Buddhism

A Concise Introduction

Are you a god? they asked.No. An angel?No. A saint?No. Then what are you? Buddha answered, I am awake.

Sampuran Das

The decline & rediscovery of Buddhism in India The Pala Empire (750 AD to 1174 AD) was the last major Buddhist Dynasty in India. The Palas adherents to Mahayana Buddhism were generous patrons of Buddhist temples and Mahaviharas of Nalanda, Odantapura, Sompura and Vikramashila. It was through their missionaries that Buddhism was established in Tibet. Celebrated Buddhist monk Atisha- the Principal of Vikramshila reformed Tibetan Buddhism. The Palas maintained cordial relations with the Burma and Shailendras Dynasty of Indonesia. The Nalanda inscription (860 AD) mentions King Devapaladeva of Bengala had granted the request of Sri Maharaja of Suvarnadvipa (Buddhist Shailendra Dynasty of Sumatra) Balaputra, to build a Buddhist monastery near Bodh Gaya1. The Pala Empire disintegrated in the 12th century weakened by Hindu Sena dynasty followed by Islamic invasion under Bakhtiyar Khilji.2 In 1193 Buddhist Mahaviharas like Vikramshila, Odantapura, Somapura, and Nalanda was sacked by the fanatic Turkish Muslim invader Bakhtiyar Khilji. The Persian historian Minhaj-i-Sira records state thousands of monks were burned alive and thousands were beheaded as Khilji tried his best to uproot Buddhism and plant Islam by the sword. Nalandas library continued to burn for several months- "smoke from the burning manuscripts hung for days like a dark pall over the low hills."3 The last principal of Nalanda, Shakyashribhadra, fled to Tibet in 1204 CE at the invitation of the Tibetan translator Tropu Lotsawa. Mr. Hodgson was the English resident of Nepal from 1833 to 1843, and he was the first to collect original manuscripts on which a sober account of the religion could be based. He sent 85 bundles to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 85 to the Royal Asiatic Society of London, 30 to the India Office Library, 7 to the Bodleian Library of Oxford, and 174 to the Societe Asiatique in Paris. The genius of Eugene Burnouf breathed life into these dead manuscripts, and his "Introduction to the History of Indian Buddhism," published in 1844, was the first rational, scientific, and comprehensive account of the Buddhist religion. The fame of the eminent scholar and the great ability and philosophical acumen with which he treated the subject attracted the attention of learned Europe to this wonderful religion, and the inquiry which Burnouf started has continued to the present day. 4
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Cds, George (1996). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press Scott, David (May 1995). "Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons Tabaquat-I-Nasiri History of Civilisation of Ancient India, Romesh Chunder Dutt

Alexander Csoma Korosi, Hungarian scholar, revived Buddhism from the Tibetian Buddhists literature. He set forth from Bucharest in 1820, without friends or money, and travelled on foot or by water on a raft to Bagdad, on caravan to Teheran and in 1822 he came to Kabul and he travelled through Kashmir to Ladakh, and settled in Tibet. In 1832 he came to Calcutta, where he was kindly received Mr. James Prinsep, and resided many years. In 1842 he left Calcutta again to go to Tibet, but died at Darjeeling. The Asiatic Society of Bengal has raised a monument on his grave in Darjeeling. Rev. Samuel Beal is credited for procuring a complete collection of Chinese works on Buddhism. The Japanese ambassador to England, on his return to Tokio ordered the entire collection known as "The Sacred Teaching of the Three Treasures" to be sent to England. The collection contains over 2000 volumes, and represents the entire series of sacred books taken during successive centuries from India to China, as also works and commentaries of native Chinese priests.

8th century Pala Period, Somapura Mahavihara, Bangladesh

Buddhism an agonistic philosophical system All Religions in Nietzsches view make a thousand promises but keep none; while Buddhism makes no promises but keeps them all. There are six typical features authority, ritual, speculation, tradition, grace, and mystery which contributes towards development of a systemized view or thought into a religion; as seen in all world religions.5 Authority-Some people of superior spiritual content either by birth or through practice; whos delivered counsel is to be followed by people. Fidelity to individual who occupy positions of power within religious institutions. Rituals- religions cradle, for anthropologist believe religion arose out of celebration. Speculation -Whence do we come, whither do we go, why are we here? Grace- Religion says that the best things are the more eternal things. Mystery. Being finite, the human mind cannot begin to fathom the Infinite, which it is drawn to.

The fact that Buddhism as a religion emerged devoid of each of the above mentioned ingredients; without which we would suppose that religion could not take root, is a fact so striking that it warrants documentation. 1. Buddha preached a religion devoid of authority Do not go upon what has been acquired by repeated hearing; nor upon tradition; nor upon rumor; nor upon what is in a scripture; nor upon the consideration, The monk is our teacher.. Rather, he said, test ideas and actions in your own laboratory of common sense: When you yourself know they lead to harm or ill, abandon them; when you yourself know they lead to benefit and happiness, adopt them. 2. Buddha preached a religion devoid of ritual.

Buddhism a concise introduction by Smith & Novak

Buddha criticized Brahmin rites as superstitious petitions to ineffectual gods. To seek to win peace through others, as priests and sacrificers, is the same as if a stone were thrown into deep water, and now people, praying and imploring and folding their hands, came and knelt down all around saying: Rise, O dear stone! Come to the surface, O dear stone! But the stone remains at the bottom. 3. Buddha preached a religion that discouraged excessive metaphysical speculations 4. Buddha preached a religion devoid of tradition. Do not go by what is handed down, nor on the authority of your traditional teachings. When you know of yourselves: These teachings are not good: these teachings when followed out and put in practice conduce to loss and sufferingthen reject them. 5. Buddha preached a religion of intense self-effort. Buddhas only point the way. Work out your salvation with diligence. Buddha was against the notion that only brahmins could attain enlightenment, Let persons (any caste) of intelligence come to me, honest, candid, straightforward; I will instruct them, and if they practice as they are taught, they will come to know for themselves and to realize that supreme religion and goal.

6. Buddha preached a religion devoid of the supernatural. He condemned all forms of divination and forecasting, though he concluded from his own experience that the human mind was capable of powers now referred to as paranormal, he refused to allow his monks to play around with those powers. By this you shall know that a man is not my disciplethat he tries to work a miracle. It is because I perceive danger in the practice of mystic wonders that I strongly discourage it.
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Buddha himself answer Are you a god? they asked.No. An angel?No. A saint?No. Then what are you? Buddha answered, I am awake. His answer became his title, for this is what Buddha from sanskrit root budh denotes both to wake up

Takht-e Rustam, Buddhist Stupa (between Mazar-e Sharif and Kunduz), Afganistan

Progressive agnosticism in Indian philosophy

The Nasadiya Sukta in Rigveda 10th Mandala, 129th Sukta, oldest Aryan Text dating 1700 BC. It speculates on cosmology and the origin of the universe; similar to modern day understanding of Big Bang. The hymn has been interpreted as one of the earliest accounts of skeptical inquiry and agnosticism.

nsadsnno no vyom paro yat | sadsttadnm nsdrajo kimvarva kuha kasya armannabha kimsdgaha na gabhram ||1|| Then was neither being nor non-being; there was no realm of air nor sky beyond. What covered it, and where? what sheltered it? Was cosmic water there, unfathomed depth of cosmic water? sdamta na tarhi na rtry na m ahna astpraketa | tyur ndav ta svadhay tadeka tasmddh nyanna para kicansa ||2|| Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal; no sign was there, nor day's and night's divider. That One being, breathless, breathed by its own nature: apart from it there was nothing else tama as ttamas g hamagrepraketa salila sarvam ida | yataika || 3 || tucchyen bhvapihita yads ttapasastanmahin j Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness all was indiscriminate chaos. All that existed then was void and formless: by the great power of warmth was born that unit. kmastadagre samavartatdhi manaso reta prathama yadst | kavayo man ||4|| sato bandhumasati niravindan h di praty Thereafter rose desire in the beginning, desire, the primal seed and germ of spirit. Seers who searched their heart for wisdom discovered the kinship between the being and non-being tiracno vitato ramiremadha svid ari svids 3 t | s 3 dup t ||5|| retodh asanmahimna asantsvadh vast tprayati parast Transversely was their severing line extended: what was above it then, and what below it? There were seminal begetters, there were mighty forces, free action here and energy up yonder t ko addh veda ka iha pra vocatkuta aj kuta iya visi | arvgdev asya visarjanenth hva ||6 || ko veda yata abab Who knows and who can say, whence it was born and whence came this creation? The Gods are later than this world's creation. Who knows then whence it first came into being iya visiryata abab hva yadi v dadhe yadi v na | yo asydhyaka parame vyomantso aga veda yadi v na veda || 7 || He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not, He who surveys it all from his highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps even he does not!
Translation by Ralph T.H. Griffith

The life of Sakyamuni Buddha The story which is told of the young Prince of Kapilavastu named Siddharta Gautama was married to Yasodhara, daughter of the chief of Koli, about the age of eighteen. Ten years after his marriage, Gautama resolved to quit his home and his wife for the study of philosophy and religion. He renounced all this, and rode away to become a poor student and a homeless wanderer. His faithful servant Channa asked to be allowed to stay with him and become an ascetic, but Gautama sent him back, and repaired alone to Rajagriha. Gautama attached himself first to one Alara, and then to another Udraka, and learnt from them all that Hindu philosophers had to teach. He retired therefore into the jungles of Uruvela, near the site of the present temple of Buddha Gaya, and for six years, attended by five disciples, he gave himself up to the severest penances and self-mortification. His fame spread all round, for the ignorant and the superstitious always admire self-inflicted pain but Gautama did not obtain what he sought. At last one day he fell down from sheer weakness and his disciples thought he was dead. Left alone in the world, Gautama wandered towards the banks of the Niranjara, received his morning meal from the hands of Sujata, a villager's daughter, and sat himself down under the famous Bodhi tree or the tree of wisdom and attained enlightenment. The first vassa or rainy season after attainment of enlightenment (522 BC) Buddha's old teacher Alara was dead, and he went therefore to Benares to proclaim the truth to his five former disciples. In Benares, in the hermitage of Migadaya (Sarnath) the Supreme Wheel of the Empire of Truth has been set rolling by the Blessed One,-that wheel which not by any Saman or Brahman, not by any god, not by any Brahma or Mara, not by anyone in the universe, can ever be turned back.6 Vasa, son of the rich Sethi (banker) of Benares, was his first lay disciple. At Uruvela, Buddha achieved distinguished success by converting three brothers named Kasyapa, who worshipped fire in the Vedic form, and had high reputation as hermits and philosophers. The conversion of the Kasyapas created a sensation, and Buddha with his new disciples and a thousand followers walked towards Rajagriha, the capital of
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Dhamma Chakka Ppavattana Sutta

Magadha. News of the new prophet soon reached the king Bimbisara, surrounded by numbers of Brahmans and Vaisyas, went to visit Buddha. Seeing the distinguished Uruvela Kasyapas there, the king could not make out if that great Brahman had converted Gautama, or if Gautama had converted the Brahman. Gautama understood the king's perplexity, and in order to enlighten him, asked Kasyapa, "What knowledge have you gained, 0 inhabitant of Uruvela, that has induced you, who were renowned for your penances, to forsake your sacred fire." Kasyapa replied that he had seen the state of peace," and" took no more delight in sacrifices and offerings." The king was struck and pleased, and, with his numerous attendants, declared himself an adherent of Buddha, and invited him to take his meal with him the next day. The second vassa or rainy season after attainment of enlightenment (521 BC) The fame of Buddha had now travelled to his native town, and his old father expressed a desire to see him once before he died. Buddha accordingly went to Kapilavastu, but, according to custom, remained in the grove outside the town. His father and relations came to see him there; and the next day Buddha himself went into the town, begging alms from the people who once adored him as their beloved prince and master! The story goes on to say that the king rebuked Buddha for this act, but Buddha replied, it was the custom of his race. " But," retorted the king, "we are descended from an illustrious race of warriors, and not one of them has ever begged his bread." ., You and your family," answered Buddha, "may claim descent from kings, my descent is from the prophets (Buddhas) of old." The king took his son into the palace, where all the members of the family came to greet him except his wife. The deserted Yasodhara, with a wife's grief and a wife's pride, exclaimed, "if I am of any value in his eyes, he will himself come, I can welcome him better here." Buddha understood this and went to her, with only two disciples with him. And when Yasodhara saw her lord and prince enter,-a recluse with shaven head and yellow robes,-her heart failed her, she flung herself to the ground, held his feet, and burst into tears. Then, re membering the impassable gulf between them, she rose and stood aside. She listened to his new doctrines, and when, subsequently, Buddha was induced to establish an order of female Bhikkhunis. Yasodhara became one of the first Buddhist nuns. At the time of which we are now speaking, Yasodhara remained in her house, but Rahula, Buddha's son, was converted. Buddha's father was much aggrieved at this, and

asked Buddha to establish a rule that no one should be admitted to the Order without his parents' consent. Buddha consented to this, and made a rule accordingly. 7 The fifth vassa or rainy season after attainment of enlightenment (517 BC) Buddha revisited Kapilavastu and was present at the death of his father, then ninetyseven years old. His widowed step-mother Prajapati Gautami, and his no less widowed wife Yasodhara, had now no ties to bind them to the world, and insisted on joining the Order established by Buddha. The sage had not yet admitted women to the Order, and was reluctant to do so. But his mother was inexorable and followed him to Vaisali and begged to be admitted. Ananda pleaded her cause and asked- "Are women, Lord, capable when they have gone forth from the household life and entered the homeless state, under the doctrine and discipline proclaimed by the Blessed One, are they capable of realizing the fruit of conversion or of the second path or of Arhatship? " "They are capable, Ananda," replied the sage. And Prajapati and the other ladies were admitted to the Order as Bhikkhunls.8 In the sixth vassa Buddha returned to Rajagriha and Kshema- the queen of Bimbisara was admitted to the Order. Fifteenth vassa from the date of his proclaiming his creed, he visited Kapilavastu again, and addressed a discourse to his cousin Mahanama, who had succeeded Bhadraka, the successor of Suddhodana, as the king of the Sakyas. Buddha's father-in-law, Suprabuddha, king of Koli, publicly abused Buddha for deserting Yasodhara, but is said to have been swallowed up by the earth shortly after. Mahapari Nibbana: the fourty fifth vassa or rainy season after attainment of enlightenment (477 BC) In Pava. There, Chunda, a goldsmith and ironsmith, invited him to a meal, and gave him sweet rice and cakes and a quantity of dried boar's flesh. Buddha never refused the poor man's offering, but the boar's flesh did not agree with him. " Once had eaten the food prepared by Chunda, the worker in metal, there fell upon him a dire sickness, the disease of dysentery, and sharp pain came upon him even unto death. But the Blessed One, mindful and self-possessed, bore it without complaint."On his way from Pava to Kusinagara, Buddha converted a low-caste man Pukkusa. At Kusinagara, eighty miles due east from Kapilavastu, Buddha feIt that his death was near. With that loving anxiety
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lIfalulvagga Ctullamgga

