Reaction, Revolution and Romanticism Chapter 21 The Peace Settlement In March 1814, before apoleon had been defeated

the !uadruple "lliance composed to Russia, Prussia, #reat $ritain and "ustria is formed% 1% "fter apoleon&s defeat, the' reestablish the $ourbon monarch' (ith )ouis *+III and meet in a con,ress in +ienna for a peace settlement -ver'one invited but decisions ,uarded b' the four ,r8 po(ers .lol modern / 0 $ritain represented b'1 +iscount Castlerea,h2 (ished to secure sea control 3rance could participate in some decisions bc of Prince Talle'rand "bove all dominated b' "ustrian Prince 4lemens von Metternich Metternich said he (as ,uided there b' the principle of le,itimac' 5 to reestablish peace in -urope, le,itimate monarchs of the countries had to be reinstated in order to preserve traditional institutions Restoration of the $ourbons in 3rance and Spain 6 other monarch in italian states 2% Principle of le,itimac' (as fre7uentl' overshado(ed b' more practical considerations of po(er Treatment of Poland b' the !uadruple "lliance1 Prussia 6 "ustria allo(ed to 8eep some polish land -stablishment of a small polish state ruled b' the Romanovs .a8a Russians0% Russia controlled Poland&s forei,n polic' Prussia in turn received 29:s of Sa;on', <estphalia and the left ban8 of the Rhine "ustria compensated for its loss of the "ustrian etherlands .$el,ium0 b' bein, ,iven )ombar' and +enetia 6 all of this (as in line (ith the practice of maintainin, a balance of po(er in -urope amon, the ,reat po(ers =% the ,r8 po(ers (ere so scared of 3rance upsettin, the balance of po(er a,ain that the' established ma>or defensive barriers a,ainst possible 3rench e;pansion orth1 Created the ne( 8in,dom of the etherlands composed of the ?utch Republic and "ustrian etherlands .$el,ium0 under 4in, <illiam I of @ran,e Southeast1 -nlar,ed Piedmont -ast1 Prussia stren,thened #ermanic states as (ell $ritain&s nav' too8 care of the rest apoleon&s charade of 1AA ?a's in Po(er pissed the ,r8 po(ers off more and the' decided to return 3rance&s borders to those before 1BCA, pa' an indemnit' 6 accept an arm' occupation for : 'rs 4% The +ienna peace settlement of 181: has been criticiDed for not reco,niDin, the nationalistic and liberal forces unleashed b' the 3rench Rev% and apoleon (hich (as e;actl' (hat the ,r8 po(ers (anted to do1 contain the revolutions 6 created a ne( status 7uo9balance of po(er in -urope% Con,ress of +ienna is credited (ith establishin, an order that mana,ed to avoid a ,eneral ,reat -uropean conflict for almost a centur' .TE" 4S <<10 Ideolo,' of Conservatism ?etermined to contain the liberal 6 nationalistic forces unleashed b' the 3rench Rev )ead mostl' b' Metternich ?ates bac8 to -dmund $ur8e&s Reflections on the French Revolution in (hich $ur8e (as opposed to the 3R&s radical republican and democratic ideals% Ee ar,ued that the Fsocial contractG had to be preserved and passed do(n to future ,enerations ie not in favor of sudden chan,e but F,radualG

Hoseph de Maistre .3rench0 ar,ued for counterrevolutionar' and authoritarian conservatism Most conservatives held to ,eneral beliefs1 obedience to political authorit' or,aniDed reli,ion 5 social order revolutions9rebellions 5 bad, must crush no to liberal ideas such as civil liberties, representative ,overnments, or nationalistic aspirations communit' is more imp than individual&s ri,hts societ' 5 or,aniDation 6 order order 5 tradition "fter 181:, conservatism (as dominant due to it bein, supported b' hereditar' monarchs, ,overnment bureaucracies, lando(nin, aristocracies, and revived churches .people affected b' revolutions mostl' in a ne,ative (a'0 The Conservative ?omination1 Concert of -urope Concert of -urope arose from1 The !uadruple "lliance reaffirmin, their commitment a,ainst $onapartist po(ers and therefor, be,an to meet in conferences to discuss their interests, in ov% 181: Thus, the' (anted to maintain the ne( status 7uo created in the Con,ress of +ienna 3irst con,ress in 1818 at "i;IlaIChapelle most pleasant one !uadruple po(ers a,reed to remove the arm' from 