S1.61uS" is outsiue of the centei of giavity limits. The total weight at this point is
1uS7.S4 lbs. The items being iemoveu aie:
1. Lycoming 0-S2u-E2B: 268 lbs at -16.88"
2. SAE Su Engine 0il: 16.94 lbs at -16.88"
S. 0iiginal Batteiy: 2u lbs at -S.9S"
4. 0nusable Fuel: 24 lbs at +48.uu"
u
1uuu
2uuu
Suuu
4uuu
Suuu
u Su 1uu 1Su
19@+ DBE
'=7=8G-/797.H+ 3+8?=8@6>A+ =,+8
19@+
Notoi RPN
Altituue (ft)
4S


Figuie 4. Empty Weight Cessna 172K Cu
Figuie S uesciibes the components being integiateu into the aiiciaft foi
electiical piopulsion. 0nce these components aie installeu onto the aiiciaft, the
centei of giavity location is +4S.99", which is within the centei of giavity envelope.
The final weight of the aiiciaft is 2298.S lbs. The items being installeu aie:
1. Electiic Notoi: 14S.u1 lbs at -S2.uS7S"
2. Notoi Contiollei: 7u lbs at -S.9S"
S. Summ
2
Batteiy Powei Supply Cable: 2u lbs at +22.u2S"
4. Summ
2
Batteiy uiounuing Cable: 1u lbs at +22.u2S"
S. Batteiies: 827.7S lbs at +48.uu"
6. Pilot at Full Seat Extension: 17u lbs at +46"
46


Figuie S. Electiical Solution Cessna 172K Cu
Accoiuing to the Cessna 172K Type Ceitificate Bata Sheet, the gioss weight
of this aiiciaft is 2,Suu lbs anu a Noimal Categoiy centei of giavity iange between
+SS.u" anu +47.S" (Feueial Aviation Auministiation, TCBS, 2u1u). Aftei the
mouifications on this aiiciaft, the cuiient gioss weight is 2,298.S lbs at a moment of
4S.99", both that aie within the aiiciaft limits.
4.4. Financial Analysis
The cost of the electiical integiation into the Cessna 172K is a ueliveiable of
this pioject, not a uiivei. The total cost of the motoi, motoi contiollei, batteiy
system, positive anu negative electiical conuuctois, anu new motoi mount equates
to appioximately $118,Su8. The estimateu piofit fiom the sale of the Lycoming
engine, oiiginal batteiy, engine oil coolei, anu the oiiginal engine mount equates to
appioximately $1S,u97. Thus, the total cost of the electiical piopulsion integiation
47

minus the piofit fiom the component sales is $1uS,211. This final numbei is the
estimateu cost of the entiie electiical piopulsion ietiofit. An option to ieuuce this
total cost may be puichasing in mass quantity. Foi example, to achieve the flight
uesciibeu in this papei, ovei 2,uuu batteiies must be puichaseu at $19.uu pei
batteiy. uuaianteeu, piices can be assumeu to ueciease foi the batteiies ovei time,
but this evaluation is cuiient maiket piicing. Puichasing these batteiies in mass
quantity can potentially ieuuce the cost pei batteiy.
4.S. Electiic veisus Piston Application
A typical piston engine will use Su% of the eneigy stoieu in gasoline foi
foiwaiu motion uue to its intiicate complexity. The auuitional 7u% is then
conveiteu into heat anu noise, which aie ultimately inefficiencies as this eneigy is
usually uissipateu anu wasteu (Tesla Notois). Electiic motois, such as the Rasei
Technologies u-1uu motoi can ieach efficiencies of 94%, well ovei thiee times that
of the typical piston engine.
The piston engine also uoes not uevelop peak toique until many thousanu
RPN. The electiic motoi also has the potential to eliminate the neeu foi a
tiansmission, as electiic motois piouuce peak toique at any RPN. The actuation of
the powei is uone by means of a Ball Effect thiottle, which eliminates goveinois,
anu fuel injectoiscaibuietois.
Bue to the piston engine's complexity, maintenance is a ioutine task. The
engine has spiings, moving valves, pistons weai, anu auuitional moving paits in the
fuel contiol. The electiic motoi, on the othei hanu, has only one moving pait - the
48