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which had characterized all his life, he tried on the eve of his death to impress on his followers that Chunda was not to blame for the food he had supplied, but that the humble smith's act, kindly meant, would redound to length of life, to good birth, and to good fortune. On the night of Buddha's death, Subhadra, a Brahman philosopher of Kusinagara, came to ask some questions, but Ananda, fearing that this might be wearisome to the dying sage, would not admit him. Buddha, however, had overheard their conversation, and he would not turn back a man who had come for instruction. He ordered the Brahman to be admitted, and with his dying breath explained to him the principles of his religion. Subhadra was the last disciple whom Buddha converted, and shortly after,. at the last watch of the night, the great sage departed this life,-with the exhortation to his brother men still on his lips,-" Decay is inherent in all component things; work out your salvation withdiligence. " The body of Buddha was cremated by the Mallas of Kusinagara who surrounded his bones "in their councilhall with a lattice-work of spears and with a rampart of bows; and there, for seven days, they paid honour and reverence and respect and homage to them with dance and song and music, and with garlands and perfumes." It is said that the remains of Buddha were divided into eight portions. Ajatasatru of Magadha obtainedone portion, and erected a mound over it at Rajagriha. The Lichchavis of Vaisali obtained another portion, anderected a mound at that town. Similarly the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Bulis of Allakappa, the Koliyas ofRamagrama, the Mallas of Pava, the Mallas of Kusina gara, and a Brahman Vethadipaka obtained portions of the relics and erected mounds over them. The Moriyans of Pipphalivana made a mound over the embers, and theBrahman Dona made a mound over the vessel in which the body had been burnt. In Indian thought, Dharma is the truth about the world: the underlying nature of things, the way things are in reality. Reality, as seen in Buddhism, doesnt contain persons and substances, but rather an assemblage of interlocking physical and mental processes that spring up and pass away subject to multifarious causes and conditions and that are always mediated by the cognitive apparatus embodied in the operation of the ve aggregates (khandhas). A framework of thought that hinges on the ideas that sentient experience is dependently originated and that whatever is dependently originated is conditioned (sankhata), impermanent, subject to change, and lacking independent selfhood. 9

Buddhist Philosophy- Essential Readings, Edelglass and Garfield

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The Upanishads are essentially metaphysical speculation on the nature of reality conceptualized as Bramha -the Supreme Being as pure sense, intellect, thought. "Like the sun and other luminaries, seemingly multiplied by reflection though really single, and like space apparently subdivided in vessels containing it within limits, the Supreme Light is without difference or distinction..there is none other but He" As Rhys Davids puts it, "the Buddhist heaven is not death, and it is not on death, but on a virtuous life here and now. Buddha has not inspired in his followers any hopes of heaven, beyond Nirvana, which is the Buddhist's heaven and salvation.

Sarnath (Isipatana deer park), place of Lord Buddhas first sermon

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Buddha the reformer sage Buddha delivered discourses in which he emphatically rejected caste. The grass and the trees, the worms, moths, and ants, the quadrupeds, snakes, fishes, and birds are all divided into species which are known by their distinguishing marks. Man, too, has his distinguishing mark, and that is his profession. For whoever amongst men lives by cow-keeping, know this, oh Vasishtha, he is a husbandman, not a Brahman. And whoever amongst men lives by different mechanical arts . . . is an artisan, not a Brahman. And whoever amongst men lives by trade is merchant, not a Brahman. And whoever amongst men lives by serving others..... is a servant, not a Brahman..And whoever amongst men lives by archery ... is a soldier, not a Brahman. And whoever amongst men lives by performing household ceremonials ... is a sacrificer, not a Brahman. And whoever amongst men possesses villages ... is a king, not a Brahman. And I do not call one a Brahman on account of his birth, or of his origin from a particular mother.but the one who is possessed of nothing and seizes upon nothing, him I call a Brahman. . . . The man who is free from anger, endowed with holyworks, virtuous, without desire, subdued, and wearing his last body, him I call a Brahman. The man who like water on a lotus leaf, or a mustard seed on the point of a needle, does not cling to sensual pleasures, him I call a Brahman" 10 Assalfiyana, came to controvert Buddha's opinion that all castes were equally pure. Buddha, asked Brahmans were not subject to all the disabilities of child birth like other women. "Yes," replied Assalayana."Were there not differences in color among the people of adjacent countries like Bactria and Afghanistan," asked Buddha, and yet could not slaves become masters, and masters as slaves, in those countries? "Yes," replied Assalayana. "Then if a Brahman is a murderer, a "thief, a libertine, a liar, a slanderer, violent or frivolous in speech, covetous, malevolent, given to false doctrine, will he not after death be born to misery and woe, like any other caste?" Yes," said Assalayana, and he also admitted that good works would lead to heaven irrespective of caste. .Buddha argue that when a mare was united with an ass, the offspring was a mule, but the offspring of a Kshatriya united to a Brahman resembled its parents, and the

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Vasettha Sutta

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obvious conclusion, therefore, was that there was really no difference between a Brahman and a Kshatriya!....11 As the great streams, 0 disciples, however many they may be,-the Ganga, Yamuna, Asiravatl, Sarabhu, and Mahi when they reach the great ocean lose their old name and their old descent, and bear only one name, the great Ocean"-so also do Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras lose their distinctions when they join the Order Compare this with Brahmanic religious books- The Bhagavad Gita, intended for mass consumption and not just for the elite, was an all-around cosmologicalphilosophical justification, for a new Indian society based on varnashrama dharma. Of brahmans, ksatriyas and Vaisyas, and of Sudras, scorcher of the foe, the actions are distinguished. According to the strands that spring from their innate nature; Calm, self control, austerities, purity, patience and uprightness, theoretical and practical knowledge, and religious faith are the natural-born actions of brahmans. Heroism, majesty, firmness, skill, and not fleeing in battle also, are the natural-born actions of warriors. Agriculture, cattle-tending and commerce are the natural-born actions of Vaisyas; action that consists of service is likewise natural-born to a Sudra (Translation by Edgerton 1944: 87) A depiction of of membership of the Sangha 12: Why does the Buddha mention the farmer caste first? Because farmers have the least pride and they are largest in number. Often the monks from a Ksatriya family are proud of their learning; those from low castesare unable to continue long in the order. But the young farmers plough their land while all their bodies are running with sweatTherefore they are not proud. From the other families not very many become monks; from the farmers, many

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Assalayana Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya

Visuddhimagga Buddhaghoshas famous fifth century commentary on the Vasetthasutta

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Buddhas socio-economic vision Now there is one method to adopt to put a thorough end to this disorder. Whosoever there may be in the kings realm who devote themselves to keeping cattle and the farm, to them let his majesty the king give food and seed-corn. Whosoever there may be in the kings realm who devote themselves to trade, to them let his majesty the king give capital. Whoever there may be in the kings realm who devote themselves to government service, to them let his majesty the king give wages and food. Then those men, following each his own business,will no longer harass the realm; the kings revenue will go up; the country will be quiet and at peace; and the populace, pleased with one another and happy, dancing their children in their arms, will dwell with open doors (Digha Nikaya I, 11).13 This depicts a society without much servitude, one of traders, farmers and government employees; except for the absence of factories, its very modern. The Samana cults and the Brahmanic tradition emerged as two major contending and conflicting forces in the Indian society of the first millennium BCE. All samana cults denied the authority of Brahmans and the Vedas.The story of Shambuk in the Ramayana illustrates the conflict. After Lord Ramas return from the war with Ravana, a Shudra named Shambuk takes to asceticism in the kingdom of Ayodhya, and because of this sin a Brahman boy in the kingdom dies. When his father makes an appeal, Lord Rama enforces the law of varnashrama dharma by killing Shambuk. (OFlaherty 1983) Not only is Rama, the ideal king, depicted as killing Shambuk in order to protect the laws of varna; he is also shown as killing the rakshasas of the forests at the urging of the Brahman Rishis. The difference with the ideals of Hindu varnashrama dharma is striking. The term dasa-kammakara in the Buddhist texts simply indicates people doing the work of service (for pay or in bondage)14 In Rhys Davids translation of Dasakammakaras: In five ways does an Ariyan master minister to his servants and employees as the nadir:by assigning them work according to their strength; by supplying them with food
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Kutadanata Sutta Buddhism in India,Gail Omvedt

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and wages; by tending them in sickness; by sharing with them unusual delicacies; by granting them leave at times [explained as constant relaxation so that they need not work all day, and special leave with extra food and adornment for (festivals). In these ways ministered to by their master, servants and employees love their master in five ways: they rise before him, theylie down to rest after him; they are content with what is given to them; they do their work well; and they carry about his praise and good fame Employee- employer relationship is humanized and especially when it transcends slavery with wages and labor rights. Buddhist ethics on creation of wealth: The wise and moral man shines like a fire on a hilltop, making money like the bee, who does not hurt the flower. Such a man makes his pile as an anthill, gradually. The man grown wealthy thus can help his family and firmly bind his friends to himself. He should divide His money in four parts; on one part he should live, with two expand his trade, and the fourth he should save against a rainy day. (ibid.: 26). This indicates an acquisitive society and a phenomenal rate of reinvestment and savings growth suggesting a rapidly growing economy (Basham 1958: 125n) Buddhist ethics in household life: A husband should serve his wife as the western quarter in five ways; by honoring her, by respecting her; by remaining faithful to her; by giving her charge of the home; and by duly giving her adornments. And thus served by her husband as the western quarter a wife should care for him in five ways: she should be efficient in her household tasks; she should manage her servants well; she should be chaste; shes hould take care of the goods which he brings home; and she should be skillful and untiring in all her duties(Digha Nikaya III, 30)15

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Sigalavada Suttanta

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In Buddhist systems of ethics, the cultivation of knowledge and wisdom is necessary for making informed ethical choices. I declare, monks, that actions willed, performed, and accumulated will not become extinct as long as [their fruits] have not been experienced, be this in this life, in the next life, or subsequently. And as long as [the fruits of] these actions willed, performed, and accumulated have not been experienced, there will be no making an end of suffering (dukkha-), I declare.16 Someone with such pure conduct, with unshakeable confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, and unbroken virtue, will be a Stream-enterer, free of any subhuman rebirths, and bound to attain enlightenment within a limited number of lives.17 Mahapajapati Gotami (Buddhas foster mother) wandering in stages, she arrived at Vesali; then she stood there outside the porch, her feet swollen, her limbs covered with dust, sad and unhappy, crying, her face in tears. Venerable Ananda saw her standing there . . . and so asked her, Why, Gotami, why are you standing here . . . your face in tears? Because, venerable sir, the Blessed One does not allow womens going forth from the home life into homelessness in the doctrine and discipline made known by the Tathagata. Anada said to the Blessed One, Venerable sir, if a woman were to go forth from the home life into homelessness in the doctrine and discipline made known by the Tathagata, would she be able to realize the fruit of stream-entry, once returning, non-returning, or arahantship? Yes, Ananda, she would In that case, venerable sir, Mahapajapati Gotami has been of great service to the Blessed One. She was the Blessed Ones aunt, foster mother, nurse, giver of milk.(Buddha reluctantly agrees) Ananda, if Mahapajapati Gotami accepts eight rules of respect, that will be her full Acceptance(Buddha relents) But, Ananda, if women had not obtained the Going-forth from the home life into homelessness in the doctrine and discipline made known by the Tathagata, the holy life would have lasted long, the true Dhamma would have lasted one thousand years. But now that they have gotten to go forth . . .this holy life will not last long, the true Dhamma will last only ve hundred years.. 18

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Anguttara Nika ya, The Tens, Sutta From the Velu-dvareyya Sutta (Discourse to People of the Bamboo Gate)
Cullavagga

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Buddhas Dhamma Buddha says This Dhamma that I have attained is profound, hard to see and hard to understand, peaceful and sublime, unattainable by mere reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. But this generation delights in adhesion [to sense pleasures], takes delight in adhesion, rejoices in adhesion. It is hard for such a generation to see this truth . . . . If I were to teach the Dhamma, others would not understand me, and that would be wearying and troublesome for me .Hence, the Buddha was inclined to inaction rather than to teaching the Dhamma. Legend say, at that moment, the Brahma Sahampati appeared and declared to the Buddha: There are beings with little dust in their eyes who are wasting through not hearing the Dhamma. There will be those who will understand the Dhamma In response to this appeal, the Buddha decided to teach what he had learned out of compassion for beings19 He was aged thirty-ve and would spend the remaining forty-ve years of his life teaching the Dhamma to all who would listen so that they themselves might achieve enlightenment and overcome suffering. 1. The Four Noble Truths are the centerpiece of the Buddhas message. An important commentary in the Theravada tradition, Buddhaghosas The Path of Purication, makes explicit what is clearly implicit in the presentation of these truths: The truth of suffering is like a disease, the truth of origin is like the cause of the disease, the truth of cessation is like the cure of the disease, and the truth of the path is like the medicine (Buddhaghosa 1999: 520; cf. M 61516 and 867) First Noble Truth: Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the ve aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.20

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Majjhima Nikaya Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourse)

