Reproduction

Asexual and sexual reproduction:

Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent. Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction Advantages: It is quick When a plant is well suited to its habitat, any variation might be a disadvantage All good characteristics will be passed on No need for special gametes Disadvantages: Bad characteristics will be passed on Cannot adapt to changing living conditions Parent plant has to use a lot of energy to reproduce

Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei to from a diploid zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring. Advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction Advantages: Organisms can adapt to changing Disadvantages: Good characteristics may not be

conditions Bad characteristics may not be passed on The responsibility of raising the offspring is shared between two parents Generates fewer offspring

passed on Energy has to be used during courtship Using energy for gamete transfer Reproduction is slower Chance of mutation

Sexual reproduction in plants:

Flowering plants, as their name suggests, are able to reproduce using highly adapted structures called flowers. They reproduce sexually. The following stages can be recognised in the reproduction of flowering plants: 1. The young plant develops reproductive organs. 2. Sex cells (gametes) develop inside the reproductive organs. 3. The male sex cells are transferred to the female sex cells. 4. Fusion of male and female sex cells (fertilisation) occurs, and a zygote is produced. 5. The zygote develops into an embryo. 6. The embryo grows into a new young plant, and the cycle starts over again. Plants live in a fixed position so: Male gametes may have to be carried some distance to meet female gametes.

Young plant embryos may have to be carried some distance to get away from their parents.

Most plants are hermaphrodite, that is, they have male and female sexual parts on the same individual. This means the male gametes only have to travel a short distance to the female gametes. Formation of flowers A flower is formed from a bud, which is a collection of cells at the end of a flower stalk. The cells receive hormone messages from the main plant body, and gradually develop into four rings of specialised leaves the flower. These have the sole function of forming sex cells and making sure that fertilisation occurs. The structure of a typical insect pollinated flower is shown below:

Stigma a platform on which the pollen grain lands Stamens the male parts of the flower Carpel the female part of the flower Petals usually brightly coloured and scented. They may produce nectar, a sugary solution, from small glands at their bases. Colour, nectar, and scent attract pollinating insects.

Sepals are green and protect the flower bud. They usually disappear after pollination. Anther contains our pollen sacs filled with pollen grains. Each pollen grain contains a male nucleus.

Filament a long stalk that holds the anther in the best position to release pollen onto a visiting insect.

Style a stalk which holds the stigma in the best position to receive pollen grains. Ovary a hollow chamber. The ovules develop from the walls of the ovary.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant (stigma). There are two types of pollination: Self-pollination within the same flower Cross-pollination from one flower to another of the same species

Whether self- or cross-pollination occurs, some agent or vector is needed to carry the pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma. This agent is most often an insect or the wind. Flowers show many adaptations to successful insect pollination or wind pollination. Some of the

insects that act as pollinators have also become adapted to make the most of their relationship with flowers. Here are how some plants are adapted for pollination by insects or plants: Part of flower Insect pollinated (eg. convolvulus) Petals Usually large, brightly coloured, scented, often with nectarines. Anthers Stiff, firmly attached and positioned where insects must brush against them Hang loosely on long thin filaments Wind is more likely to dislodge pollen from exposed, dangling anthers than from enclosed ones. Pollen Small amounts of large, sticky grains Enormous quantities of light, smooth pollen grains Sticky grains attach to hairs on insects body. Larger amounts from wind-pollinated flowers mean pollination is more likely. Stigma Usually flat or lobeshaped, and positioned where insect must brush against them Long and feathery, and hanging outside flower Feathery stigmas form a large network to catch pollen being blown past the flower. Wind-pollinated (eg. grass) Small, green or dull in colour, no scent Insects are attracted to scent Reason

The development of a seed to a new young plant is called germination. Here are the conditions required for a seed to germinate:

A supply of water Oxygen for aerobic respiration A suitable temperature for the enzymes involved in germination Seed Structure

1. The radicle (young root) emerges first. It anchors the seeding in the soil and starts to absorb water and mineral ions. 2. The plumule (young shoot) emerges as the testa is split away from the cotyledons. The hooked shoot protects the young leaves from damage by soil particles. 3. Food stores in cotyledons provide nutrients for growth and energy.