3rance and to add 3rance to the alliance !uadruple became !uintuple "lliance 2nd con,ress in Troppau 182A called to deal (9 the outbrea8 of revolution in Spain 6 Ital' Spain5 revolt a,ainst the restored $ourbon ruler 3erdinand +II Ital'5 revolt a,ainst $ourbon 3erdinand I, 8in, of aples and Sicil' bc his restoration led also to the return of cler,' and nobilit' to their privile,ed positions2 spread to Piedmont Metternich seein, the revolts in Ital' as a threat to "ustria&s po(er, proposed a principle of intervention Meant that the : po(ers could send armies into revoltin, countries to restore the le,itimate rulers $ritain opposed this on the ,round that the Concert of -urope&s ,oal (as not to interfere in countries affairs unless it threatened the balance of po(er =rd con,ress at )aibach 1821 $ritain did not attend2 Russia, Prussia and "ustria did authoriDed the sendin, of "ustrian troops to aples crushed the revolt and restored 3erdinand I to po(er Post(ar conference at +erona 1822 "uthoriDed 3rance to invade Spain and crush the revolt 6 restored 3erdinand +II to po(er $ritain did not attend cuD a,ainst principle of intervention Spanish empire&s (ea8enin, b' $onaparte enabled )atin "merican revolutionaries to declare independence "r,entina, 181A, due to decline in ro'al po(er +eneDuela 1821, Colombia 181C b' SimJn $olKvar Chile, 1812, b' HosL de San MartKn PerM 1821 b' both San MartKn and $olKvar

Me;ico and Central "merica independent $raDil, 182: Continental po(ers (anted to invade )atin "merica and restore order in the earl' 182As $ritish tried to team up (ith the /S" /S" is distrustful and proclaims the Monroe ?octrine .Cause paper is more po(erful than a nav', am i ri,htN0 182= $ritain, ea,er for trade and investment (9 )% "% used it&s nav' to stand bet(een )" and the Continental Po(ers thus independence remained The #ree8 Revolt 1821 #ree8s revolt a,ainst the @ttomans due to a revival of national sentiment Initial reactions (as ne,ative since people revoltin, a,ainst authorit' 5 bad2 europeans later s'mpathiDed bc hello, -uropeans dominated b' infidelsO ?espite the public support, -uropean po(ers did not intervene until 182B due to mutual fears and other interests $ritish and 3rench defeat a lar,e ottoman fleet in #reece 1828 Russia declares (ar on the @ttomans to further their interests2 invades Moldovia and <allachia 182C, treat' endin, the RussianITur8ish (ar ,ives the Russians a protectorate over these territories Treat' also ,ave Russia, 3rance and $ritain the po(er to decide #reece&s fate the' declare it a free 8in,dom and institute a $avarian&s 8in,&s son as 8in, #ree8 (in represented a (in for nationalistic and liberal forces but reall', it onl' succeeded bc the ,r8 po(ers supported it 6 ,ave the #ree8s a ,erman 8in, Conservative ?omination1 -uropean States #reat $ritain1 ,overned b' aristocratic lando(nin, classes that dominated both houses of Parliament Suffra,e for elections to the Eouse of Commons (as controlled b' the landed ,entr' (ho used poc8et borou,hs to control seats% "s a result, lar,e industrial cities had no representatives monarch' (as not po(erless but the po(er of the cro(n (as in the hands of the rulin, part' at Parliament T(o political parties1 Tories and <hi,s both dominated b' members of landed ,entr' but <hi,s received support from the ne( mone'ed interests ,enerated b' industrialiDation Tories dominated ,overnment until 18=A and did not (ant to chan,e the electoral and political s'stem -conomic difficulties ,enerated popular discontent Corn )a( of 181:1 response to fallin, ,rain prices, placed hi,h tariffs on forei,n ,rain2 beneficial onl' to lando(ners, ne,ative to lo(er classes Mass protests ta8e place2 Peterloo Massacre 181C is the result ,overnment restricts lar,e public meetin,s and distribution of pamphlets to the poor Tories ma8e minor reforms and avoid lar,er electoral reform 3rance restoration of the $ourbons (ith )ouis *+III Made reforms to accept some of the chan,es brou,ht to 3rance Charter of 18141 mainted apoleon&s Civil Code .imp1 e7ualit' before la(0 and Concordat (9 pope