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Key term dukkha, It is ordinarily translated into English as suffering. This is correct in part, but it is misleading. Second Noble Truth: Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination. attitudes towards them. We have arrived at the next Truth: We need to examine the meaning the term craving translates tanha as well as the three spheres of craving here described: sensual pleasures, existence, and extermination. The Buddha suggests that craving is like a fire that inflames every facet of our being: Bhikkhus, all is burning. And what, bhikkhus, is the all that is burning? The eye is burning, forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning, eye-contact is burning, and whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as condition whether pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that too is burning. Burning with what? Burning with the fire of lust, with the fire of hatred,with the fire of delusion; Burning with birth, aging and death; with sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair, I say Third Noble Truth: Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering:it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non-reliance on it. Fourth Noble Truth: Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering. It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. Gowans draws a distinction between two conceptions of selves substance-selves and process-selves and suggest that the Buddha taught that substance-selves have no reality in any sense, while process-selves have no independent reality but do have a form of
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dependent reality. Specically, the existence of a persons process-self depends on certain beliefs and attitudes the person has, but may and should abandon. In the absence of these, the process-self ceases to exist. This is what happens when Nibbana is fully attained: the relevant beliefs and attitudes are given up, and so there is no longer a process-self. Since there never was a substance-self, there is no self at all. there is no self at all. 2. Doctrine of Annata (or no Amta) Non Self or No Soul: Buddha says: Since a self and what belongs to a self are not apprehended as true and established, then this standpoint for views like - The self and the world are the same; after death I shall be permanent, everlasting, eternal, not subject to change; I shall endure as long as eternity would it not be an utterly and completely foolish teaching?21 (These views question the emerging ideas of the Upanisads) Buddha distinguishes three schools of thoughts those who describe an existing self that is unimpaired after death, those who describe the annihilation, destruction, and extermination of an existing being (at death), and those who assert Nibbana here and now which is the middle path proposed by Buddha. Addressing his son, Rahula, the Buddha says, develop meditation on the perception of impermanence, for when you do this, the conceit I am will be abandoned (M 531). About himself, he says, It is by knowing thus, seeing thus, friends, that in regard to this body with its consciousness and all external signs, I-making, mine-making, and the underlying tendency to conceit have been eradicated in me(M 908). Once enlightenment has been achieved, there will no longer be occasion to think in terms of such self referring concepts as Iand mine. Buddha maintains: Material form is not self, feeling is not self, perception is not self, formations are not self, consciousness is not self .. . all things are not self (M 324) To conclude in words of the Buddha, It is impossible, it cannot happen that a person possessing right view could treat anything as self there is no such possibility (M 928)

21

Majjhima Nikaya-232

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St Francis Xavier arrived in Japan in 1549. He was befriended by a Zen abbot; Xavier was uneasy with the apparent Buddhist denial of an eternal soul; to his dismay, during discussions of the souls immortality with his Zen friend, the latter would sometimes say yes and sometimes no. And Xavier was appalled by the Buddhist indifference to a personal Creator God. The Japanese irked by Xaviers proselytizing, twisted Deus, Xaviers Latin term for God, into Daiuso, meaning Great Lie. In what ways, Ananda, does one who regards Self regard it? (1) Regarding Self, he regards it to be feeling: My Self is feeling, or (2) My Self is not feeling, my Self is without experience, or (3) My Self is not feeling, but my Self is not without experience, my Self feels, it has the attribute of feeling. (1) Now Ananda, one who says My Self is feeling should be told, There are three kinds of feeling, friend: pleasant, painful, and neither-pleasant-nor painful [neutral]. Which of these three feelings do you regard as Self? When a pleasant feeling is felt, no painful or neutral feeling is felt, only pleasant feeling. When a painful feeling is felt, no pleasant or neutral feeling is felt, Only painful feeling. When a neutral feeling is felt, no pleasant or painful feeling is felt, only neutral feeling. Pleasant feeling is impermanent, conditioned, dependently originated, subject to destruction, to passing away, to fading away, to cessation. The same applies to painful and neutral feeling. So anyone who, on feeling a pleasant feeling, thinks This is my Self, must, at the cessation of that pleasant feeling, think My Self has departed! The same applies to painful and neutral feeling. Thus, whoever thinks My Self is feeling is regarding as Self something that in this present life is impermanent, a mixture of pleasure and pain, subject to arising and passing away. Therefore it is not fitting to maintain My Self is feeling. (2) But anyone who says, My Self is not feeling, my Self is without experience should be asked, If, friend, no feeling existed, could there be the thought, I am? [To this he would have to reply] No, venerable sir. Therefore, it is not tting to maintain My Self is not feeling, my Self is without experience. (3) And anyone who says, My Self is not feeling, but my Self is not without experience, my Self feels, it has the attribute of feeling should be asked, Well, friend, if all feelings entirely and completely ceased without remainder, could there be the thought this am
21

I? [To this he would have to reply] No, venerable sir. Therefore, it is not tting to maintain My Self is not feeling, but my Self is not without experience, my Self feels, it has the attribute of feeling. From the time, Ananda, when a monk no longer regards Self as feeling, or Self as without experience, or My Self feels, it has the attribute of feeling, not so regarding, he clings to nothing in the world; not clinging, he does not tremble; not trembling, he personally experiences nirvana, and he understands, Destroyed is (re-)birth, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, there is no more for this state of being.22

It is important to remember that the not-self doctrine is only part of the Buddhas teaching about the nature of human persons. His full teaching may be summarized as follows: We are not substance-selves in any sense. We are process-selves in a dependent sense and hence have better or worse, but always unsatisfactory, rebirths in accord with the morality of our actions. We are that which has the opportunity to escape the cycle of rebirth and attain Nibbana. The distinctive idea of the Buddha is that the dependent reality of process selves is the only reality of selves there is. Substance-selves have no reality- this view is further expanded in the doctrine of sunyata or emptiness by Nagarjuna. We are dependently process-selves because we mistakenly think we are substance-selves. As a result, we suffer through repeated rebirths. Completely liberated from this delusion, we attain Nibbana, the highest form of happiness Process conception of the self - there are no substance-selves. Rather, the phenomena the previous account described as substances-selves are in fact process-selves. The world should be understood as consisting solely of processes. Whereas the substance conception takes (apparently) discrete and stable objects such as moons and monoliths as
22

Mahanidana Sutta Great Discourse on Causal Links

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its paradigms of what is real, the process conception suggests that the proper paradigms are occurrences such as whirlpools and wind storms that are obviously interdependent on their environment and ever-changing. But ordinarily a process is not random: it manifests an ordered, lawful causal development. Specfically, a process-self is a structured nexus of continuous, interacting processes that are not ontologically distinct from other processes and that are in constant change in every respect. The specific processes that constitute the process-self are typically the aforementioned undergoings and doings of the self. But instead of describing these as necessary Properties of a substance, the process conception says a self is nothing but a Nexus of processes such as experiencing, remembering, imagining, feeling, desiring, thinking, and acting, and so on. 3. Doctrine of Impermanence (anicca) of 5 aggregates: As there are scientic laws that govern the physical world, such as the law of gravity, are permanent. The Buddha does not deny that there are unchanging laws that govern changes in the world. In fact, the doctrine of kamma(Karma) affirms such a law. Bhikkhus, what do you think? Is material form permanent or impermanent? Impermanent, venerable sir. Is what is impermanent suffering or happiness? Suffering, venerable sir. Is what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change, fit to be regarded thus: This is mine, this I am, this is my self ? No venerable sir. The same exchange occurs concerning the other four aggregates. The Buddha continues: Therefore, bhikkhus, any kind of material form whatever, whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near, all material form should be seen as it actually is with proper wisdom thus: This is not mine, this I am not, this is not myself.23

The Buddha regularly speaks of the perception of non-self in all things without exception (N 177). Crucial to this claim is the contention that all things we experience in the world are impermanent (anicca).

23

Majjhima Nikaya-232

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Consider what the Buddha means by the aggregates (khandhas)- are everything we typically take to be involved in a person, though the ve aggregates are distinguished, they interact with one another. Material form (rupa) concerns our physical nature. It refers to our entire body and in particular those aspects of it that make possible the ve senses. The remaining aggregates are all mental in nature. Feelings (vedana) have to do with our sensations, whether originating from the mind or the body, and their quality as pleasant, unpleasant, or indifferent. Perceptions (saa) go beyond sensations and involve judgments about the world (for example, that there is a red book in front of me). Formations (sankhara) refer to anything that moves us to act desires, wishes, volitions, and so on. They are classied as being ethically good, bad, or neutral (and thus are related to kamma). Consciousness (viana) concerns the general fact that we are aware, either of the world, or of ourselves as having the other aggregates.

Buddhas contention is observation of meditation reveals that what is ordinarily regarded as a person is encompassed by one or more of the ve aggregates, and each of these aggregates is impermanent. Bhikkhus, suppose that this river Ganges was carrying along a great lump of foam. A man with good sight would inspect it, ponder it, and carefully investigate it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there be in a lump of foam? So too, bhikkhus, whatever kind of form there is, whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a bhikkhu inspects it, ponders it, and carefully investigates it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there be in form?24

24

Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourse)

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In another sutta, Buddha says, Whatever in oneself, belonging to oneself, is solid, solidified, and clung to (organic), such as head-hairs, body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin; flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kidneys; heart, liver, midriff, spleen, lights; bowels, entrails, gorge, dung, or whatever else in oneself, belonging to oneself, is solid, solidified, and clung to: that is called earth element in oneself. Now earth element in oneself and external earth element are only earth element. Whatever in oneself is water, watery, and clung to, such as bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat; tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, urine, or whatever else in oneself is water, watery, and clung to: that is called water element in oneself. Now water element in oneself and external water element are only water element. Whatever in oneself is fire, fiery, and clung to, such as that whereby one is warmed, ages, and is consumed, and whereby what is eaten, drunk, chewed and tasted gets digested and assimilated, or whatever else in oneself is fire, fiery, and clung to: that is called fire element in oneself. Now fire element in oneself and external fire element are only fire element. Whatever in oneself is air, airy, and clung to, such as upgoing winds (forces), down-going winds (forces), winds (forces) in the belly and in the bowels, winds (forces) that pervade all the limbs, in-breath and out-breath, or whatever else in oneself is air, airy, and clung to: that is called air element in oneself. Now air element in oneself and external air element are only air element. Also whatever in oneself is space, spatial, and clung to, such as ear-hole, nose-hole, mouth-door, and that (aperture) whereby what is eaten, drunk, chewed, and tasted is swallowed, and that wherein it is contained, and that whereby it passes out below, or whatever else in oneself is space, spatial, and clung to: that is called space element. Now space element in oneself and external space element are only space element And space element has nowhere any standing of its own. (MN 62) The same point is made with respect to the other aggregates. 4. Dependent Origination doctrine (paticca samuppada). Sariputta says understanding this doctrine is equivalent to understanding the Buddhas teaching as a whole. In brief When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases 25(M 655; cf. 927).

25

Majjhima Nikaya-232

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A process is always in a state of becoming: from not existing it arises into existence, then ceases back into non-existence. It is important to note that Buddha applied this to persons; however dependent origination may be applicable to all processes in the world, a thought which was proposed in Abhidharma and Mahayana doctrines. On the metaphysical plane, the Buddha said All exists, (Kaccana) this is one extreme. All does not exist, this is the second extreme. Without veering towards either of these extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma by the middle26 The two extremes refer to eternalism and annihilationism. The middle way is the twelvefold formula of dependent origination. Dependent origination in persons is elaborated by Buddha via a twelvefold formula of conditioning links27. How a bhikkhu can be called skilled in dependent origination. The Buddha responds: With ignorance (avijja) as condition (paccaya), formations (sankhara) , comes to be; with formations as condition, consciousness (viana); With consciousness as condition, mentality-materiality (namarupa); With mentality-materiality as condition, the sixfold base (sala yatana) (the senses and the mind); With the sixfold-base as condition, contact (phassa); With contact as condition, feeling (vedana); With feeling as condition, craving (tanha) With craving ascondition, clinging (upadana); With clinging as condition, being (bhava); with being as condition, birth (jati); With birth as condition, aging and death (jara maran) sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair come to be Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering Buddhas argument is addressed to those in his culture (upanishadic, brahmic traditions) who held that our true self (Atman) is identical with the ultimate ground of reality (brahman). The views expressed in the Upanishads that what appears to be our self may suffer, but our true self (Atman) cannot suffer, further the true self was thought to be both permanent and beyond.
26
27

Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourse)544 Majjhima Nikaya-927

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Buddha establishes in the doctrine of (annata) that this alleged true-self cannot be found in connection with any of the aggregates and by showing that each of the aggregates is impermanent, and hence no beyond suffering. With the remainderless fading and cessation of ignorance there is cessation of formations; with cessation of formations, cessation of consciousness with cessation of birth, ageing and deathcease, and also sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair; that is how there is a cessationto this whole aggregate mass of suffering. This is called the noble truth of the cessation of suffering. AN 3:61

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Milindapanha (Questions of Milinda) Milindapaha is a text that records a series of conversations between a Greco Bactrian King Milinda or Menandro (reigned 155130 BCE) and the Buddhist monk Nagasena; It gives an excellent exposition of underlying Buddhist Philosophy and Ethics28 How is the venerable one known? . . . Sire, I am known as Nagasena. . . . But though (my) parents gave (me) the name Nagesena or Surasena or Virasena or Sihasena, yet it is but a denotation, appellation, designation, current usage, for Nagasena is only a name, since no person is apprehended here. Then King Milinda spoke thus, Good sirs . . . is it suitable to approve of that? . . . If, venerable Nagasena, the person is not apprehended, who then is it that gives you the requisites of robe-material . . . who is it that makes use of them? Who is it that guards moral virtue, practices meditative development, realizes . . . nirvana? Who is it that kills a living thing? . . . Therefore, there is no wholesome action, no unwholesome action, there is no doer of wholesome or unwholesome actions, or one who makes another act thus, there is no fruit or ripening of action (karma) well or ill done. If, venerable Nagasena, someone killed you, there would be no onslaught on a living being for him. Also, venerable Nagasena, you would have no teacher, no preceptor, no ordination. If you say, Fellows in the holy life address me, sire, as Nagasena, what here is Nagasena? Is it, venerable sir, that the hairs of the head are Nagasena? O no, sire. That the hairs of the body are Nagesena? O no, sire. That the nails . . . the teeth, the skin, the esh, the sinews, the bones, the marrow, the kidneys, the heart, the liver, the membranes, the spleen, the lungs, the intestines, the mesentery, the stomach, the excrement, the bile, the phlegm, the pus, the blood, the sweat, the fat, the tears, the serum, the saliva, the mucus, the synovic uid, the urine, or the brain in the head. Are (any of them) Nagasena? O no, sire. Is Nagasena material form, venerable sir? O no, sire. Is Nagasena feeling . . . perception . . . the constructing activities, or consciousness? O no, sire. But then, venerable sir, is Nagasena form-feelingperception-constructing-activities-and-consciousness? O no, sire. But then, venerable
28