iotoi. This simplicity ieuuces the neeu foi continuous maintenance, anu ieuuces the
cost of opeiation ovei time. This ieuuction in cost also cieates a ietuin on
investment, cieating an incentive to mouify cuiient piston engine aiiciaft to
electiical aiiciaft.
An auuitional benefit fiom electiical piopulsion system that ielies solely on
batteiy powei is the absence of a weight shift. As fuel buins, the aiiciaft loses
weight, which uoes impiove flight efficiencies ovei time; howevei this weight
ieuuction changes the centei of giavity of the aiiciaft. With a system ielying on
batteiy powei alone, no fuel is buint anu the aiiciaft uoes not lose weight ovei the
couise of the flight. Thus, the aiiciaft's peifoimances become even moie
pieuictable.
If engineeieu piopeily, the electiic motoi with a piopellei application can in
fact cieate electiicity. While ueciease powei oi losing altituue, the piopellei has a
potential to tuin the motoi. The motoi, coupleu with a piopei iegeneiative
ciicuitiy, can then be useu as a geneiatoi. This eventually supplies powei back to
the batteiy. In oiuei to capitalize on this iuea, howevei, some soit of capacitoi neeus
to be utilizeu, as the capacitois will ieceive an instant chaige fiom the geneiatoi.
That stoieu chaige will then tiansfei its chaige to the batteiy system. The batteiies
themselves cannot ieceive a sufficient chaige uiiectly fiom the geneiatoi, as the
batteiies will not fully absoib the instant powei ueliveieu.
49

SECTI0N S. C0NCL0SI0N
The electiical solution uevelopeu by this pioject met oi exceeueu all of the
iequiiements uevelopeu in the methouology section while not stiuctuially
mouifying the Cessna 172K aiifiame. Auuitionally, the aiiciaft maintaineu the
oiiginal manufactuiei- appioveu centei of giavity. The following weie the iesults:
1. 28S mile iange at maximum stiuctuial ciuise with a Su minute
ieseive,
2. Aiiciaft opeiateu within the centei of giavity limits,
S. Aiiciaft opeiateu within the aiifiame weight limits,
4. Electiic motoi met anu exceeueu the opeiational peifoimances of the
oiiginal Lycoming 0-S2u,
S. The aiiciaft aveiage speeu was 1S2 mph, anu
6. The selecteu batteiies aie not affecteu by the altituue changes.
The motoi selecteu was the 0.S. Bybiius BPN 4Su electiic motoi cuiiently
being testeu in the Sikoisky Fiiefly helicoptei. The BPN 4Su motoi has a weight of
14S lbs anu has a 12u kW16u maximum hoisepowei anu a 4Su Nm maximum
toique at 2Suu ipm.
The batteiies selecteu aie S.6v, 19Ah Teneigy Li-S0Cl2 batteiies. These
batteiies have an eneigy uensity of 92S.94 Watt-Bouilb, anu to meet the
iequiiements of two houis of opeiation, a total of 2,6S7 Li-S0Cl2 batteiies aie
neeueu. The total weight of these batteiies is appioximately 622 lbs. These batteiies
Su

have an opeiating iange of -4u
o
C to +8S
o
C, a shelf life of 1u+ yeais, anu aie uesigneu
specifically foi aeiospaceaviation applications wheie impacts aie expecteu
Auuitionally, the electiic motoi pioviues benefits ovei the inteinal
combustion engine which incluues physical uimensions, weight, noise ieuuction,
ieuuceu maintenance, incieaseu opeiational efficiencies, lack of emissions, anu
instantaneous toique.
This ieseaich pioject exploieu the feasibility of electiical piopulsion to
suppoit flight opeiations foi the Cessna 172K in teims of aiiciaft peifoimance
ciiteiia. The piimaiy limiting factoi is the powei stoiage technology. Electiic motois
aie capable of piouucing the iequiieu powei foi the aviation inuustiy, but the
powei stoiage uevice limits the aiiciaft's iange. 0vei the couise of the last uecaue,
batteiies have significantly impioveu. Shoulu this tienu continue anu batteiies
continue to impiove, electiical piopulsion may become a common configuiation
within the aviation inuustiy.
S1

SECTI0N 6. F0T0RE RESEARCB
Figuie 6 pioviues a visual explanation of the electiical system as uesciibeu
with the technology above. Futuie ieseaich coulu possibly incluue the application
anu the pioblems incuiieu fiom these technologies.