propert' ri,hts of purchased confiscated lands preserved established a bicameral le,islature (9 a Chamber of Peers .chosen b' 8in,0 and Chamber of ?eputies .chosen b' restricted electorate0 Reforms criticiDed b' liberals (ho (anted to pass more reforms and ultraro'alists Charles *, an ultraro'alist came to po(er on 1824 ,ranted an indemnit' to aristocrats (hose lands (ere ta8en durin, the 3R pursed a reli,ious polic' that encoura,e for the catholic church to establish control over education public outra,ed fueled b' liberal ne(spapers forced the 8in, to compromise and accept the principle of ministerial responsibilit' Principle of responsibilit'1 ministers of 8in, responsible to le,islature violated this a,reement and protesters forced him to dissolve the le,islature and call for ne( elections Ital' Con,ress of +ienna established C states includin, Piedmont ruled b' the house of Savo' 4in,dom of the T(o Sicilies . aples 6 Sicil'0 Papal states small duchies ruled b' relatives of the "ustrian )ombard' 6 +enetia 5 "ustrian empire crushin, of Piedmont and 4% of the 2 Sicilies discoura,ed opposition so secret societies .li8e the Carbonari or charcoal burners0 conspire and plan for revolution Spain restored $ourbon d'nast' (ith 3erdinand +II 8in, a,reed to a liberal constitution of 1812 (hich allo(ed for the elected CortLs 8in, rene,ades on his promise, dissolves CortLs, persecutes members Capitulated in March 182A and promised to restore the constitution and the CortLs Metternich&s polic' of intervention restored 3erdinand bac8 to po(er 3rench1 be moderateO 3erdinand1 tortures, imprisons and e;iles opponents #erman Confederation9states the Eabsbur, -mpire and Metternich pla'ed an influential role emer,in, liberalism and nationalism in Central -urope (as (ea8 because of aristocratic lando(nin, classes and autocratic, centraliDed monarchies #ermanic confederation had little po(er since the purpose (asn&t to ,overn but to defend the balance of po(er and Metternich&s device to crush revolutions in the #erman states liberal and nationalistic movements (ere conserved for mostl' the middle upper class ./niversit' professors and students0 or,aniDed $urschenschaften or student societies to foster the ,oal of a free united #erman' in 181B at the =AAth anniversar' of the C: theses students burn boo8s b' conservative authors student assassinates a reactionar' pla'(ri,ht2 Metternich dra(s up the 4arlsbad ?ecrees 181C (hich closed the $urschenschaften, censorship of the press and put the universities under close control and scrutin' resulted in the maintanment of the status 7uo Prussia #ermans loo8ed for it for liberal principals and unit'

3rederic8 <illiam III follo(in, the advice $aron Eeinrich +on Stein and $aron 4arl von Eardenber, instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia&s defeat the the hands of apoleon Reforms included1 abolition of serfdom municipal selfI,overnment throu,h to(n councils e;pansion of primar' and secondar' schools universal militar' conscription to from a national arm' did not include the representative ,overnment that Stein and Eardenber, (anted after 181:, 3rederic8 <illiam ,re( more reactionar' bc of Metternich&s influence reforms made Prussia stron, but it remained an absolutist state "ustria multinational state bonded b' the Eabsbur, emperor #ermans (ere 194 of population 'et (ere stron, in ,overnment and the most economical advanced "ustria mostl' a,ricultural so landed nobilit' held the most imp positions "ustrian empire (as held to,ether b' the CC, d'nast', imperial civil service and imperial arm'2 national ,roups .esp% Eun,arians (anted more autonom'0 Metternich held it to,ether after 181: antipath' to(ards liberalism and nationalism since these could tear the empire apart the liberal belief that national ,roups had the ri,ht to their o(n s'stem of ,overnments (hile nationalism n liberalism ,re(, the "ustrian -mp sta,anated until 1848 Russia mostl' rural, a,ricultural and autocratic tsar re,arded as a divine ri,ht monarch (9 unlimited po(er2 e;tent of the Russian