Harvey, Peter. (2000) An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues. Cambridge University Press

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sir, is there Nagasena apart from form-feeling-perception-constructing-activitiesandconsciousness? O no, sire. Though I, venerable sir, am asking you repeatedly, I do not see this Nagasena. Nagasena is only a sound, venerable sir. For who here is Nagasena? You, venerable sir, are speaking an untruth, a lying word. There is no Nagasena. Then the venerable Nagasena spoke thus to King Milinda: You, sire, are a noble, delicately nurtured. . . . Now, did you come on foot or in a conveyance? I, venerable sir, not come on foot, I came in a chariot. If, sire, You came by chariot, show me the chariot. Is the pole the chariot, sire? O no, venerable sir. Is the axle the chariot? O no, venerable sire Are the wheels .the body of the chariot, the flagstaff, the yoke, the reins, or the goad the chariot? O no, venerable sir. But then, sire, is the chariot the pole-axle-wheels-body-flagstaff-yoke-reins-and-goad? O no, venerable sir. But then, sire, is there a chariot apart from pole-axle-wheels-body-flagstaff-yoke-reinsand-goad? O no, venerable sir. Though I, sire, am asking you repeatedly, I do not see the chariot. Chariot is only a sound, sire. For what here is the chariot? You sire, are speaking an untruth, a lying word. There is no chariot. You, sire, are the chief raja of the whole of India. Of whom are you afraid that you speak a lie? . . . I, venerable Nagasena, am not telling a lie, for it is dependent on (paticca) the pole, dependent on the axle [and the other parts] . . . that chariot exists as a denotation, appellation, designation, as a current usage, a name. It is well; you, sire, understand a chariot. Even so is it for me, sire, it is dependent on the hair of the head, and on the hair of the body . . . and dependent on the brain in the head, and dependent on material form, and on feeling, on perception, the constructing activities, and dependent on consciousness that Nagasena exists as a denotation, appellation, designation, as a current usage, merely as a name. But according to the highest meaning, a person is not apprehended here. This, sire, was spoken by the nun Vajira face to face with the Blessed One. The King said: Venerable Nagasena, for whom is there a greater karmically harmful action: he who does an evil action knowingly, or he who does an evil deed unknowingly? Nagasena said: Great King, there is a greater karmically harmful action for one who does an evil action unknowingly. . . . What do you think about this, sire? If one (person) should unknowingly take hold of a red-hot ball of iron, aglow, a ame, ablaze, and another should take hold of it knowingly,which would be the more severely burnt? He who took hold of it unknowingly, venerable sire, would be the more severely burnt. Even so, sire, there is a greater karmically harmful action for one who does an evil action unknowingly.
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You are dexterous, venerable Nagasena. Sire . . . there is a difference in meaning here. What is this? There is, sire, a type of offense where acquittal is related to perception, there is a type of offense in which acquittal is not related to perception. It was with reference to the first of these that the Blessed One said, There is no offense for one who does not know.

The second selection is a response to the apparent contradiction between the first passage and Vinaya passages that say that a monk cannot break a rule against killing an animal or human unknowingly. The issue hinges on what kind of unknowing is involved. It is not morally blameworthy (unless culpably careless) to perform an action that one does not know may bring harm to a living being and so kill it, nor does it break a monastic rule. However, to deliberately act when one knows that it is killing a sentient being, but does not know or recognize this to be an evil act, is to act in the most blameworthy way.

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Qualifications of his teaching The Blessed One was once living at Kosambi in a wood of simapa trees. He picked up a few leaves in his hand, and he asked the bhikkhus: How do you conceive this, bhikkhus, which is more, the few leaves that I have picked up in my hand or those on the trees in the wood? The leaves that the Blessed One has picked up in his hand are few, Lord; those in the wood are far more. So too, bhikkhus, the things that I have known by direct knowledge are more: the things that I have told you are only a few. Why have I not told them? Because they bring no benefit, no advancement in the holy life, and because they do not lead to dispassion, to fading, to ceasing, to stilling, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana. That is why I have not told them. And what have I told you? This is suffering; this is the origin of suffering; this is the cessation of suffering; this is the way leading to the cessation of suffering. That is what I have told you. Why have I told it? Because it brings benefit, and advancement in the holy life, and because it leads to dispassion, to fading, to ceasing, to stilling, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to Nibbana.So, bhikkhus, let your task be this: This is suffering, this is the origin of suffering, this the cessation of suffering, this is the way leading to the cessation of suffering. SN 56:31 When a bhikkhu travels in many countries, learned people of all stations will ask him questions. Learned and inquiring people will ask What does the venerable ones teacher tell, what does he preach? Rightly answering you can say: Our teacher preaches the removal of desire and lust. And if you are then asked Removal of desire and lust for what? you can answer: Removal of desire and lust for form (and the rest). And if you are then asked But what inadequacy (danger) do you see in those things? you can answer: When a person is not without lust and desire and love and thirst and fever and craving for these things, then with their change and alteration, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair arise in him. And if you are then asked And what advantage do you see in doing thus? you can answer: When a person is free from lust and desire and love and thirst and fever and craving for form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness, then, with their change and alteration, no sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair arise in him. SN 22:2 The Buddha did not claim to give a complete account of human nature, he refused to make a declaration about the truth of the following ten propositions: the world is eternal, the world is not eternal, the world is finite, the world is infinite, the soul
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(jiva) is the same as the body, the soul is one thing and the body another, after death a Tathagata exists, after death a Tathagata does not exist, after death a Tathagata both exists and does not exist, and after death a Tat hagata neither exists nor does not exist (M 533). These are often referred to as the undetermined questions. The last six plainly concern human nature. Two reasons are commonly given to explain the Buddhas silence concerning these propositions. 1. Knowing whether they are true or false does not enable us to overcome suffering: this is the explicit point of the simile of the man wounded by the arrow. 2. The last six propositions contain a false presupposition namely, that a substance-self or soul now exists that stands in some relationship to the body and that, once enlightened, either will or will not exist after death. Despite its apparent importance, the twelvefold formula is perplexing in several respects. First, it seems to imply that ignorance is the rst cause of suffering. But the Buddha does not think there are rst causes, and he clearly says: A rst beginning of ignorance . . . cannot be discerned . . . yet a specic condition of ignorance is discerned. Ignorance, too, has its nutriment29 (N 254) in this respect, the twelvefold series is incomplete.

Similarly, Buddha did not give any specific regarding these propositions (in the context of Nirvana)30 After death a Tathagata exists: only this is true, anything else is wrong. After death a Tathagata does not exist; only this is true, anything else is wrong. After death a Tathagata both exists and does not exist: only this is true, anything else is wrong. After death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist: only this is true,anything else is wrong.
29

Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses)- 254 Majjhima Nikaya-591

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And the Buddha says his teaching is hard to understand . . . unattainable by mere reasoning, subtle, to be experienced by the wise. He then offers a simile: if we asked about an extinguished fire To which direction did it go: to the east, the west, the north, or the south?, the proper answer would be That does not apply. The Buddha concludes: So, too, Vacchagotta, the Tathagata has abandoned that material form by which one describing the Tathagata might describe him . . . .The Tathagata is liberated from reckoning in terms of material form, Vacchagotta, he is profound, immeasurable, hard to fathom like the ocean. (The term reappears does not apply in any negative or positive form)

The ultimate goal of the Eightfold Path is to become an Arahant. However the Buddha envisioned three preliminary stages of progress towards this goal: The stream-enterer (sotapanna), The once-returner (sakada gamin) The non-returner (anagamin) In each case, there is a distinction between both within this lifetime and through several lifetimes. According to the Buddha: Just as the great ocean slopes away gradually, falls gradually, inclines gradually, not in an abrupt way like a precipice; even so, Paharada, is this Dhamma and Discipline: there is a gradual training, gradual practice, gradual progress; there is no penetration to nal knowledge in an abrupt way.31

31

Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Discourses)- 203

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The enumeration of Eight Fold Path in the word of the Buddha To inquire into the meditative training that leads to this life, the Buddha proposes the eight fold path: Wisdom (paa) Right View (sammaditthi) Right Intention (samma sankappa) Virtue (sila) Right Speech (sammavaca) Right Action (samma kammanta) Right Livelihood (sammaajiva) Concentration (samadhi) Right Effort (sammavayama) Right Mindfulness (sammasati) Right Concentration (samma samadhi)

The Eightfold Path explained in the words of the Buddha: Lord, right view, right view is said. What does right view refer to? Usually, Kaccayana, this world depends upon the dualism of existence and nonexistence. But when one sees thworlds origin as it actually is with right understanding, there is for him none of (what is callednon-existence in the world; and when he sees the worlds cessation as it actually is with right understanding, there is for him none of (what is called) existence in the world. Usually the world is shackled by bias, clinging, and insistence; but one such as this (who haright view), instead of allowing bias, instead of clinging, and instead of deciding about my selfwith such bias, such clinging, and such mental decision in the guise of underlying tendency tinsist, he has no doubt or uncertainty that what arises is only arising suffering, and what ceaseis only ceasing suffering, and in this his knowledge is independent of others. That is what right view refers to. (An) all exists is one extreme; (an) all does not exist is the other extreme. Instead of resorting to either
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extreme, a Perfect One expounds the Dhamma by the middle wayIt is with ignorance as condition that formations come to be; with formations as condition, consciousness; with consciousness (And so on with both arising and cessation.) SN 12:15

The untaught ordinary man who has no regard for noble ones gives unreasoned (uncritical) attention in this way: Was I in the past? Was I not in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past? Having been what, what was I in the past? Shall I be in the future? Shall I not be in the future? What shall I be in the future? How shall I be in the future? Having been what, what shall I be in the future? Or else he wonders about himself now in the presently arisen period in this way: Am I? Am I not? What am I? How am I? Whence has this being come? Whither is it bound? When he gives unreasoned attention in this way, then one of six types of view arises in him as true and established: My self exists or My self does not exist or I perceive self with self or I perceive not-self with self or I perceive self with not-self or some such view as This is my self that speaks and feels and experiences here or there the ripening of good and bad actions; but this my self is permanent, everlasting, not subject to change, and will endure as long as eternity. This field of views is called the thicket of views, the wilderness of views, the contortion of views, the vacillation of views, the fetter of views. The untaught ordinary man bound by the fetter of views is not freed from birth, ageing and death, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair: he is not freed from suffering, I say. MN 2 What is right intention? It is the intention of renunciation, the intention of non-ill will, the intention of non-cruelty: this is called right intention. When a noble disciple has clearly seen with right understanding, as it actually is, how little gratification sensual desires provide and how much pain and despair they entail, and how great is their inadequacy, and he attains to happiness and pleasure dissociated from sensual desires and unwholesome states, or to something higher than that, then he is no more interested in sensual desires. MN 14 What is right speech? Abstention from lying, slander, abuse, and gossip; this is called right speech. He abandons slander: as one who is neither a repeater elsewhere of what is heard here for the purpose of causing division from these, nor a repeater to these of what is heard
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elsewhere for the purpose of causing division from those, who is thus a reuniter of the divided, a promoter of friendships, enjoying concord, rejoicing in concord, delighting in concord, he becomes a speaker of words that promote concord. He abandons abuse: he becomes a speaker of such words as are innocent, pleasing to the ear and lovable, as go to the heart, are civil, desired of many and dear to many.He abandons gossip: as one who tells that which is seasonable, factual, good, and the Dhamma and Discipline, he speaks in season speech worth recording, which is reasoned, definite, and connected with good. MN 41 What is right action? Abstention from killing living beings, stealing, misconduct in sensual desires: this is called right action. When a lay follower possesses five things, he lives with confidence in his house, and he will find himself in heaven as sure as if he had been carried off and put there. What are the five? He abstains from killing living beings, from taking what is not given, from misconduct in sensual desires, from speaking falsehood, and from indulging in liquor, wine, and fermented brews.AN 5:17273 What is Right Livelihood? Scheming (to deceive), persuading, hinting, belittling, and pursuing gain with gain; this is called wrong livelihood (for bhikkhus). MN 117 There are five trades that a lay follower should not ply. What five? They are: trading in weapons, living beings, meat, liquor, and poisons. AN 5:177 The group of factors, right speech, action, and livelihood (virtue or sila) constitute is the preliminary stage of the path. What is right effort? Here a bhikkhu awakens desire for the non-arising of unarisen evil unwholesome states, for which he makes efforts, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and endeavours. He awakens desire for the abandoning of arisen evil unwholesome states, for which he makes efforts. He awakens desire for the arising of unarisen wholesome states, for which he makes efforts. He awakens desire for the continuance, non-corruption, strengthening, maintenance in being, and perfecting, of arisen wholesome states, for which he makes efforts, arouses energy, exerts his mind, and endeavours: this is called right effort. SN 45:8; DN 22

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What is right mindfulness?32 Here a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body, ardent, fully aware and mindful, having put away covertousness and grief for the world. He abides contemplating feelings as feelings, ardent. He abides contemplating consciousness as consciousness, ardent. He abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects, ardent, fully aware and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. This is called right mindfulness. How does a bhikkhu abide contemplating the body as a body? Here a bhikkhu, gone to the forest or to the root of a tree or to a room that is void, sits down; having folded his legs crosswise, set his body erect, and established mindfulness in front of him, just mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out. As a skilled turner or his apprentice, when making a long turn, understands I make a long turn, or when making a short turn, understands I make a short turn, so, breathing in long, the bhikkhu understands I breathe in long, or breathing out long, he understands I breathe out long; breathing in short, he understands I breathe in short, or breathing out short, he understands I breathe out short. He trains thus: I shall breathe in experiencing the whole body (of breaths); he trains thus: I shall breathe out experiencing the whole body (of breaths). He trains thus: I shall breathe in tranquillizing the bodily formation (function); he trains thus: I shall breathe out tranquillizing the bodily formation (function). He abides contemplating the body as a body in this way either in himself, or externally, or in himself and externally. Or else he contemplates in the body either its factors of origination, or its factors of fall, or its factors of origination and fall. Or else mindfulness that There is a body is established in him to the extent of bare knowledge and remembrance of it while he

32 SN 45:8; DN 22

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abides independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body. Again, when walking, a bhikkhu understands I am walking; or when standing, he understands I am standing; or when sitting, he understands I am sitting; or when lying down, he understands I am lying down. Or whatever position his body is in, he understands it to be so disposed. He abides contemplating the body as a body externally. Or else he contemplates the factors or origination and fall. Or else mindfulness not clinging to anything in the world. That also is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body. Again, a bhikkhu is fully aware in moving to and fro, in looking ahead and away, in flexing and extending the limbs, in wearing the outer cloak of patches, the bowl and other robes, in eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting, in evacuating the bowels and making water, and he is fully aware and mindful in walking, standing, sitting, going to sleep, waking, talking, and keeping silent. He abides contemplating. That also is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body. Again, as though there were a bag with two openings full of many sorts of grain, such as hill rice, red rice, beans, peas, millet, and white rice, and a man with good sight had opened it and were reviewing it: This is hill rice, this is red rice, this is beans, this is peas, this is millet, this is white rice; so too a bhikkhu reviews this body up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair as full of many kinds of filth: There are in this body head-hairs, body-hairs, nails, teeth, skin; flesh, sinews, bones, bonemarrow, kidneys; heart, liver, midriff, spleen, lights; bowels, entrails, gorge, dung; bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat; tears, grease, spittle, snot, oilof-the-joints, and urine. He abides contemplating. That also is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body. Again, as though a skilled butcher or his apprentice had slaughtered a cow and were seated at the four crossroads with it cut up into pieces; so too, in whatever position a bhikkhu finds this body, he reviews it according to the elements: There are in this body earth element, water element, fire element, and air element.

