General Characteristics A fascination with the past As areas of Western Europe became involved with viewing themselves as nations

ns rather than as individual cities and principalities, the people in these various regions became interested in understanding their past. The study of archaeology was growing in popularity and ancient books and manuscripts were being discovered in the forgotten corners of Europe s castles and cathedrals. The study of history was in vogue, and the desire to reconstruct the past seemed irresistible. !ir Walter !cott s "vanhoe and The #ady of the #ake present possible portraits of the $edieval period. %peras based on the lives of &ueen Eli'abeth the (irst of England and Anne )oleyn fictionali'ed the lives of these famous noblewomen. $endelssohn s revival of )ach and *andel s already+forgotten oratorios and cantatas demonstrates the desire to understand ancient music. Tone poems based on the legends of ,on -uan or Til Eulenspiegel affirm the popularity of these figures from the $iddle Ages. Wagner s use of old myths as foundations for the presentation of new tales in his unified artworks demonstrates for today s students the nineteenth+century desire to connect past and present. A deep interest in the folk or common people .ollecting stories of the past meant collecting stories kept alive in an oral tradition by common people who might never have learned to read or write. Wilhelm /ottfried *erder as well as the )rothers /rim began to collect folk songs and stories, and compile these into printed books to be treasured by the literate public. !oon afterwards, these songs and stories began to appear in works of art, music, and literature. !chubert and )rahms made artistic settings of folk songs, and set folk poems to music. 0oets like /1the and !chiller began to retell folk tales in their plays and novels. These authors also saw the importance of writing stories and poems about the activities of contemporary common people. (or e2ample, princes became lost in cities and were mistaken for farm lads and princesses were made of ordinary .inderellas. Works of art that once depicted the most ma3estic of human ideals now depicted blacksmith s shops and street vendors. A fascination with the other or the exotic As printed material became easier to obtain and as travel to distant locales became more commonplace, people of the nineteenth century began to be curious about cultures other than their own. !tories about 4e2otic5 or 4oriental5 cultures sold in profusion, and musicians incorporated these stories and other elements of e2oticism into their works.This is most readily apparent in opera where colorful stories of 4the other5, complete with sets and costumes, could be combined with e2otic musical elements. A few e2amples are )i'et s .armen, 6ossini s "talian /irl in Algiers, 7erdi s Aida and 8abucco, or 0uccini s $adame )utterfly and Turandot. !tories about !cotland achieved particular popularity in "taly and /ermany, while stories about "taly found similar popularity in England. .omposers of instrumental works also discovered methods of incorporating e2oticism into their music. $endelssohn composed a !cottish symphony, and )eethoven fre9uently incorporated the sounds of Turkish -anissary music into his

works."t is important for us to recogni'e that many of these literary, artistic, and musical representations of 4the other5 carry negative connotations. The cultures of Western Europe tended to see other cultures as 9uaint or as less developed than themselves, and e2otic images were often fashioned to affirm these beliefs. Therefore, representation of 4the other5 in art often served as an affirmation of political confidence or power in a propagandistic manner. As we notice representations of alterity :of the other; in the works that we will study, it is crucial that we ask ourselves what these representations might mean on various levels. "t is true that some representations are purely innocent. %thers, however, have been carefully crafted to send political messages. A fascination with the fantastic and the supernatural The nineteenth+century fascination with legends of the past and stories of 4the other5 e2tended to include a fascination with most stories about worlds other than their own. !tories of ghosts haunting the many ancient European monuments and of fairies and pi2ies tricking fools out of their lands and wealth found ready audiences. !tories of witches, goblins and other spooks also became popular. Weber s ,er (reisch<t' tells the story of a man who sells his soul to the devil in order to obtain magic bullets so that he may win the hand of his beloved in a marksmanship contest. )erlio' !ymphonie (antasti9ue depicts a witches !abbath in the last movement. Toys and imaginary figures come to life in Tchaikovsky s ballet The 8utcracker. /oethe s famous poem ,er Erlk1nig, set to music by !chubert, tells the story of a father who fails to save his child from death at the hands of the evil elf king. Whether or not the average citi'en of the nineteenth century believed these fantastic tales remains unknown. .ertainly, superstition is documented to have been prevalent among both villagers and city dwellers. *owever, it is obvious that they loved the chilling e2citement that such tales afforded. "n an age before the wonders of radio, television, and the internet, people used stories as a way of entertaining themselves and others. The rise of the middle class As large cities grew in influence, more people in nineteenth+century Europe associated themselves with urban centers. "ndustry increased and the people of the middle classes found that they had sufficient wealth to purchase education and entertainment. $usical instruments became more affordable and the well+ educated person was e2pected to sing and play music at a level sufficient for family entertainment and personal en3oyment. The market for printed music collections boomed. As amateur musicians needed more printed sheet music to play, composers began to create works that might appeal to public tastes. $oderately difficult piano sonatas were published by the do'ens. !horter piano works such as dances and nocturnes were particularly valued. 7iolin and piano duos, songs, and string 9uartets and trios also grew popular. (our+hand piano pieces also en3oyed a certain vogue since music+making was considered a suitable activity for young couples who were courting :so long as it was supervised, of course;= (or the first time, the music of the best composers in Europe was available to be played at home. )ecause middle+class music lovers became familiar with art music at home, they were eager to purchase tickets for