empire made this impractical Russian land in control of noble landlords (ho monopoliDed the civil service and arm' officers corps land tilled b' serfs 18A1 "le;ander I rises to po(er after a ,roup of aristocrats assassinated Paul I his liberalism (as (ei,hed do(n b' autocratic tradition of the tsars (9 aid of liberal adviser Michaer Sperans8', he relaDed censorhip, freed political prisoners and reformed the edu% s'stem did not ,rant a constitution or freed the serfs bc of nobilit' opposition after apoleon&s defeat, reverted bac8 to strict and arbitrar' censorship opposition from secret societies orthern /nion secret societ', composed of 'oun, aristocrats (ho served in the apoleonic (ars and had a(areness of (orld outside of Russia intellectuals alienated b' the censorship and lac8 of academic freedom favored the establishment of a constitutional monarch' 6 abolition of serfdom (hen Tsar "le;ander I died, people thou,ht his brother, Constatine (as ,oin, to inherit the throne but he abdicated / revolted a,ainst the accession of icholas in the ?ecembrist Revolt (hich (as crushed b' troops and its leaders e;ecuted Revolt transformed icholas from conservative to reactionar' bureaucrac' and secret police are stren,thened nic8named Policeman of -urope due to his inclination to crush forei,n revolts

)iberalism influenced b' the -nli,htenment, 3rench and "merican Rev the developin, industrial middle class adopted the doctrine as its o(n due to the Industrial Revolution common belief1 people should be as free from restraint as possible -conomic )iberalism or classic economics laisseDIfaire ,overnment should not interfere (9 the economic libert' of the individual and should restrict itself to three functions1 defense of the countr' police protection of individuals construction and maintenance of public (or8s If individuals (ere allo(ed economic libert', the' (ould brin, about the ma; ,ood for the ma; number and benefit societ' Thomas Malthus Essay on the Principles of Population population, (hen unchec8ed, increases (hile food decreases% Severe overpopulation causes starvation (hich in turn causes death% and the c'cle repeats itselfO .i bet socialists had a field da' (ith him0 therefor miser' and povert' (ere the result of nature and the ,overnment shouldn&t interfere (ith the course of nature ?avid Ricardo Principles of Political Economy e;tended Malthus& ideas increase in population means a surplus of (or8ers (hich cause (a,es to fall belo( subsistence level% Miser' and starvation reduce the population% <a,es ,o up, population ,oes up% "nd the c'cle repeats itselfO raisin, (a,es arbitraril' (ould (orsen the c'cle Political liberalism believed in the protection of civil liberties .basic ri,hts0 li8e e7ualit' before the la(, freedom of assembl', speech and press and freedom from arbitrar' arrest freedoms should be ,uaranteed b' a document separation of church and state ri,ht of peaceful opposition to the ,overnment in and out of parliament and the ma8in, of la(s b' a representative assembl' ie liberals believed in a constitutional monarch' or state (ith limits in the po(er of ,overnment advocated ministerial responsibilit' or the le,islative branch havin, a chec8 on po(er of the e;ecutive limited suffra,e bc people should have civil but (ere not entitled to political ri,hts% @nl' men (ho met certain propert' 7ualifications could vote and hold office liberalism (as thus tied to mostl' industrial, middle class men (ho (anted votin, ri,hts in order to share po(er (ith the lando(nin, classes, not for the lo(er classes @T ?-M@CR"TS9?-M@CR"CP Hohn Stuart Mill On Liberty