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He abides contemplating. That also is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body. Again, a bhikkhu judges this same body as though he were looking at a corpse thrown on a charnel ground, one-day dead, two-days dead, three-days dead, bloated, livid, and oozing with matter: This body too is of such a nature, will be like that, is not exempt from that. He abides contemplating.That also is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating the body as a body. Again, a bhikkhu judges this same body as though he were looking at a corpse thrown on a charnel ground, being devoured by crows, kites, vultures, dogs, jackals, and the multitudinous varieties of worms: as though he were looking at a corpse thrown on a charnel ground, a skeleton with flesh and blood, and held together by sinews: a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood and held together by sinews: a skeleton without flesh or blood, held together by sinews: bones without sinews, scattered in all directions, here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, there a shin-bone, there a thigh-bone, there a hip-bone, there a back-bone, there a skull: bones bleached white, the colour of shells: bones heaped up, more than a year old: bones rotted and crumbled to dust: This body too is of such a nature, will be like that, is not exempt from that. He abides contemplating. And how does a bhikkhu abide contemplating feelings as feelings? Here, when feeling a pleasant feeling, a bhikkhu understands I feel a pleasant feeling; when feeling a painful feeling, he understands I feel a painful feeling; when feeling a neither painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands I feel a neither-painful-norpleasant feeling. When feeling a materialistic pleasant feeling, he understands I feel a materialistic pleasant feeling; (and so with the other two). When feeling an unmaterialistic pleasant feeling, he understands I feel an unmaterialistic pleasant feeling; (and so with the other two). He abides contemplating feelings as feelings in this way either in himself, or externally, or inhimself and externally. Or else he contemplates in feelings either their factors of origination, or their factors of fall,or their factors of origination and fall. Or else mindfulness that There are feelings is established in him to the extent of
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bareknowledge and remembrance of it while he abides independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating feelings as feelings. And how does a bhikkhu abide contemplating consciousness as consciousness? Here a bhikkhu understands consciousness affected by lust as affected by lust, and that unaffected by lust as unaffected by lust. He understands consciousness affected by hate as affected by hate, and that unaffected by hate as unaffected by hate. He understands consciousness affected by delusion as affected by delusion, and that unaffected by delusion as unaffected by delusion. He understands contracted consciousness as contracted, and distracted consciousness as distracted. He understands exalted consciousness as exalted, and that unexalted as unexalted. He understands surpassed consciousness as surpassed, and that unsurpassed as unsurpassed. He understands concentrated consciousness as concentrated, and that unconcentrated as unconcentrated. He understands liberated consciousness as liberated, and that unliberated as unliberated. He abides contemplating consciousness as consciousness in this way either in himself, or externally, or in himself and externally. Or else he contemplates in consciousness its factors of origination, or its factors of fall, or its factors of origination and fall. Or else mindfulness that There is consciousness is established in him to the extent of bare knowledge and remembrance of it while he abides independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating consciousness as consciousness. And how does a bhikkhu abide contemplating mental objects as mental objects? Here, a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the five hindrances. How is that done? Here, when there is desire for sensuality in him, he understands There is desire for sensuality in me; or when there is no desire for sensuality in him, he understands There is no desire for sensuality in me; and also he understands how there comes to be the arising of unarisen desire for sensuality, and how there comes to be the abandoning of arisen desire for sensuality, and how there comes to be the future nonarising of abandoned desire for sensuality. When there is ill will in him When there is lethargy and drowsiness in him When there is agitation and worry in him When there is uncertainty in him he understands how there comes to be the future non40

arising of abandoned uncertainty. He abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in himself, or externally, or in himself and externally. Or else he contemplates in mental objects either their factors of origination, or their factors of fall, or their factors of origination and fall. Or else mindfulness that There are mental objects is established in him to the extent of bare knowledge and remembrance of it while he abides independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the five hindrances. Again, a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the five aggregates affected by clinging. How is that done? Here a bhikkhu understands: Such is form, such its origin, such its disappearance; such is feeling, such its origin, such its disappearance; such is perception, such its origin, such its disappearance; such are formations, such their origin, such their disappearance; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its disappearance. He abides contemplating. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the five aggregates affected by clinging. Again, a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the six bases in oneself and external. How is that done? Here a bhikkhu understands the eye and visible forms and the fetter that arises owing to both; he understands how there comes to be the arising of the unarisen fetter, and how there comes to be the abandoning of the arisen fetter, and how there comes to be the future non-arising of the abandoned fetter. He understands the ear and sounds the nose and odours the tongue and flavours the body and tangibles the mind and mental objects and the fetter that arises owing to both; and he understands how comes to be the future non-arising of the abandoned fetter. He abides contemplating. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the six bases in oneself and external. Again, a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the seven enlightenment factors. How is that done? Here, when there is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, a bhikkhu understands There is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in me; when there is no mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, he understands There is no mindfulness
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enlightenment factor in me; and he understands how there comes to be the arising of the unarisen mindfulness enlightenment factor and how there comes to be the development and perfection of the arisen mindfulness enlightenment factor. When there is the investigation-of-states enlightenment factor in him the energy enlightenment factor in him the happiness enlightenment factor in him the tranquillity enlightenment factor in him the concentration enlightenment factor in him the equanimity enlightenment factor in him and he understands how there comes to be the arising of the unarisen equanimity enlightenment factor and how there comes to be the development and perfection of the arisen equanimity enlightenment factor. He abides contemplating. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the seven enlightenment factors. Again, a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the Four Noble Truths. How is that done? Here a bhikkhu understands according as it actually is: This is suffering and This is the origin of suffering and This is the cessation of suffering and This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering. He abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in himself, or externally, or in himself and externally. Or else he contemplates in mental objects either their factors of origination, or their factors of fall, or their factors of origination and fall. Or else mindfulness that There are mental objects is established in him to the extent of bare knowledge and remembrance of it while he abides independent, not clinging to anything in the world. That is how a bhikkhu abides contemplating mental objects as mental objects in terms of the Four Noble Truths. Bhikkhus, were anyone to maintain in being these four foundations of mindfulness for seven years let alone for seven years for seven days, then one of two fruits could be expected of him: either final knowledge here and now, or else non-return. DN 22; MN 10

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With Right Concentration, the Buddha says:33 The non-arising of unarisen evil unwholesome states. The abandoning of arisen evil unwholesome states. The arising of unarisen wholesome states. The continuance, non-disappearance, strengthening, increase, and fullment by development of arisen wholesome states

Unwholesome states are those that hinder the attainment of enlightenment: the root of unwholesome states is greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) While wholesome states are those that foster enlightenment., while the root of wholesome states is non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion

Having abandoned the five hindrances, mental imperfections that weaken understanding, then quite secluded from sensual desires, secluded from unwholesome states, he enters upon and abides in the first meditation the second meditation the third meditation the fourth meditation. On seeing a form with the eye, hearing a sound with the ear, smelling an odour with the nose, tasting a flavour with the tongue, touching a tangible with the body, cognizing an idea with the mind, he does not lust after it if it is likable; and he has no ill will towards it if it is dislikable. He abides with mindfulness of the body established and a measureless state of mind while he understands as they actually are the deliverance of mind and deliverance by understanding wherein those evil unwholesome states cease without remainder. Having thus abandoned favouring and opposing, when he feels any feeling, whether pleasant or painful or neither-painfulnor-pleasant, he does not relish that feeling or affirm or accept it. When he does not do that, his relishing of those feelings ceases. With cessation of his relishing, cessation of clinging; with cessation of clinging, cessation of being; with cessation of being, cessation of birth; with cessation of birth, ageing and death cease, and also sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair; that is how there is a cessation to this whole aggregate mass of suffering. MN 38
33

Majjhima Nikaya-1100

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Buddha contends that by focusing fully and solely on the meditation object, the meditator would gradually ascend the Four jhanas (meditative absorptions or states) of right concentration- to achieve enlightenment.34 Secluded from both sensual pleasures and unwholesome states one attains a jhana accompanied by applied and sustained thought, with rapture and pleasure born of seclusion. With the stilling of applied and sustained thought, one attains a jhana that has self-condence and singleness of mind without applied and sustained thought, with rapture and pleasure born of concentration. When rapture fades away, one abides in equanimity, and mindful and fully aware, still feeling pleasure with the body attains a jhana of which it may be said, He has a pleasant abiding who has equanimity and is mindful. With the abandonment of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of joy and grief, one attains a jhana that has neither-pain-norpleasure and purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.

These last three factors, right effort, mindfulness, and concentration, together constitute concentration. The eight, with right knowledge and right deliverance, are called the ten rightnesses, which constitute the certainty of rightness attained with the path of stream entry. Before leaving the subject of concentration, though, there are four more stages attainable called. The four formless states They are extra to right concentration, merely refinements of the fourth meditation. Again, by completely surmounting the base consisting of infinity of space, (aware of) infinite consciousness, he enters upon and abides in the base consisting of infinity of consciousness. Again, by completely surmounting the base consisting of infinity of consciousness, (aware that) there is nothing at all, he enters upon and abides in the base consisting of nothingness.

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Majjhima Nikaya-1101

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Again, by completely surmounting the base consisting of nothingness, he enters upon and abides in the base consisting of neither-perception-nornon-perception.

The four meditations are not called effacement in the Noble Ones Discipline; they are called in the Noble Ones Discipline, a pleasant abiding here and now. The four formless states are not called effacement in the Noble Ones Discipline; they are called in the Noble Ones Discipline, quiet abidings.MN 8

None of these eight attainments is claimed as peculiar to the Buddhas teaching. The practice of them without right view leads only to heaven, but not to Nibbana. The teaching peculiar to Buddhas is the Four Noble Truths. A ninth attainment, the attainment of cessation, is described as reached only in the two highest stages of realization and is thus peculiar to Buddhas and their disciples. MN 25

Takshashila Mahavihara (Ancient Gandhara) Taxila, Pakistan

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Nirvana Cessation of lust, of hate, and of delusion is the Unformed (Unconditioned), the End, the Taintless, the Truth, the Other Shore, the Subtle, the Very Hard To See, the Unweakening, the Everlasting, the Undisintegrating, the Invisible, the Undiversified, Peace, the Deathless, the Superior Goal, the Blest, Safety, Exhaustion of Craving, the Wonderful, the Marvellous, Nondistress, the Naturally Non-distressed, Nibbana, Nonaffliction (Unhostility), Fading of Lust, Purity, Freedom, Independence of Reliance, the Island, the Shelter, the Harbour, the Refuge, the Beyond. SN 43:144

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Buddhist view on rebirth in the light of not-self doctrine The objection is that I could be reborn only if the substance-self (atman) that is now me were to exist in a later life. The response is that rebirth would also make sense if I were a process-self and not a substance-self. A dialogue with the bhikkhu Sati suggests that the Buddha accepted this view. Sati wonders whether it is this same consciousness that runs and wanders through the round of rebirths, not another. The Buddha replies: Misguided man, to whom have you ever known me to teach the Dhamma in that way? Misguided man, in many discourses have I not stated consciousness to be dependently arisen, since without a condition there is no origination of consciousness? (M 350). The Buddha rejects the claim that this same consciousness is reborn (that is a version of the substance view.) Instead, the Buddha says we should think of consciousness in terms of dependent origination. This refers to the process view, and it suggests that rebirth should be understood in terms of a causal continuity between a process-self in one life and in another life that is its rebirth. Vasubandhus Abhidharmakosa examines the nature of the person and seeks to refute the view that the essence of each person is a real, ultimately existing self (atman). Vasubandhu debates with Devadatta, a hindu philosophers who unapologetically defend the existence of the atman. Vasubandhu clarifies the Buddhist view on transmigration in absence of soul (atman), But we (Buddhist) dont say that the result arises in the future from past action that has already ceased to exist. Why? It comes from a certain development the continuum, as a fruit arises eventually from a seed. When we say A fruit arises from a seed, we dont mean that it arises from a seed that has already ceased to exist. Nor do we mean that a seed immediately produces a fruit. What, then? Theres a certain development of the continuum, involving shoots, stems, leaves, and so on, arising in a regular order and ending with flowers. Since the fruit arises directly from the flower, why do we say This is the fruit from that seed? The flower arising in sequence has the power to produce the fruit, a power instilled in it by the seed. If it had not been preceded by that seed, it would not have been able to produce a fruit of the same type. In the same way, we say the result of an action arises. We dont mean that continuum, what is development, and what kind of development? The continuum is the progression of thoughts from one moment to the next that starts with the action. When it arises in a
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different form, we call that development. A certain particular development, the final one that is capable of immediately producing the result, is the kind of development we mean. For example, when the mind at death is attached, it is capable of producing a new rebirth. it arises from a past action that has already ceased to exist, nor that it arises immediately after the action. What, then? It comes from a certain kind of development of the continuum. What is a Early in the history of Buddhism a distinction was drawn between ultimate truth (paramattha sacca) and conventional truth (sammuti sacca). It is sometimes said that this distinction may be employed to answer the consistency objection as follows. When the Buddha says there are no selves, he should be understood as expressing ultimate truth, and when he speaks as if there are selves, as in the doctrines of kamma and rebirth, he should be interpreted as referring to conventional truth. The distinction between ultimate and conventional truth is not explicitly drawn in the Sutta Pitaka, but it has such a long history that it is commonly regarded as an implicit feature of the Buddhas teaching. Finally, the Buddha gives an argument, somewhat similar to Pascals wager argument for believing in kamma and rebirth.35 We are given a choice between: (1) being an immoral person who rejects kamma and rebirth, and (2) being a moral person who accepts kamma and rebirth. The Buddha argues that, whether or not kamma and rebirth are true, (2) is a better choice than (1). Suppose someone chooses (1). If there is no other world, this good person is here and now censured by the wise as an immoral person, one of wrong view. If there is another world, then the person is censured by the wise here and now, and . . . on the dissolution of the body, after death, he will reappear in a state of deprivation 36 On the other hand, suppose the person chooses (2). If there is no other world, this person is here and now praised by the wise as a virtuous person, one with right view. If there is another