subscription concerts in order to hear works of their favorite composers in live performance. Continuation of enlightenment principles The principles of scientific e2perimentation, governmental reform, and social responsibility promoted during the enlightenment of the eighteenth century continued to shape nineteenth+century thought and action. The industrial revolution changed the cost, value, and availability of goods. 8ew methods of printing were invented. World trade increased. "ndividuals began to value their own identities while learning to see themselves as belonging to larger, unified nations. 8ineteenth+century composers took part in these developments. 7erdi held a position in the first "talian parliament. *e also wrote an opera, Aida, to be performed at the celebration of the completion of the !ue' .anal. %ther musicians made grand improvements to e2isting instruments, giving us the new double action pedal harp and the modern piano with its metal frame. A focus on innovation co+e2isting with a desire to develop the ideas of the eighteenth+century enlightenment was the desire to present new ideas to a public very eager for entertainment and novelty. There were new instruments such as the double action pedal harp and the sa2ophone. There were improvements to e2isting instruments, such as adding reinforced metal frames to pianos. There were new e2periments with tonality and chromaticism as e2emplified by Wagner s use of chromaticism in his Tristan und "solde. The si'e of the orchestra was increased. $ulti+part scenes replaced the old number opera conventions of recitative and aria. ,ance music was revitali'ed for performance in the concert hall. 8ew theaters were built to show+case the spectacular operas that audiences craved. .omposers and their audiences alike valued the co+e2isting presences of old and new elements. Concept of the artist as hero (rom your previous studies in Western Art $usic, you may remember that, through the beginning of the nineteenth century, composers were employed as servants in the houses of wealthy noblemen or church officials. They dressed in livery, composed music on demand, and ate and slept with cooks and housekeepers. They were considered craftsmen and were always seeking increased 3ob security.,uring the 6omantic period, the idea of the position of the composer in society altered dramatically. They began to be revered as artists, and as gifted individuals worthy of admiration and emulation. "n some cases, they outshone the fame of their artistic contemporaries in literature, theater, and the visual arts. )eethoven accepted largesse from the nobility, but refused to be employed by them directly. "f he came to their homes to play music, he came as an e9ual in education and ability. The music+loving middle classes also began to shower )eethoven and other composers with admiration. (eli2 $endelssohn, who was wealthy enough in his own right to avoid the patronage system, received standing ovations when he entered concert halls as a mere audience member. The virtuosic playing of (ran' #is't was so admired that he became wealthy enough to act as a patron for younger composers. .omposers of the

nineteenth century found fame not after death, as did )ach and $o'art, but in their own lifetimes. A more active concert life .oncert life, as we know it in the metropolitan centers of the world today, began in the nineteenth century. With the decline of the patronage system, composers were free to accept contracts with individual theaters for premiers of their works. "n addition, they could fill separate engagements as virtuoso performers and conductors. They often increased their fame by acting as music critics. .omposers also traveled to other countries to perform newly+composed or well+ known works. Longing (sehnsucht) %ne of the ma3or themes pervading literature, poetry, art, and music of the nineteenth century is that of longing. The /erman word generally used to describe this feeling is !ehnsucht. "f you consider a work of art or literature carefully you will find representations of longing for home, childhood, love, health, a new world, a nation, or death. ationalism The small principalities and city+states of the si2teenth through the eighteenth centuries were giving way to the presences of larger, more geographically unified nations. This allowed many people to acknowledge the cultural kinships they felt with those who lived near them, but who were divided by governmental borders. As new nations sought unification, they hoped to strengthen this unity through establishing a national kind of music. $any composers of the 6omantic period strove to further the nationalist causes of their countries. .hopin brought 0olish dances to the concert halls of Europe. #is't turned *ungarian dances into virtuosic works called rhapsodies. 7erdi s name literally became synonymous with the movement for the unification of "taly. .omposers of many nations played valued roles in struggles for independence and freedom. Their contributions must not be taken for granted. Connections !etween artists and artworks The increased availability of printed material, the increased ease of travel, and the altered view of the composer as a person of worth and talent meant that artists could now be connected socially. $endelssohn, !chubert, and other composers sent their settings of /1the s poems to the famous poet, and /1the often responded to them with praise or criticism. !chumann was familiar enough with the work of .hopin to imitate the younger composer s style in some of his small piano works. #is't assisted Wagner in fleeing to !wit'erland to avoid arrest. $any composers created songs from poems written by their friends. Writers, painters, and composers shared ideas in coffee houses and salons as they traveled from "taly, to 7ienna, to 0aris. This new sense of community among artists meant that composers derived inspiration from across artistic disciplines. "t also gave all artists courage to e2press any common values they might have shared.