classic statement on the libert' of an individual (ith the necessit' to protect it from ,overnment censorship and the ma>orit' Supporter of <omen&s Ri,hts On the Subjection of Women; (omen&s subordination (as a result of not biolo,' but social constructs important (or8 in the movement for (omen&s ri,hts ationalism a(areness of bein, part of a communit' (ith common institutions, traditions, lan,ua,e and customs popular force (ith the 3rench Revolution, but even then it (as mostl' cultural Cultural nationalism evolved into political Cultural1 uni7ueness of a nationalit' Political1 ,overnments should coincide (ith nationalities ationalism (as radical bc it threatened to upset the political status 7uo, international and nationall' #ermans and Italians (anted to unif' themselves (ith this force2 upsettin, the balance of po(er Eun,arians for e;ample, (anted to brea8 a(a' from an empire and establish autonom'2 brea8up of the "ustrian -mpire nationalism 6 liberalism 5 allies liberals1 libert' realiDed (hen people rule themselvesO liberalism also ,ave a cosmopolitan dimension to nationalism nationalist1 ,ive people their o(n state and all nations can live lin8ed in a communit' of all humanit'O .(ait is this li8e /nited ations lol0 -arl' Socialism pitiful conditions of slums, mines and factories due to industrial rev% ,ave rise to socialism ,ives a sense of (orth and support to the (or8in, classes earl' socialism1 product of political theorists (ho (anted to introduce e7ualit' into social conditions human cooperation is better than competition found in earl' industrial capitalismOO )ater Mar;ists1 )ol no (tf such impracticabilit' (e&re ,onna nic8name 'ou Futopian socialistsG utopian socialists (ere a,ainst1 private propert' competitive spirit of earl' industrial capitalism elimination of them and creation of a ne( s'stem of or,aniDation (ould create a better human condition <a's to accomplish this tas8 Eenr' de SaintISimon1 or,aniDation of all societ' into a cooperative communit' t(o elites, intellectual leaders and industrial mana,ers (ould use industrial and scientific technolo,' to coordinate societ' for the benefit of all ,overnment (ould vanish as its necessit' (ould be terminated his ideas (ere attractive to (omen bc he reco,niDed the principle of e7ualit' of the se;es others proposed voluntar' associations that (ould demonstrate the advanta,es of cooperative livin, Charles 3ourier1 problem1 competitive s'stem repressin, human passionsO

solution1 create small model communities called phalansteries Robert @(en $ritish cotton manufacturer humans (ould reveal natural ,oodness if lived in a cooperative environment succeeded in settin, up one communit', but other tries failed )ouis $lanc The Organi ation of Wor! social problems could be fi;ed (ith ,overnment&s help competition 5 bad2 (or8shops o(ned b' (or8ers but financed b' the state 5 ,ood (or8shops (ould provide a cooperative rather than competitive foundation for economic life <omen (ere attracted to socialism bc a reorderin, of societ' could help (omen Qoe #atti de #amond follo(er of Saint Simon establish a phalanster' in (hich the se;es (ould both have e7ual education and >ob opportunities (ould share responsibilities such as house care SuDanne +oil7uin, Claire ?Lmar, and Reine #uindorf ne(spaper dedicated to emancipation of (omen 3lora Tristan utopian s'nthesis of socialism and feminism Wor!er"s #nion$ application of 3ourier&s ideas to famil' and (or8 absolute e7ualit' 5 onl' hope to free the (or8in, class and civiliDation Rutopian socialists (ere criticiDed for impracticabilit' but laid the ,round(or8s of later socialism .Mar;0 socialism remained a frin,e ideolo,' in comparison to liberalism and nationalism but it (ould unleash forces (ith more industrialiDation "nother 3rench Revolution elections called b' Charles * (as a victor' for 3rench liberals Charles issued the Hul' @rdinances edicts in (hich he imposed ri,id censorship on the press, dissolved the le,islative assembl', and reduced the electorate produces the Hul' Revolution .do 'ou hear the people sin,NO0 primar' influence is liberalism led b' a moderate, propertied liberals (ho plead to )ouis Philippe to ta8e the throne% Charles * fled the $ritain )ouis Philippe bour,eoisie monarch bc his political support came from the upper middle class dressed mostl' li8e a member of the middle class even constitutional chan,es benefitin, the upper middle class ensued financial 7ualifications for votin, (ere reduced 'et onl' the (ealthiest people could vote to the upper middle class this (as the stoppin, place for political pro,ress to the lesser bour,eoisie and the Parisian (or8in, class (ho had helped overthro( Charles * in 18=A, it (as a severe disappointment since the' had been e;cluded from political po(er (or8in, class people started riotin,2 ,overnment crushed them, repressed and censored the press ?ifferin, opinions in the Chamber of ?eputies about the direction of the bour,eoisie monarch'