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36

Philosophy of Buddha an Introduction by Christopher Gowan Majjhima Nikaya-508

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world, then the person is praised by the wise here and now, and . . . on the dissolution of the body, after death, he will reappear in a happy destination 37 While there could be other choices, however in this any case, it is easy to see why (2) is a better choice

Fayaztepe Buddhist Stupa, Old Termiz, Uzbekistan

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Majjhima Nikaya-509

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The Buddha rejected role for faith as a dogmatic belief Buddha identied ve potential avenues of understanding: faith, approval, oral tradition, reasoned cogitation, and reective acceptance of a view.In each case,he said, something accepted on that basis may be false and something not so accepted may be true. Hence, each of these avenues is unreliable and insufcient for acquiring knowledge, and so none should be depended on to denitely conclude only this is true[sacca],anything else is wrong(M 780). The Buddha did speak about faith (the usual translation of saddha, though it might also be rendered as condence). The term is often placed at the beginning of lists that end with wisdom. For example, ve factors of striving are described as faith in the Tathagatas enlightenment, freedom from afiction and illness, honesty and sincerity, being energetic in ridding oneself of unwholesome states and acquiring wholesome ones, and possessing wisdom (M 707). According to the Buddha, if the student had no faith, he could not achieve what can be achieved by one who has faith (M 706). In recognition of this, the Buddha urged the would-be follower to seek some signs of the Buddhas enlightenment before beginning the Eightfold Path. For example, he should hear a presentation of the teaching and make sure the Buddha is puried of any states of greed, hatred, or delusion: Then he places faith in him (M 782). The Buddha said: Let a wise man come, one who is honest and sincere, a man of rectitude. I instruct him, I teach him the Dhamma in such a way that by practicing as instructed he will soon know and see for himself (M664).Whether meditation actually results in objective knowledge is another question, but that it does is a central contention of the Buddhas teaching.38 Bhikkhus, puried and bright as this view is, if you do not adhere to it, cherish it, treasure it, and treat it as a possession, would you then understand the Dhamma that has been

38

Philosophy of Buddha, Chrsitopher Gowans

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taught as similar to a raft, being for the purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of grasping? 39 Buddhas teachings were pragmatic. Bhikkhus, suppose a traveller saw a great expanse of water, whose near shore was dangerous and fearful and whose further shore was safe and free from fear, but there was no ferry or bridge. Then after considering this, he collected grass and branches and twigs and leaves and bound them together into a raft, supported by which, and making efforts with his hands and feet, he got safely across. Then, when he had got across, he thought: This raft has been very helpful to me since by its means I got safely across; suppose I hoist it on my head or load it on my shoulder and go where I mean to go? Now would he be doing what should be done with a raft? no, Lord. What should he do with it? If, when he got across, he thought: This raft has been very helpful to me since by its means I got safely across; suppose I haul it up on dry land or set it adrift on the water and go where I mean to go?, then that is how he is doing what should be done with the raft. So I have shown you how the Dhamma resembles a raft in being for the purpose of crossing over, not for grasping. Bhikkhus, when you know the Simile of the Raft (then even good) teachings should be abandoned by you, how much more so bad teachings. MN 22 (condensed)

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Majjhima Nikaya

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Veneration of relics and of stupas in popular Buddhism Bhikkhus, the Dhamma well proclaimed by me thus is frank, open, evident, and stripped of padding. In this Dhamma well proclaimed by me thus, any who have simply faith in me, simply love for me, are destined for heaven. MN 22 With respect to the sacred, the Buddha declared that his place of birth, enlightenment, rst teaching, and death were to be places worthy of special reverence. According the Buddha, these places should arouse emotion in the faithful and any who die while making the pilgrimage to these shrines with a devout heart will, at the breaking-up of the body after death, be reborn in a heavenly world 40(L 2634). However generally, the Buddha emphasized the importance of his teaching rather than himself. In the later period book The Questions of Milinda teacher Nagasena specifically allows this for lay followers, even though it is meaningless to the Buddha himself: If gods or men put up a building to contain the jewel treasure of the relics of a Tathagata who does not accept their gift, still by that homage paid to the attainment of the Supreme gooddo they themselves attain to one or other of the three glorious states. However, in an attempt to resolve an apparent contradiction in Buddhist teachings, he argues that it is only Bhikkhus who were included in the injunction not to worship relics,(Milindapanha1963: 146). There were no rituals designed for householders, because Buddhism very consciously and firmly advocated the replacement of sacrifice and ritual by moral relationships. However, some compromises were made, for instance in the use of protection chants called paritta. These were mentioned in the Questions of Milinda and their use was reluctantly admitted (21319). These represented a kind of adaption of customary chants for protection against those bad spirits (yakkhas) that people believed in their time. Kalupahanas study of Buddhist philosophy argues that the paritta chants, like Tantric mantras, provided psychological satisfaction (ibid.: 22527). Rhy Davids in the
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Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses)

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introduction to the Suttas on paritta chants, Rhys observes that Buddha never treated any kind of sentient being as evil; rather the form of the chant was also was meant to cultivate loving-kindness towards the like all beings were seen to be as in a process of transition not only to new births but also Enlightenment itself. With ritualistic practices, it is important to take into account comments the Buddha regularly made about what he called the fetters (sam yojana) to enlightenment. A well-taught noble disciple, he declared (one of these fetters), does not abide with a mind obsessed and enslaved . . . by adherence to rules and observances (M 538). We are not to be attached to the practice anymore than we are to be attached to anything else, non-attachment applies to everything.

Mahabodhi Temple (place where Buddha attained enlightenment)

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Mahaparinibbana Aniccaa vata sa"nkhaaraa uppaada vaya dhammino Uppajjitvaa nirujjhanti tesa.m vuupasamo sukho Impermanent are all component things; They arise and cease, that is their nature They come into being and pass away; Release from them is bliss supreme. Even up to present times, at every Buddhist funeral in Theravada countries, this very Pali verse is recited by the Buddhist monks who perform the obsequies, thus reminding the congregation of the evanescent nature of life. Buddhas Last Meal In his eightieth year, he fell ill (possibly from food poisoning) and realized he was dying. When he had eaten Cunda's food, I heard, with fortitude the deadly pains he bore, from the sukara-maddava (pork) a sore and dreadful sickness came upon the Lord. But nature's pangs he endured. "Come, let us go to Kusinara," was his dauntless word. Then the Blessed One spoke to the Venerable Ananda, saying: "It may come to pass, Ananda, that someone will cause remorse to Cunda the metalworker, saying: 'It is no gain to you, friend Cunda, but a loss, that it was from you the Tathagata took his last alms meal, and then came to his end.' Then, Ananda, the remorse of Cunda should be dispelled after this manner: 'It is a gain to you, friend Cunda, a blessing that the Tathagata took his last alms meal from you, and then came to his end. For, friend, face to face with the Blessed One I have heard and learned: "There are two offerings of food which are of equal fruition, of equal outcome, exceeding in grandeur the fruition and result of any other offerings of food. Which two? The one partaken of by the Tathagata before becoming fully enlightened in unsurpassed, supreme Enlightenment; and the one partaken of by the Tathagata before passing into the state of Nibbana in which no element of clinging remains. By his deed the worthy Cunda has accumulated merit which makes for long life, beauty, well being, glory, heavenly rebirth, and sovereignty."' Thus, Ananda, the remorse of Cunda the metalworker should be dispelled.

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"The Buddha rst informed Ananda:41 Have I not told you before: All those things that are dear and pleasant to us must suffer change, separation and alteration? So how could this be possible? Whatever is born, become, compounded, is liable to decay that it should not decay is impossible. And that has been renounced, given up, rejected, abandoned, forsaken: the Tathagata has renounced the life-principle. The Tathagata has said once for all:The Tathagatas nal passing will not be long delayed. Three months from now the Tathagata will take nal Nibbana. On the night of the Buddhas death, in the small village of Kushinagar, a wanderer named Subhadda asked to speak with him. He had a doubt he hoped the Buddha could dispel. Over the objection of Ananda, the Buddha agreed to see him, hereupon Subhadda became an arahant, the nal personal disciple of the Buddha. The famous last words of the Buddha, at the time he was facing his death:42 What, then, Ananda? does the Order expect of me? I have preached the truth without making any distinction between exoteric and esoteric doctrinesShould there be any one who harbours the thought,It is I who will lead the brotherhood, or The Order is dependent on me, he is the one who should lay down instructions concerning the Order.Now the Tathagata, Ananda, thinks not that it is he who should lead the brotherhood, or that the Order is dependent on him. Why then should he leave instructions in any matter concerning the Order? I too, O Ananda, am now grown old and full of years; my journey is drawing to its close, I have reached my sum of days, I am turning eighty years old and just as a worn-out cart, Ananda, can be kept going only with the help of thongs, so the body of the Tathagata can only be kept going by bandaging it up Therefore, O Ananda, be ye lamps unto yourselves. Be ye a refuge to yourselves. Betake yourselves to no external refuge. Hold fast to the Truth as a lamp. Hold fast as a refuge to the Truth. Look not for refuge to anyone besides yourselves. And how, Ananda, is a brother to be a lamp unto himself, a refuge to himself. Herein, O mendicants, a brother continues, as to the body, so to look upon the body that he remains strenuous, self-possessed and mindful, having overcome both the hankering and the dejection common in the world.

41 42

Tathagata, a epithet for the Buddha meaning literally thus come one, thus gone one Mahaparinibanna sutta

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[Andin the same way] as to feelingsmoodsideas, he remains strenuous, self-possessed and mindful, having overcome both the hankering and the dejection common in the world. And whosoever, Ananda, whether now or after I am dead, shall be a lamp unto themselves,and a refuge unto themselves, shall betake themselves to no external refuge, but holding fast to the Truth as their lamp and holding fast as their refugee to the truthit is they, Ananda, among my bhikkus, who shall reach the very topmost height! But they must be anxious to learn (Digha Nikaya 2, 1941: 10709). The Buddha was now condent all questions among the bhikkhus were resolved. To them he addressed his nal words: All conditioned things are of a nature to decay strive on untiringly43. The final words of the Buddha All conditioned things are transitory; strive with diligence urge control of self and struggling, but rejection of the world. The Buddha appointed no successor. Through Ananda, he instructed the bhikkhus to being your own refuge, with no one else as your refuge, with Dhamma as your refuge, with no other refuge. He also said to them that his teaching should be learned, practiced, developed, and cultivated, so that this holy life may endure for a long time; that it may be for the benet and happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world. These are radical words and very different from the teachings of any other founder of a well-known religion. The follower is urged to rely on himself that means he she should not rely on scriptures, nor on authority; but scientific effort to use intellect and experience in the most thorough and sophisticated way possible. By ourselves is evil done, By ourselves we pain endure, By ourselves we cease from wrong, By ourselves become we pure. No one frees us but ourselves, No one can and no one may, We ourselves must tread the Path, Buddhas only show the way
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Digha Nikaya

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(Dhammapada see Smith 1998: 34). The words of the Japanese Zen monk-poet Ryokan poignantly capture Buddhas achievement: Even if a man lives a hundred years His life is like a floating weed, drifting with the waves East and west continually, no time for rest. Sakyamuni renounced nobility and devoted his life to Preventing others from falling into ruin. On earth eighty years, Proclaiming the Dharma for fifty, Bestowing the sutras as an eternal legacy; Today, still a bridge to cross over to the other shore (Ryokan 1988). Universalism of Buddhas teaching Go ye now, O Bhikkus, and wander for the gain of many, for the welfare of many, out of compassion for the world. (MahavaggaI, 11, 1)

Makutabandhana Stupa (Lord Buddhas cremation site) Kushinagar

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Abhidhamma brief introduction to the higher doctrine Sammasambuddhamatulam - sasaddhammaganuttamam Abhivadiya bhasissam - Abhidhammatthasangaham The Fully Enlightened Peerless One, with the Sublime Doctrine and the Noble Order, do I respectfully salute you and shall speak concisely of things contained in the Abhidhamma Buddhist texts called Abhidhamma collection is one of three sets of volumes known collectively as the Tipitaka; are compiled in the approximate period 500 BC to 250 BC. They deal with phenomenological psychology. The astonishing detail with which Abhidhamma methodically constructs a quasiscientific model of the mind would make a modern systems theorist or cognitive scientist gasp in awe and insures its place in history as a monumental feat of intellectual genius. The Abhidhamma Pitaka has a well-deserved reputation for being dense and difficult reading. The best way to begin studying Abhidhamma is not to dive right into its two key books (Dhammasangani and Patthana) but to explore some of the more modern and readable commentarial texts, that will help you get oriented to the Abhidhamma's challenging terrain: According to the Buddhist path, the nature of lived experience as based on one's cognitive apparatus is to be contemplated by investigating the very nature of one's mind through the practice of meditation. From this perspective, Abhidharma represents the theoretical counterpart to the practice of meditation.