Figuie 6. Futuie Reseaich
Fuel cell technology pioviues an oppoitunity to extenu the flight uuiation of
a specific aiiciaft. Belphi has uevelopeu a Soliu 0xiue Fuel Cell (S0FC) foi
tianspoitation use. Focusing piimaiily on laige commeicial vehicles (i.e. semi-tiuck
S2

anu tiailei), this customizable auxiliaiy powei unit has the potential to supply 12
vuc with neai zeio emissions. The S0FC has the capability foi inteinal iefoimation
meaning that the fuel cell can opeiate on a vaiiety of fuels such as "natuial gas,
uiesel, bio-uiesel, piopane, gasoline, coal-ueiiveu fuel anu militaiy logistics fuel"
(Belphi). The emissions incluue less than 8 giams of C0 anu less than u.2 giams of
NNBC pei kWh. In compaiison, the Lycoming I0-S2u piouuces 22uS ghi of C0 at
iule anu 49S78 ghi of C0 at takeoff. The I0-S2u also piouuces 128 ghi of NNBC at
iule anu 47S ghi of NNBC at takeoff (Pace, 1977). The fuel foi this S kW output fuel
cell can be stoieu in the wings of the aiiciaft, as the oiiginal fuel is iemoveu, anu
pioviue a means of continuous batteiy chaiging uuiing the flight. The weight anu
physical uimensions of the fuel cell aie vaiiables, as the S0FC size is ueteimineu by
the amount of powei iequiieu (i.e. S stack oi Su stack fuel cell).
Solai cells have maue significant auvancements iecently. Fiom companies
such as Fiist Solai, Sanyo Electiic, Sunpowei Coipoiation, anu Suntech, the
technology has become moie capable anu ieliable than in pievious yeais. Foi
example, Shaip, a leauing name in electionics, has uevelopeu a thin film mouule that
has a 2S-yeai limiteu waiianty, anu a 142W output system. With a mouule
efficiency of 1u.u%, the solai panel extiacts light fiom a wiuei solai spectium, thus
conveiting moie sunlight into electiicity. The system even has a 1,uuu volt output
(Shaip).
The uiawbacks, howevei, incluue solai panel piice anu efficiency. An
auuitional uiawback, unique to aviation, is the potential foi solai uamage. When an
SS

aiiciaft ieceiveu uamage to a wing, the aiiciaft skin is iefoimeu anu iebuilt. With
the application of solai panels, if a wing ieceives uamage, the wing still has to be
iepaiieu, but now the solai panels neeu to be ieplaceu anu the entiie wing may
neeu to be iewiieu.
Capacitoi applications will also inciease the effectiveness of a paiticulai
flight. Both Naxwell Technologies anu The Tecate uioup have piouuceu what aie
known as Electiochemical Bouble Layei Capacitois (EBLC), also known as
ultiacpacitois. With the application of this technology, the EBLC can absoib the
small amounts of powei being cieateu by the solai cells uuiing clouuy oi night
conuitions. The EBLC can also be useu in conjunction with the piopellei when
uecieasing altituue. With pilot contiols, the piopellei can actually tuin the electiic
motoi uue to winumilling. Winumilling is when the piopellei tuins by itself by
means of oncoming winu. This winumilling effect takes place as the aiiciaft is
uescenuing. The motoi then acts like a geneiatoi pioviuing powei to the EBLC,
which absoibs the powei instantly. This powei then slowly chaiges the batteiies
ovei a longei peiiou of time. If the EBLC technology is not utilizeu, the laige amount
of tempoiaiy powei fiom the geneiatoi will chaige the batteiies only foi a shoit
peiiou of time while the aiiciaft is uescenuing in altituue.
Also, the EBLC must be useu in conjunction with the batteiy anu motoi
technologies, shoulu the aiiciaft be useu foi longei peiious of time. If a pilot inputs a
significant amount of powei in a shoit time fiame (i.e. iule to full thiottle on takeoff
pioceuuies), the motoi will uiaw a high amount of ampeiage fiom the batteiies.
S4