The Part' of Movement "dolphe Tiers favored ministerial responsibilit' pursuit of an active forei,n polic' limited e;pansion of the franchise .(ho can vote0 composed of upper middle class individuals The Part' of Resistance 3ranSois #uiDnot 3rance has a perfect ,overnmentO o more institutional chan,esO dominated the Chamber of ?eputies #uiDnot cooperated (ith )ouis Philippe to diminish ministerial responsibilit', and pursued a polic' ,eared to(ards benefitin, onl' the (ealthiest Revolutionar' outbursts in $el,ium, Ital' and Poland primar' influence is nationalism $el,ium the Con,ress of +ienna added t(o differin, states in an effort to create a lar,e state the combo of the 2 states (ith cultural differences and the institution of a ?utch 8in,, <illiam of @ran,e anno'ed the $el,ians $el,ians rose up a,ainst the ?utch2 ma>or po(ers reco,niDe $el,ium as an independent state )eopold of Sa;eICobur, (as the ne( 8in, and a national con,ress established a constitutional monarch' for a ne( state The revolutionar' scenarios in Ital' and Poland (ere less successful Metternich sent "ustrian troops to crush Italian revolts Poland rose up a,ainst the Russians but received no support from the $ritish or 3rench2 Russians crush the revolt and establish a militar' dictatorship Reform in #reat $ritain -lections brin, the <hi,s to po(er Hul' Revolution serves as a catal'st for chan,e Industrial Revolution leads to an e;pandin, ,roup of leaders (ho ob>ect to the corrupt electorate s'stem that e;cludes them from po(er The <hi,s realiDe that ma8in, concessions is better than revolution introduce the Reform "ct of 18=2 disfranchised rotten borou,hs and enfranchised 42 ne( to(ns and cities ,ivin, urban communities a voice in ,overnment propert' 7ualification for votin, (as retained .1A libras02 1 in =A (ere represented in Parliament mostl' benefited the upper middle class did not much affect the composition of the Eouse of Commons but Fmonied, manufacturin,, and eduI cated eliteG had been FhitchedG to the landed interests in rulin, $ritain% period from 18=As to 184As sa( considerable reform le,islation aristocratic lando(nin, class (as usuall' the ones pushin, for le,islation halted some of the abuses in the industrial s'stem b' institutin, ,overnment re,ulation of (or8in, conditions industrialists and manufacturers opposed this2 usuall' bac8ed up le,islation favorin, economic liberalism

Poor )a( of 18=4 made poor people more (retched so the' (ould find >obs liberal le,islation (as the repeal of the Corn )a(s manufacturers Richard Cobden and Hohn $ri,ht formed the "ntiICorn lea,ue in 18=8 to help (or8ers b' lo(erin, bread prices (ould also help the industrial middle class (ho favored free trade repeal came (hen Robert Peel, leader of the Tories, persuaded them to support free trade 1848, (hich (itnessed man' revolutions in -urope, ended (ithout ma>or conflicts in $ritain middle class liberals and nationalists (ere the revolutionaries british middle class (as satisfied b' the Reform "ct and repeal of the Corn )a(s I omitted the /S" part bc i dont thin8 its important or comin, Revolutions of 1848 3rench Revolution si,ns of trouble preceded a revolution severe industrial and a,ricultural depression be,innin, in 184T brou,ht hardship into the lo(er middle class, (or8ers, and peasants corruption in ,overnment ,overnment (ould not e;tend suffra,e (hich outra,ed members of the middle and lo(er classes radical republicans, socialists and /MC under "dolph Thiers& leadership (anted the dismissal of #uiDnot forbidden to sta,e political rallies so the' held political ban7uets a ,rand ban7uet (as planned for 3eb 22 ,overnment