Dhamma is a multi-significant term, derived from the root dhar, to hold, to support. Here the Pali term is used in the sense of doctrine or teaching. According to the Atthasalini, "abhi" signifies either "atireka" -higher, greater, exceeding - or "visittha" distinguished, distinct, special, sublime. Abhidhamma means the Higher Doctrine because it enables one to achieve one's Deliverance, or because it exceeds the teachings of the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka

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TheAbhidhamma Pitaka consists of seven treatises 1. Dhammasangani (Classification of Dhammas) (a) Citta (b) Rupa 2. Vibhanga (Divisions) There are 18 divsions each dealing with a subject, the first three are the most important khandha (aggregates); ayatana (sensespheres) and dhatu (elements) 3. Dhatukatha (Discussion with reference to Element) 4. Puggalapaatti (Designation of Individual) 5. Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy) The authorship of this treatise is ascribed to Venerable Moggalliputta Tissa Thera, who flourished in the time of King Dhammasoka. Presided at the third Conference held at Patalaliputta (Patna) in the 3rd century BC. 6. Yamaka (The Book of Pairs) 7. Patthana. This is the most important and the most voluminous book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. One who patiently reads this treatise cannot but admire the profound wisdom and penetrative insight of the Buddha. There is no doubt of the fact that to produce such an elaborate and earned treatise one must certainly be an intellectual genius. Longest single volume in the Tipitaka, over 6,000 pages in the Siamese edition, describes the 24 paccayas, or laws of conditionality, through which the dhammas interact. These laws, when applied in every possible permutation with thedhammas described in the Dhammasangani, give rise to all knowable experience. The term as used in Abhidhamma Dhammas (Dharmas) are not merely mental objects like ideas, concepts, or memories.Rather, as the objects of mental cognitive awareness, dharmas may be rendered apperceptions: rapid consciousness-types (citta) that arise and cease in sequential streams, each having its own object, and that interact with the five externally directed sensory modalities (visual, auditory, etc.) of cognitive awareness. The canonical Abhidharma texts portray dharmas, then, as psychophysical events with diverse capacities by means of which the mind unites and assimilates a particular perception, especially one newly presented, to a larger set or mass of ideas already possessed, thus comprehending and conceptualizing it. Ultimately, dharmas are all that there is: all experiential events are understood as arising from the interaction of dharmas. While the analogy of atoms may be useful here, dharmas notably embrace both physical and mental phenomena, and are generally
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understood as evanescent events, occurrences, or dynamic properties rather than enduring substances. The Abhidharma exegesis thus attempts to provide an exhaustive account of every possible type of experienceevery type of occurrence that may possibly present itself in one's consciousnessin terms of its constituent dharmas. This enterprise involves breaking down the objects of ordinary perception into their constituent, discrete dharmas and clarifying their relations of causal conditioning. The overarching inquiry subsuming both the analysis of dharmas into multiple categories and their synthesis into a unified structure by means of their manifold relationships of causal conditioning is referred to as the dharma theory. The Abhidhamma describes an intricate model of consciousness on three levels. The first level consists of a discrete, serial stream of `atoms of awareness' called cetas. Secondly, a linear sequence of cetas may form a `molecule', called vithi , being a cognitive-emotional conscious unit. Finally, each ceta has a substructure of conscious mental factors (`elementaryparticles'), called cetasikas, acting in parallel. An important part of the Abhidhamma is the Patthana, covering about 2600 pages, that describes the mechanism of conditioning by `kamma' between these cetasikas and cetas.

Cetas: mental `atoms' The main thesis in the Abhidhamma model is that consciousness is not continuous, but comes in discrete packages of consciousness fashes. Each such fash is called a ceta. A ceta has the three phases of arising, existing and disappearing. The duration of a ceta is short, the main task of a ceta is to be concerned with some object. A ceta is said to be directed towards a certain object. What a ceta does further, is to contribute to the determination of future cetas. We call this the kammic effect of the ceta. How this is done depends partly on the object captured by the present ceta. For example, a certain visual object can be the data of a ceta with desire and attachment, with disgust and hatred or with loving kindness and compassion. Both the type and the

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object of the future cetas depend on those of the past ones. This leads to accumulated kamma, transferred and augmented from ceta to ceta.44 Objects of consciousness (input data), come partly from: Physical senses: sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. This type of input is called rupa (material form) Other input to consciousness comes from consciousness itself. Consciousness as input is called nama (mind). The Abhidhamma distinguishes 89 types of cetas. These types are divided into two major subgroups: those ceta types with strong kamma that has a direct effect without the need of supporting kamma, and those with only indirect (supporting) effect. The ceta types with producing kamma can be subdivided into unwholesome and wholesome. Unwholesome cetas lead to attachment and increased suffering (dukkha). Wholesome cetas lead to freedom and decreased suffering. Further cetas area classified into three spheres of consciousness: Sensual sphere of consciousness (kama): consists of those ceta types directed to pleasant feeling coming from the physical senses, e.g. caused by input from good food, beautiful sights or erotic pleasures. Sublime sphere of consciousness (mahaggatta): consist of those ceta types directed to mental pleasures like mystical states, often accompanied by bliss and rapture. It is emphasized in the practice of vipassana (insight meditation) that mystical consciousness may be pleasant, but does not lead to purification Supramundane sphere of consciousness (lokuttara): These ceta types are directed towards nibbana or pure consciousness. The 4 wholesome supramundane cetas are called maggaceta (path consciousness) and have nibbana as object. The consequence of their
44

The Abhidhamma Model of Consciousness and some of its Consequences; Henk Barendregt (2006) Radboud University Nijmegen

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occurrence is that some of the unwholesome consciousness types will no longer be available. One can have these cetas only once during one's existence. After the occurrence of the 4 maggacetas one is an Arahat.

Spheres of Ceta Sensual Sublime Supramundane

Direct Effect Unwholesome Wholesome 12 8 9 4 12 21

Indirect Effect 34 18 4 56 54 27 8 89

Sphere of consciousness and type of their elements (Ceta)45

The cetas may be compared to atoms of consciousness that, unlike the material atoms, do not occur in space but in time. Each mundane ceta may be considered as being composed of cetasikas mental `elementary particles'. The sensual and sublime cetas together are called the `mundane' cetas. Universal Occasional 4 10 14 7 6 13 19 6 25 30 22 52

Classes and numbers of mental factors (cestikas)

The Abhidhamma Model of Consciousness and some of its Consequences; Henk Barendregt (2006) Radboud University Nijmegen

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The fifty two cestikas at a glance:

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Vitthis: cognitive-emotional processing ( molecular level of consciousness, consisting in a serial collaboration of cetas) In Abhidhamma the entering of physical input (rupa) is modeled as a sequence of 17 cetas, forming a so called vitthi (for rupa) The first 8 cetas in a vitthi serve to start the process and to receive input. Then follow 7 cetas (javanas) of the same type containing strong kamma. Finally 2 cetas are used to terminate the vitthi.

Similarly there are vitthis for nama. modeled as a sequence of 12 cetas

Though Process The subject, the consciousness, receives objects from within and without. When a person is in a state of profound sleep his mind is said to be vacant, or, in other words, in a state of bhavanga. We always experience such a passive state when our minds do not respond to external objects. This flow of bhavanga is interrupted when objects enter the mind. Then the bhavanga consciousness vibrates for one thought-moment and passes away. The initial and final phase of a vitthi starts from and return to bhavanga. Thereupon the sense-door consciousness (paca-dvaravajjana) arises and ceases.

Thus as discussed, Matter (rupa) forms an object46 for consciousness and Mind (nama) or previous consciousness as an object or current consciousness. There are exactly two other kinds of objects (a) concepts and (b) nibbana. Concepts can be thought to emerge from the vitthis.

46

In Abhidhamma, meaning of the term object is different from that in daily life and science.

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Conditioned (sankhata) Absolute (Paramattha) Conceptual (Pannati) matter, mind existing Concept; non-existing concept

Unconditioned (asankhata) nibbana mathematical (Eg: Prime Numbers)

Traditionally only nibbana is considered as unconditioned object. Slightly extending the analysis in the Abhidhamma one can put mathematical ideas also among the unconditioned ones example: mathematical concepts, like prime number do not depend on any conditions and are permanent. A (non existing) concept like dragon' is conditioned, as it depends on the myths of a certain culture how such an animal is imagined. Similarly concept (existing) of fashion is dependent on culture and individuals affinity to certain collective prejudices which creates the notion of attractiveness or unattractiveness.

Thus as stated before, all cetas contain the cetasika of feeling. When expounded it forms a vitthi, firstly enlarged by the 7 cetas (javanas). On the other hand several vithis together, as a long train of cetas, constitute the cognitive emotional process. The Abhidhamma model has been obtained while traversing through the path of purication or attainment of nibbana. It is emphasized that the path is a practical one, similar to learn how to sail on the ocean. Therefore the meditative practices are not to be found in the Abhidhamma but in the Suttas. The right mindfulness (samma sati), is able to be present as cetasika in the cetas directly. The aim is to develop mindfulness in such a way that it addresses the cetas- one at the time, on time and all the time" as a good meditation teacher will instruct. In this way all the hidden corners of the mind can be reached and purified. After that, sharper mindfulness will reveal to the meditator a clear vision of the the ceta process. One is able to observe the three characteristics of existence: anicca, dukkha,
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anatta that usually are rendered as impermanence, suffering and non soulness or egolessness. Purification happens in four consecutive stages, surpassing each stage the meditator is brought closer to full enlightenment. In the first stage, the meditator becomes a stream-enterer who has eliminated the cetasikas of wrong view. At the second stage of a once-returner the sharp force of greed and hatred is attenuated. At the third stage one has eliminated the use of greed and hatred and becomes a non-returner. At the last stage one becomes an arahat, having no more pride, restlessness, sleepiness, desire for mystical states or existence and ignorance.

Both the Sarvastivada and the post-canonical Theravada constructed a radical doctrine of momentariness (khanavada) that atomizes phenomena temporally by dissecting them into a succession of discrete, momentary events that pass out of existence as soon as they have originated. Albeit not a topic in its own right in the Buddha's discourses, the doctrine of momentariness appears to have originated in conjunction with the principle of impermanence (anicca) This idea is basic to the Buddha's empirically-oriented teaching about the nature of sentient experience: all physical and mental phenomena are in a constant process of conditioned construction and are interconnected, being dependently originated. The Buddhist schools used the characteristics of conditioned phenomena as a hermeneutic tool with which to reinterpret impermanence in terms of momentariness. The Sarvastivada-Vaibhaika proposed a fully-fledged doctrine of momentariness according to which all physical and mental phenomena are momentary. The Sarvastivadins use the term moment (kaa) in a highly technical sense as the smallest, definite unit of time that cannot be subdivided, the length of which came to be equated with the duration of mental events as the briefest conceivable entities. There is

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no Sarvastivadin consensus on the length of a moment, but the texts indicate figures between 0.13 and 13 milliseconds in modern terms.

Within the Sarvastivada framework, material reality (rupa-dharma) is reduced to discrete momentary atoms. Atomic reality is understood as constantly changing: what appears to us as a world made up of enduring substances with changing qualities is, in fact, a series of moments that arise and perish in rapid succession. This process is not random, but operates in accordance with the specific capability and function of each atom. The spirit of this atomistic analysis of material reality applies equally to mental reality: consciousness is understood as a succession of discrete consciousness moments that arise and cease extremely rapidly. One may wonder whether the Abhidhamma model has anything to do with reality, as it is obtained through meditative experience, which is a form of trained introspection (trained phenomenology)47 First Argument Mathematics, as emphasized by Husserl, Godel, Bernays and others, can be seen as a phenomenological enterprise. While results are based on calculations and proofs, but one needs a mental judgment whether a calculation does apply and whether a proof is correct. Second Argument: Newton-Goethe dispute about colors These two gentlemen did not live at the same time: they represent the position of the physicist and of the phenomenologist in a historic controversy about the nature of colors. Newton held that colors are a 1D (one dimensional) phenomenon. Indeed, light comes with a wavelength and different wavelengths correspond to different colors. Goethe on the other hand held that colors form a 3D phenomenon. He took a bag of 125 cubes each with a different color and wanted to order them in the `Montessori way' (such that if their colors are similar, then they have to be placed near each other). Goethe could
The Abhidhamma Model of Consciousness and some of its Consequences; Henk Barendregt (2006) Radboud University Nijmegen
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not do this putting the cubes in a linear array, nor in a plane, but with the cubes placed in a 3D fashion (in a 5x5x5 cube) this was possible. Therefore, Goethe held that colors are a 3D phenomenon. For a while the two positions seemed to be irreconcilable. But then, in the 19-th century, a solution was proposed by the physician Young and the physicist Helmholtz. They independently stated the hypothesis that the sensitive eye has three different kinds of receptors for color vision, each with its own sensitivity for the light spectrum. Then one wavelength gives rise to a triplet of reactions in the three different kinds of receptors. Hence light has both a 1D and a 3D aspect, depending on whether one considers its production or its perception. Later the hypothesis of the three kinds of receptors turned out to be correct and the controversy was settled. The moral is that both science and (trained) phenomenology are important and can reinforce each other.

Candi Borobudur, Shailendra Dynasty (825 AD) Indonesia

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Sariputta Stupa, Nalanda Mahavihara (500 AD to 1170 AD)

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Buddhism, God & the Modern Interpretation of Reality Einsteins Views on Creator God Modern physics bears the impact of Albert Einstein more than that of any other physicist. His theory of relativity with its profound modifications of the notions of space, time and gravitation had fundamentally changed and deepened our understanding of the physical and philosophical conception of the universe. I cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his creatures, or has a will of the kind that we experience in ourselves. Neither can I nor would I want to conceive of an individual that survives his physical death; let feeble souls, from fear or absurd egoism, cherish such thoughts.48 In Albert Einsteins opinion Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: It transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural and spiritual; and it is based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity. If there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs, it would be Buddhism.49 Annus Mirabilis Historians call the year 1905 as the annus mirabilis or miracle year, because in that year the renowned scientist Albert Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers addressing fundamental problems about the nature of energy, matter, motion, time and space. In June 1905, Einstein proposed his concept of special relativity. Einstein's March paper treated light as particles, but special relativity estimated light as a continuous field of waves. So, Einstein observed light both as wave and particle.
48

Finkelstein, D.R., Wallace, B.A. ed. 2001. Emptiness and Relativity. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Einstein, A., 1931. The world as I see it. Forum and Century: Living Philosophies 84: 1934.