This high amount of powei buist will uestioy a batteiy ovei many usages. If the
capacitoi weie to be placeu between the batteiy anu the motoi, the instant iequiieu
powei woulu be ueliveieu to the motoi fiom the EBLC while the batteiy slowly
chaiges the EBLC. In this situation, the EBLC woulu act as a buffei, thus extenuing
the life of the batteiy.
Even though EBLC technology is the most efficient type of capacitoi, the
piimaiy uiawback is that in compaiison to batteiy technology, the EBLC is heavy.
These capacitois aie heaviei than batteiies in teims of potential powei stoiage to
weight iatio. Foi example, Naxwell Technologies B-seiies EBLC foi heavy tianspoit
has a 46.1S Watt-houilb (Naxwell Technologies) while Saft Batteiies' Lithium Ion
vLS2E batteiy has an 84.91 Watt-houilb (Saft Batteiies). As a iefeience to weights,
utilizing the electiic motoi fiom this papei, in oiuei to maintain one full houi of
flight at full speeu, a total of 1,41S vLS2E batteiies oi 2,6u1 EBLCs woulu be
iequiieu.
SS


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ageen-0SBefault.aspx

Shaip. (n.u.). 3'")& 2&'<0$%C> 0%,",%M@C$)"# 2&'<0$%CI Retiieveu Novembei 2u1u, fiom
http:files.shaipusa.comBownloausSolaiPiouuctssol_uow_NA_v142BS
_NAv1SSBS.puf

Sikoisky. (2u1u, }uly 29). G#6C> 1&#CC V#"#)C#. Retiieveu }anuaiy Su, 2u11, fiom
http:www.sikoisky.comAbout+SikoiskyNewsPiess+Betails.piessvcmi
u=u2auu8u8a6u1a21uvgnvCN1uuuuu4f62S29fRCRB

Soban, B. S., & 0pton, E. (2uuS, August 18). Besign of a 0Av to optimize use of fuel
cell piopulsion technology. FWFF .

Teneigy. (n.u.). 1&'<0$%C> ],@3OK]8 L)%%#&,#C. Retiieveu Septembei 1S, 2u1u, fiom
http:www.teneigybatteiy.cominuex.php.page=shop.biowse&categoiy_iu
=14&option=com_viituemait&Itemiu=27

Tesla Notois. (n.u.). FL'0% D#C"). Retiieveu }anuaiy 27, 2u11, fiom
http:www.teslamotois.comabout

Thompson, R. (2uu7, }une 19). DE# 10*E N)%&,P. Retiieveu 12 u2, 2u1u, fiom
http:lssacauemy.com2uu7u619the-pugh-matiix

Tiescott, N. (2u1u, Novembei 1S). K"'C#& %' &#)",%M> !"#$%&,$ K#CC+) :\8 %' ."M +#P%
M#)&. Retiieveu }anuaiy 27, 2u11, fiom
http:www.eaa.oignews2u1u2u1u-11-1S_electiic172.asp

0.S. Bybiiu Inteinational. (n.u.). 1&'<0$%C> N'%'&C. Retiieveu }anuaiy S1, 2u11, fiom
http:ushybiiu.commotoi.html

vanbebbei, C. (2uu8, }anuaiy u9). 1&#CC V#"#)C#> ]'$TE##< ()&%,+ C,*+C )*&##(#+%
6,%E !!3DOV7 W+$I .'& #+#&*M C%'&)*# C'"0%,'+C. Retiieveu 1u 24, 2uu9, fiom
http:www.lockheeumaitin.comnewspiess_ieleases2uu8u1u9u8_Lock
heeuNaitinSignsAgieement.html

Yuneec Inteiational. (2u1u). #R[9> D#$E 32#$C. Retiieveu }anuaiy S1, 2u11, fiom
http:yuneeccouk.site.secuiepou.comAiiciaft_specification.html

Zhan, Z., & Bainett, S. A. (2uuS). An octane-fueleu soliu oxiue fuel cell. FFF3 7 [9_,
844-847.
6u

Appenuix A

Powei Stoiage Analysis



















(This page left intentionally blank)
!"

1energy !"##$%& ()*+#,)-.
/0$#%,12 Ll-olymer LlleC4 Ll-MnC2 Ll-SCCl2 Ll-leS2
34546 34545 34544 34655 789: ;83<=5> ?@!5<>4>
volLage 3.7000 3.7000 3.7000 3.2000 9.0000 3.6000 1.3000
Amp-hours 33.0000 23.0000 30.0000 200.0000 1.2000 19.0000 2.9000
WelghL (kg) 1.0000 .6300 1.4000 6.2600 .0340 .1070 .0143
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/kg) 129.3000 142.3077 132.1429 102.2364 317.6471 639.2323 300.0000
Area (mm
3
) 334370.0000 433130.0000 643930.0000 4201680.0000 22491.8730 36467.2931 8334.8336
(WaLL-hour/kg)/Area .0004 .0003 .0002 .0000 .0141 .0113 .0360