forbade it2 people came an'(a's2 students and (or8ers put up barricades )ouis Philippe proposed reform but unable to form a ministr' he abdicated and (end to $ritain on 3eb 24 provisional ,overnment established b' moderate to radical republicans2 includin, )ouis $lanc (or8shops $lanc envisioned became unemplo'ment compensation units or public (or8s (ith little (or8% the cost became burdensome on the ,overnment ,ro(in, divide bet(een radical and moderate republicans :AA seats to moderates , =AA to monarchists, 1AA to radicals in the ational "ssembl' number of unemplo'ed enrolled in the national (or8shops rose from 1A8 to 12A8, this emptied the treasur' and moderates responded b' closin, them on Hune 21 (or8ers do not accept decision and revolt four da's of fi,htin, ensued in (hich ,overnment forces crushed the (or8in, class2 described as a class stru,,le2 thousand 8illed and 118 deported to "l,eria Hune ?a's appeared a stru,,le of the bour,eoisie a,ainst the (or8in, class e( constitution on ov 4 1848, establishes a ne( republic .Second Republic0 (ith a unicameral le,islature of B:A elected b' universal male suffra,e for = 'rs, and a president for 4 'ears Charles )ouis apoleon $onaparte, nephe( of @ri,inal apoleon, (as elected as President french sa( him as a defender of order declared himself emperor later2 french ,o from republicanism to authoritarian order a,ain

Revolution in Central -urope e;perienced rural and urban tensions due to an a,ricultural depression be,innin, in 184:% revolt set off b' ne(s of revolution in paris b' March 1848, (or8ers (ere destro'in, the factories that FdeprivedG them of their >obs2 peasants did the same (ith the manors of the nobilit' #erman rulers promised constitutions, a free press, >ur' trials,etc 4in, 3rederic8 <illiam I+ of Prussia a,reed to abolish censorship, establish a ne( constitution, and (or8 for a united #erman'% ever' ,erman state had this last reform as the' allo(ed elections of deputies b' universal male suffra,e to a Parliament in 3ran8furt the Parliament&s purpose (as to ma8e a constitution for a united ,erman' The 3ran8furt "ssembl' (as dominated b' educate middle class dele,ates aroused controvers' b' claimin, it (as the ,overnment for all #erman' debate over the composition of the ne( #erman state #rossdeutsch .F$i, #ermanG05 inclusion of "ustria 4leindeutsch .FSmall #ermanG05 e;cludin, "ustria and namin, the Prussian emperor the emperor of all #ermans 4leindeutsch follo(ers (on (hen "ustrians (ithdre(, but then 3redI eric8 <illiam I+ ,ruffl' refused the assembl'&s offer of the title of Femperor of the #ermansG in March 184C and ordered the Prussian dele,ates home% this attempt to create a united #erman' had failed "ustrian -mpire also erupted in revolution than8s to the Paris& ne(s in March 1848 the Eun,arian liberal ,entr' under )ouis 4ossuth (anted Fcommon(ealthG status5 8eepin, the Eabsbur, 8in, but o(n le,islature demonstrations lead to Metternich&s dismissal2 he flees Prussia revolutionaries ta8e control of the capital .+ienna0 and insist that a constituent assembl' be summoned to dra( up a liberal constitution Eun,ar' receives its o(n le,islature, separate national arm', and control over tis forei,n polic' and bud,et2 alliance to the Eabsbur,s (as its onl' tie to the "ustrian -mpire in $ohemia, the CDechs demand their o(n ,overnment as (ell conservatives (ere encoura,ed b' divisions bet(een radical and moderate revolutionaries and pla'ed upon the middleIclass fear of a (or8in,Iclass social revolution% n Hune 1848 a militar' force under #eneral "lfred <indisch,rUtD suppressed the CDech rebels in Pra,ue% <indisch,rUtD then attac8ed +ienna after a mob 8ills a minister in @ctober2 revolutionaries there are crushed as (ell 3erdinand I abdicates in favor of his nephe( 3rancis Hoseph I (ho (or8s for the restoration of the imperial ,overnment in Eun,ar' "ustrians unable to defeat 4ossuth&s forces2 icholas I intervenes and Eun,arian revolution crushed b' 184C Italian States failures of revolutionar' uprisin,s b' secret societies had served to discredit them leadership of Ital'&s riso,imento .Resur,ence0 (ent to #iuseppe MaDDini (ho founded Poun, Ital' in 18=12 its ,oal a united Italian Republic Cristina $el,io>oso too8 up MaDDini&s cause2 fled abroad and published a Paris ne(spaper about the Italian cause Italian state rose up in revolt in 1848 be,an in sicil', rulers ,ranted constitutions at first