Seeds need to be separated away from the parent plant before it can develop into a new young plant. This process is called dispersal. There are two types of dispersal, wind and animal. Here are some examples:

Dandelions: Its seeds are dispersed by the wind. A pappus is formed from sepals after fertilisation. The seed is contained in two fused carpels. The sycamore has two extended wings formed from two fused carpels.

Plums: Succulent flesh offers a food reward to animals. Seed is resistant to the digestive juices of the animal, and passes out in the faeces.

Seed dispersal provides a means of colonising new areas. It is also beneficial to the parent plants as both parent and child do not have to compete for resources.

Sexual reproduction in humans:

Humans, like all other mammals, only use sexual reproduction. For this, there must be a male and female. Their reproductive systems are outlined below: Male reproductive system The male reproductive system has two functions: To manufacture the male gametes To deliver them to the site of fertilisation

Testis: made up of many coiled tubes which produce sperm; cells between the tubes produce testosterone.

Prostate gland: helps to produce the seminal fluid which makes up 99.5 % of the semen (sperm makes up the other 0.5%)

Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of the penis. Scrotum: protects the testis Sperm ducts: also called the vas deferens carries sperm from the testis to the urethra. Penis: becomes erect when spaces in its structure fill with blood.

Female reproductive system

Oviduct: carries the ovum to the uterus. Fertilisation usually occurs in the first third of the oviduct.

Uterus: where the foetus develops. During pregnancy the uterus increases in volume from 10 cm3 to 5 dm3.

Ovaries: contains follicles which develop the ova, and produces oestrogen and progesterone.

Cervix: neck of the uterus. Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse, and is the exit for the baby at birth.

The testes produce sperm continually at a rate of about 100 000 000 per day from puberty to old age. Woman, however, produce only one ovum per month during their reproductive life, from puberty to middle age. The two ovaries take it in turns to produce an ovum, and one ovary release a mature female gamete every 28 days. The cycle of producing and releasing mature ova is called the menstrual cycle.

The ovum moves slowly along the oviduct towards the uterus. This movement is brought about by: Peristalsis rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the oviduct Cilia fine hair-like structures on the lining of the oviduct which sweep the ovum along.

It takes 4-7 days for the ovum to reach the uterus and during this time fertilisation may take place in the oviduct. This is how the male and female gametes arrive at the same place: 1. Ovum (female gamete) is released from the ovary at ovulation 2. Cilia and peristaltic waves sweep the ovum along the oviduct. 3. Fertilisation usually occurs in the first third to first half of the oviduct. 4. The zygote (fertilised ovum) divides to form a ball of cells. 5. The ball of cells becomes an embryo. It implants in the uterus lining and a placenta develops.

Fertilisation Fertilisation is the joining together (fusion) of an ovum and a sperm. The new cell contains a set of genetic material from the mother and a set form the father. Fertilisation takes place in the oviduct and only one sperm cell will penetrate the membrane of the ovum. Once this happens a series of changes take place: The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier to the entry of other sperm. The head of the sperm (male nucleus) moves towards the nucleus of the ovum and the two fuse. The fertilised ovum or zygote now starts to divide, first into two cells, then into four, and so on. It continues to move towards the uterus.

From the time of conception it takes about nine months for a fertilised ovum to become a fully formed baby. The developing foetus needs a stable environment which is provided by the placenta, a structure only found in mammals. The placenta forms early in pregnancy, partly from the lining of the uterus, and partly from the outside cells of the developing embryo. It has a number of functions: Exchange of soluble materials such as food, wastes and oxygen Protection from mothers immune system and fluctuations in blood pressure Secretion of hormones, which maintains the lining of the uterus.

The foetus is attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord, which contains blood vessels which carry materials for exchange between mother and foetus. It is surrounded by the

amniotic sac which is filled with amniotic fluid; this protects the foetus from knocks and bumps, drying out and temperature fluctuations. When a baby is born, its needs to be fed. There are two types of feeding for a newborn, breastfeeding or bottle feeding. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of each:

Sexual intercourse may also lead to sexually transmitted diseases, such as AIDS. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The virus attacks lymphocytes, white blood cells that produce antibodies. It is transmitted in many different ways including:

Unprotected sex Sharing needles Infected mother to foetus Blood transfusions Breast-feeding

It can be prevented by using condoms, having only one sexual partner, blood screening (before transfusions), using sterilised needles and by bottle feeding.