A123SysLems valence SafL 8aLLerles
rlsmaLlc x 8aLLery LlLhlum lron Magneslum hosphaLe (Llle MalC4) LlLhlum-lon
ABC D45=>66D E5F56GC E6<F56GC E6DF56GC E;:F5HGC lnLenslum llex vL43L le
volLage 3.3000 12.8000 12.8000 12.8000 19.2000 48.0000 3.3000
Amp-hours 20.0000 40.0000 110.0000 138.0000 69.0000 43.0000 44.0000
WelghL (kg) .4800 6.3000 13.8000 19.3000 14.9000 23.0000 .9000
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/kg) 137.3000 78.7692 89.1139 90.3846 88.9128 93.9130 161.3333
Area (mm
3
) 2488374.0000 4722681.0000 10062000.0000 11842200.0000 10390932.0000 18381376.0000 476124.4800
(WaLL-hour/kg)/Area .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0003

SafL 8aLLerles
LlLhlum-lon
vL6A vL3u vL12v vL34 vL 41M vL32L vL43L
volLage 3.6300 3.6300 3.6300 43.2000 3.6000 3.6000 3.6000
Amp-hours 6.0000 3.0000 14.0000 31.3000 41.0000 32.0000 43.0000
WelghL (kg) .3400 .3300 .6400 16.0000 1.0700 1.0000 1.0700
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/kg) 64.4118 32.1429 79.8438 83.0300 137.9439 187.2000 131.4019
Area (mm
3
) 166361.1230 138803.3000 299993.2430 8863373.8400 313833.3323 476124.4800 313833.3323
(WaLL-hour/kg)/Area .0004 .0003 .0003 .0001 .0003 .0004 .0003

SafL 8aLLerles
nlckel-Cadmlum nlckel MeLal-Pydrlde
MSx SP 320 S8M 440 SCP 433 S S1M 3-140 S1P 1900 nP 10-34 nPL 10-100
volLage 4.8000 1.2000 2.4000 3.6000 6.0000 1.2000 12.0000 12.0000
Amp-hours 260.0000 320.0000 440.0000 433.0000 136.0000 190.0000 34.0000 100.0000
WelghL (kg) 37.0000 16.3000 44.0000 27.7000 17.0000 9.8000 9.0000 18.6000
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/kg) 33.7297 23.2727 24.0000 36.3343 48.0000 23.2633 43.3333 64.3161
Area (mm
3
) 21184993.0000 11142232.0000 37968840.0000 32370784.0000 9706320.0000 6384038.0000 4824103.0000 9126000.0000
(WaLL-hour/kg)/Area .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001

!"

1energy !"##$%& ()*+#,)-.
/(#"-0"%01 Ll-olymer LlleC4 Ll-MnC2 Ll-SCCl2 Ll-leS2
23435 23434 23433 23544 6789 :72;<4= >?!4;=3=
volLage 3.7000 3.7000 3.7000 3.2000 9.0000 3.6000 1.3000
Amp-hours 33.0000 23.0000 30.0000 200.0000 1.2000 19.0000 2.9000
WelghL (lb) 2.2046 1.4330 3.0863 13.8009 .0730 .2339 .0320
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/lb) 38.7402 64.3497 39.9390 46.3737 144.0823 289.9600 136.0777
Area (ln
3
) 21.6333 27.6480 39.2892 236.3363 1.3723 3.4432 .3083
(WaLL-hour/lb)/Area 2.7133 2.3347 1.3236 .1809 104.9939 84.1628 267.3894

A123SysLems valence SafL 8aLLerles
rlsmaLlc x 8aLLery LlLhlum lron Magneslum hosphaLe (Llle MalC4) LlLhlum-lon
@AB C34<=55C D4E45FB D5;E45FB D5CE45FB D:9E4GFB H-#$-.,+I ?*$J 9>;=: ?$
volLage 3.3000 12.8000 12.8000 12.8000 19.2000 48.0000 3.3000
Amp-hours 20.0000 40.0000 110.0000 138.0000 69.0000 43.0000 44.0000
WelghL (lb) 1.0382 14.3300 34.8330 42.9901 32.8489 30.7063 1.9842
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/lb) 62.3690 33.7291 40.4214 41.0883 40.3301 42.3982 73.1796
Area (ln
3
) 131.8227 288.1441 27.6480 39.2892 236.3363 27.6480 39.2892
(WaLL-hour/lb)/Area .4108 .1240 1.4620 1.0438 .1373 1.3407 1.8626