lobard' and venetia rebelled a,ainst the "ustrian overlords 8in, of Piedmont, Charles "lbert assumes the leadership for a (ar of liberation b' 184C, "ustrians had reestablished their control the 3rench help Pope Pius I* control Rome onl' Piedmont 8ept its liberal constitution 3ailures of 1848 popular revolts initiated revolutionar' upheavals that led to the formation of liberal constitutions and liberal ,overnments divisions amon, revolutionaries shattered the revolutions moderate liberals fail to ,rant suffra,e to the (or8in, classes .not in 3rance0 the' (anted order and had a fear of a social revoluton b' the (or8in, classes nationalities ever'(here revolt in the pursuit of selfI,overnment divisions amon, nationalities proved disastrous hun,arians (ould not ,rant autonom' to their minorities .Serbs, Croats and Slovenes0 "ustrians be,in to pla' off Eun,ar'&s rebellious minorit' nationalities a,ainst the Eun,arians% Eun,ar' is recovered -mer,ence of an @rdered Societ' ?evelopment of e( Police 3orces re,ular s'stem of police (ere not readil' accepted bc of political and secret police fears but their function to protect citiDens made them acceptable made their first appearance in 3rance on 1828 named ser>ents and dressed in blue uniforms and (ere li,htl' armed (ith a cane and a saber since the' made a civilian not a militar' bod' $ritish resist the creation of a professional police force due to fear depended on a s'stem of unpaid constables recruited b' local authorities the' (ere unable to 8eep order bet(een Sept 182C and Ma' 18=A, =AAA police officers appeared on )ondon named $obbies after sir Robert Peel (ho introduced the le,islation creatin, the force primar' ,oal (as to prevent crime but municipal authorities found that the' (ere also useful in imposin, order on (or8in, class urban inhabitants british police develop a sense of professionalism police s'stems are reor,aniDed throu,hout the (estern (orld durin, the 1Cth C most countries follo(ed 3rench or $ritish e;amples but local customs influenced #erman' establishes its o(n police on 1848, the SchutDmannschaft (hich be,in as a civilian bod' but are or,aniDed alon, militar' lines and used for political purposes contemporar' reformers thou,ht that the increase in povert' increased crime -uropean states pass Poor )a(s other reformers ar,ued that the poor la(s fail to address the real problem that povert' (as a result of the moral de,enerac' of the lo(er classes, these reformers establish institutes to instruct the (or8in, classes in the applied sciences to ma8e them more productive members of societ' or,aniDed reli,ion ta8es a different approach to povert' $ritish evan,elicals set up Sunda' Schools to improve the morals of (or8in, children

#erman evan,elical Protestants established nurseries for orphans and homeless children, (omen&s societies to care for the sic8 and poor, and prison societies that prepared (omen to (or8 in prisons% The Catholic church attempted the same 8ind of (or8 throu,h a revival of its reli,ious orders2 turnin, 'oun, male (or8ers a(a' from ,amblin, and drin8in, and females from prostitution The Reform of Prisons increase in crime led to an increase in arrests capital punishment replaced for imprisonment prisons (ere ineffective and -uropean states (anted to rehabilitate their prisoners, not >ust punish $ritish and 3rench sent missions to e;amine prisons int the /S" constructed prisons on the <alnut Street model b' separatin, their prisoners and 8eepin, them in solitar' confinement this thou,h proved more e;pensive and less doable prisons and police forces (as the elites response to revolutionar' upheavals but man' radical (or8in, class activists also (elcomed the order and discipline of the ne( s'stem