SafL 8aLLerles
LlLhlum-lon
9><@ 9>=D 9>459 9>2;B 9> ;4K 9>=5: 9>;=:
volLage 3.6300 3.6300 3.6300 43.2000 3.6000 3.6000 3.6000
Amp-hours 6.0000 3.0000 14.0000 31.3000 41.0000 32.0000 43.0000
WelghL (lb) .7496 .7716 1.4110 33.2740 2.3389 2.2046 2.3389
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/lb) 29.2167 23.6316 36.2163 38.3780 62.3703 84.9123 68.6747
Area (ln
3
) 236.3363 9.6892 27.6480 39.2892 236.3363 1.3723 3.4432
(WaLL-hour/lb)/Area .1140 2.4410 1.3099 .9819 .2441 61.8764 19.9333

SafL 8aLLerles
nlckel-Cadmlum nlckel MeLal-Pydrlde
K(F (BA 253 (7K ;;3 (6A ;2= ( (LK =E4;3 (LA 4833 MAB 43E2; MA: 43E433
volLage 4.8000 1.2000 2.4000 3.6000 6.0000 1.2000 12.0000 12.0000
Amp-hours 260.0000 320.0000 440.0000 433.0000 136.0000 190.0000 34.0000 100.0000
WelghL (lb) 81.3710 36.3763 97.0034 61.0680 37.4786 21.6033 19.8416 41.0060
Lnergy (WaLL-hour/lb) 13.2993 10.3363 10.8862 23.6433 21.7724 10.3330 20.3629 29.2640
Area (ln
3
) .3083 131.8227 288.1441 613.9109 722.3239 633.9800 1133.7020 29.0497
(WaLL-hour/lb)/Area 30.0837 .0693 .0378 .0418 .0301 .0166 .0181 1.0074
!"

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B BCA CAA DA CEAA A !29$'33 F <2G
C BCA CAA HA CEAA ICB !29$'33 F <2G
J BCA CAA HE CEAA BDDC !29$'33 F <2G
D BCA CAA KA CEAA CBLJ !29$'33 F <2G
E BCA CAA BBA CEAA CHHD !29$'33 F <2G
L BCA CAA BCA CEAA JLAE !29$'33 F <2G
I KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
H KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
K KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BA KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BB KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BC KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BJ KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BD KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BE KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BL KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BI KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BH KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
BK KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CA KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CB KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CC KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CJ KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CD KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CE KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CL KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CI KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CH KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
CK KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JA KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JB KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JC KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JJ KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JD KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JE KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JL KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JI KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JH KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
JK KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
DA KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
DB KA BEA BDA BHIE DAAA *)-",$ FMIEN
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!"#$"%&%' )&*+,' -./01 23# -*%4,&01 5"'6.
AlrcrafL LmpLy
WelghL 1386.48 38.96 34017.26

SubLracLed lLems
Lnglne -268.00 -16.88 4322.30
Lnglne Cll -16.94 -16.88 283.86
unusable luel -24.00 48.00 -1132.00
8aLLery -20.00 -3.93 79.00
1C1AL -328.94 3733.36
CC lacemenL
(LmpLy 1oLal + SubLracLed 1oLal)/
(LmpLy WelghL + SubLracLed WelghL) = 34.61

Added lLems for LlecLrlc lllghL
MoLor 143.00 -32.04 -4381.31
ConLroller 70.00 -3.93 -276.30
(+) Cable 20.00 22.03 440.30
(-) Cable 10.00 22.03 220.23
8aLLerles 827.73 48.00 39732.20
lloL (max
exLenslon) 170.00 46.00 7820.00
1C1AL 1240.76 43334.94

llnAL CALCuLA1lCn
LmpLy WelghL 1386.48 38.96 34017.26
8asellne A/C -328.94 -11.36 3733.36
LlecLrlc lnLegraLlon 1240.76 34.94 43334.94
1C1AL 2298.30 101107.36
CC lacemenL 43.99

7% !8 96%+&: (33.0 Lo 47.3) 43.99 ;&0
83"00 )&*+,':
(Max 2300
lbs) 2298.30 7% <*#*'0