49 Dukas, H., Hoffman B., ed.,1954. Albert Einstein: The Human Side. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press

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Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics: E=mc2. (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light in vacuum squared). This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means. This led to the theory of the conservation of energy, in the form of the first law of thermodynamics, which stated that the total amount of energy in any isolated system always remains constant. Although it can only be changed from one form to another, this energy cannot be created or destroyed. During 1915, Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity and showed that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time. What we feel as the 'force' of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved, four-dimensional space-time. It was a radical vision where space was no longer considered to be the box to enclose the universe. Instead, space and time along with matter and energy are all locked together in the most intimate embrace.

Buddhism had developed views on matters related to the universe and its contents, based on pure logical and rational thinking and not rigorous scientific methodology.50 In the Theravda Abhidhamma tradition: An atom paramu is considered to be the smallest unit of matter which is an aggregate of a number of unitary material elements called as a cluster of material elements or rpa- kalpa, where every cluster is delimited by an intervening space, so that they do not touch each other. In Sarvstivda tradition: an atom is considered to be the smallest unit of a single unitary material element and it is so minute that it actually lacks spatial dimension. This Buddhist concept of matter is very close to Einsteins concept of quantum as smallest
50

These phenomena were discussed in detail in Abhidhamma Pitaka, the Visuddhimagga, the Pali commentaries, Mahvibh-stra, the Klacackra Tantra and in the literature on Buddhist epistemology.

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unit of energy in the universe and also the modern theory of quarks which are hypothesized as mere geometrical points in space that make up the protons and neutrons of an atom. Quantum and the Concept of Matter in Abhidhamma Pitaka51 The Abhidhamma analysis of matter assumes there are in all 28 rupa-dhammas or material elements into which material existence can be analyzed. These 28 material elements represent not only the matter that enters into the composition of internal/organic matter, but also external/inorganic matter. Matter is defined as that which has the characteristic of ruppana which means the susceptibility to being modified or receptivity to change due to the impact of the contrary forces. This change is defined as visaduppatti or the genesis of dissimilarity. The concept of meant the disappearance of one material element and the appearance of another material element in its place; and not mere alteration between two stages of a single material element. The four primary elements of matter recognized in Buddhism are: (a) Earth element represents solidity and extension, (b) Water element represents viscidity and liquidity, (c) Fire element represents the temperature of cold and heat and (d) Air element represents distension, fluctuation and mobility. These four primary elements are necessarily co-nascent and inseparable. These elements arise together, exist together and cease together and they cannot be separated from one another. Though there is no quantitative difference among these elements that enter into composition of material things, but the only difference is of intensity.
51

Lopez, D.S. 2008. Buddhism & science: A guide for the perplexed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Karunadasa, Y. 1996. The Dhamma Theory: Philosophical Cornerstone of the Abhidhamma. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Karunadasa, Y. 1989. Buddhist Analysis of Matter (Second Edition). Singapore: Buddhist Research Society. Richard M., Thuan,T.X. 2001. The Quantum and the Lotus: A Journey to the Frontiers Where Science and Buddhism Meet. New York: Crown Publishers: 127-39.

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In Abhidhamma, the earth-element pathavi-dhtu has three dimensional spatial occupation or the notion of a solid body is obtained when matter occupies the three dimensions of space. The pathavi-dhtu is said to be present in every instance of matter; characterized by solidity (whatever be the degree) and extension (whatever be the extent). The Sarvstivda concept of solid matter is pratighata which is the resistance or impenetrability. In the Sarvstivda tradition paramu atom is considered to be the smallest unit of a single unitary material element and it is so minute that it actually lacks spatial dimension. This concept is very close to Einsteins concept of quantum as smallest unit of energy in the universe and also the modern theory of quarks which are hypothesized as mere geometrical points in space that make up the protons and neutrons of an atom. According to the Theravda Abhidhamma tradition, an atom paramu itself is an aggregate of a number of unitary material elements or rpa- kalpa- a cluster of material elements. Every rpa- kalpa is delimited by an intervening space (they do not touch each other); the attractive force of the air-element keeps the atoms together from escaping. In modern science, this indicates the possibility of existence of some kind of an electro-magnetic force present between these elements which hold them in clusters without touching each other. Einstein demonstrated the existence of atoms as smallest particles of matter; later atoms was further divisible into its charged components of protons, electrons and neutrons which are separated from each other due to their respective electrical charges. The modern theory of quarks which are hypothesized as mere geometrical points in space that make up the protons and neutrons of an atom also exist as clusters to give definite shape to these structures. Thus, Theravda Abhidhamma also perceived further divisibility of atoms into cluster of material elements Quantum Theory and the Buddhist Concept of Dynamic Flux

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Based on Buddhas famous doctrine of momentaryness ksanikavada Abhidhamma considered events as space-time representations of a continuous dynamic flux. Nothing is considered to be static and permanent, but everything is in a state of constant change in our universe of experience. There there is no single enduring changing entity, but there exist a series of momentary changes. 52 The Quantum field theory also considers physical phenomena as transient manifestations of an underlying fundamental unity. The Buddhist counterpart is the doctrine of Dependent Origination - everything in this universe that we are able to perceive though our sense organs are impermanent and are subjected to constant change. This concept of dynamic flux was illustrated by Einstein wherein he demonstrated the spontaneous and random movements of atoms, called Brownian motion. All the particles in this universe are in dynamic motion with relation to each other and their tendency to execute the random movements are restricted due to the strong gravitational and electromagnetic forces of each other.53 Abhidhamma Perspective on Einsteins Notion of Escape Velocity and Black Holes According to Einstein the speed of light is the ultimate speed limit in the universe, nothing can travel faster than light. A black hole is a star that has collapsed so much that its escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. As there is no force known to modern science that can resist the inward tug of gravity, the star would continue to compress until it collapses into a black hole; all the matter in what was once the star is compressed into singularity. The singularity has the same mass as the core of the star that collapsed into the black hole, compressed into a radius and volume of zero and has infinite density. The distance from the singularity to where the escape velocity equals the speed of light is called the Schwarzschild radius or event horizon. The Schwarzschild radius of a black hole, ten times as massive as the Sun, is 30 kilometers. Schwarzschild
Wallace,B.A., ed., 2003. Buddhism & science: breaking new ground.New York: Columbia University Press. Wallace, B.A.1996. Choosing Reality: A Buddhist View of Physics and the Mind. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion Publications: 18-27.

53 Jammer, Max. 1999. Einstein and religion: physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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predicted this effect from Einstein's general theory of relativity. Although nothing can escape from inside the event horizon, it is possible to orbit a black hole without falling in.54 In the Sarvstivda Abhidhamma tradition, an atom is considered to be the smallest unit of a single unitary material element and it is so minute that it actually lacks spatial dimension. So, the Sarvstivdins believe that an atom is devoid of parts and exempt from resistance or impenetrability. Keeping this concept in background, if we presume that atoms touch each other totally and without any intervening space in between, then they would all collapse into one and all would occupy the same locus. This Abhidhamma concept of complete collapse of elementary particles of matter relates to the theory of origination of dimensionless dark holes with enormous celestial mass.55 In Madhyamika tradition the concept of emptiness or sunyata proposed by Nagarjuna also suggests that except the Nibbana and Space, whatever we perceive through our sense organs is virtual. Black holes have enormous celestial mass and gravitational force but lack dimension and are mere points in the universe. They could be regarded as dimensionless virtual mass, in spite of having real existence. We might not be able to locate 90% of matter in the universe which are in the form of dark matter. We see only about 10% of the total mass of the clusters in the form of the individual galaxies in the clusters56 Buddhist Doctrine of Dependent Origination The general theory of dependent origination, taught by the Buddha, is as follows: When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases. (Connected Discourses, p. 575) Everything arises and ceases depending on causes and conditions which themselves arise due to causes and conditions. There is no ultimate ground or primordial
54 Bharucha, Filita P. 1992. Buddhist theory of causation and Einstein's theory of relativity. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications. 55 Richard M., Thuan,T.X. 2001. The Quantum and the Lotus: A Journey to the Frontiers Where Science and Buddhism Meet. Crown Publishers 56 Jammer, Max. 1999. Einstein and religion: physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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cause, but a network of causes and conditions. Dependent origination is the true nature of reality, it is the way things are and the Buddha had simply realized it and confirmed it to others. Time: A Psychological Concept Observing the irreversibility or asymmetry between the past and future, it has been argued that time is uni-directional and is also associated with the experience of psychological time. Einstein himself had felt the uni-directionality of time and considered the concept of time to be an illusion. In Einsteins theory of relativity, time (with space) becomes relative and contingent both on speed and gravity. The faster one travels or the closer one is to an object with a very strong gravitational pull, time elapses more slowly. 57 From the Buddhist perspective, when one actually analyzes time; it is found to not really exist. Time is a conventional truth paatti a conceptual designation which is imputed onto experiences of a past, present, and future. It is called conventional because it is only established nominally on the basis of words and thoughts. Buddhism recognize that time can be experienced as moving faster or slower in certain situations. Example others might experience as only an instant, could be experienced by a person meditating as a much longer period of time. Buddhist concept of psychological time is similar to Einsteins perception that time is illusory. We cannot point at the time in reality, but rather perceived it through designations on things that are not time, like the clock which is a substantial entity. Therefore, time fits in a third class of phenomenon technically referred to as non-associated composite phenomena.Here, the term non-associated means that it is neither physical nor mental and composite means that time is dependent on other factors and is impermanent. Apart from these concepts of time, the Buddhist schools had also identified the shortest possible divisions of time that is required to perform an act and the shortest division of time in general. An example of the shortest possible divisions of time is the time it takes
57

Jammer, Max. 1999. Einstein and religion: physics and theology. Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press.

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to blink our eye, which is called a moment. The shortest division of time is considered to be 1/60th (or even 1/365th, depending on the source) the duration of a finger snap, a number which one Buddhist scholar has calculated roughly as one millisecond.58 Space: The Concept of Sunyata or Emptiness Another major area of discussion for Buddhists, physicists, and cosmologists is the nature of empty space and cosmogony. The concept of Time and Space in relation to Buddhism are the two varieties of paatti. They are two conceptual constructs without any corresponding objective reality. In Milindapaha, the only two things which are considered to be independent of kamma or of causes or of season are namely Nibbna and space. But it carefully avoids the use of the term unconditioned (asakhata) and relates space as neither conditioned nor unconditioned. The Theravdins include the space element concept in the objective field of mental objects (dhammyatana) which means that it is not visible but can be cognized only as an object of mind-consciousness. In the Sarvstivda Abhidhamma, the counterpart of space element is referred to as ka-dhtu. The space element is either light (loka) or darkness (tamas) and therefore it is included in the objective sense-field of the visible (rupyatana). Besides this, the Sarvstivdins recognize another kind of space which is called ka and not ka dhtu. It is defined not as space bound by matter, but as that which provides room for the movement of matter (yatra rpasya gati). It does not obstruct matter, which freely exists therein. It is also not obstructed by matter, for it cannot be dislodged by matter. Thus, what the Sarvstivdins call unconditioned space is the space considered absolutely real and as serving as a receptacle for the existence and movement of material phenomena.59
58 Bharucha, Filita P. 1992. Buddhist theory of causation and Einstein's theory of relativity. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications. Lopez, D.S. 2008. Buddhism & science: A guide for the perplexed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wallace,B.A., ed., 2003. Buddhism & science: breaking new ground.New York: Columbia University Press.
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Lopez, D.S. 2008. Buddhism & science: A guide for the perplexed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Karunadasa, Y. 2009. Time and Space. Hong Kong: The Centre of Buddhist Studies. The University of Hong Kong.

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In the Madhyamaka system Nagarjuna had explained the Buddhist Doctrine of Dependent Origination in the light of Sunyata which means void or emptiness. The space in universe is also intimately connected to this Buddhist concept of nyat or emptiness. Just as nothing can exist without space, so too can nothing exist without emptiness. Because all phenomena are empty of a static, independent and permanent existence, they can come into existence, change their forms and pass on. We should realize the absolute truth behind the concept of emptiness as absence of self-entity and attachment and accept the fact that interdependence is the nature of reality. In physics, there are highly developed mathematical theories which suggest the empty space of a vacuum actually contains an infinite amount of energy. It is speculated that this energy has a role in the evolution in the universe. While this is still an area of controversy and mystery within theoretical physics, it makes for a rough parallel to the Buddhist concept of empty-particles and the universe arising out of space. Concept of Co-existence of Multiple Solar Systems In Buddhist literature, the cosmos are explained to be oscillating or continuously forming, enduring for a time, and then undergoing a final period of destruction. In Mahayana tradition, it is believed that there are hundred thousand galaxies in the entire universe and each galaxy is holding at least one Buddha (Sun) at a given point of time. The presence of more than one solar system in the universe is now confirmed by mapping the orbital path of the planet Pluto, the last planet in our solar system. It is found that this planet revolves around the sun of some other unknown solar system.

Wallace, B.A.1996. Choosing Reality: A Buddhist View of Physics and the Mind. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion Publications: 18-27. Kloetzli, W.R. 1983. Buddhist Cosmology: From Single World System to Pure Land: Science and Theology in the Images of Motion and Light. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

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Buddhism and the great divide The roots of Indian dualism may be found in the early Upanisads (c. 800500 B.C.E.), where consciousness is described as the witness (saksin), the detached and entirely passive observer of the world. In this view, consciousness is pure awarenessa kind of mirrorin which, or for which, the world appears. The problem of Upanisadic dualism is diffculty in presenting a satisfying account of the interaction between these two fundamentally distinct and independent realities of the observer and the observed. Buddhist position is non-dualistic. Candrakirti60 clarifies, when the scripture says mind alone exists; form does not this is taught to deny the importance of form and so forth, not to negate their very existence. . . . If Buddha intended to deny the existence of objective reality when he said that [the world] is mind alone, then why would the mahatman declare, in the same text, that mind is produced from delusion (moha) and volitional action (karman)? In the Dasabhumika sutra, consciousness is said to have as its causes spiritual ignorance and the prenatal dispositions (samskaras). Therefore, it does not exist by virtue of any intrinsic distinguishing characteristic. Candrakirti says The Buddha rejected both of them (viewing matter and mind existing permanently) in the scriptures on perfect wisdom, and taught them both in the Abhidharma. Form and the other 5 psychophysical constituents are all taught in the Abhidharma, making distinctions between their general and particular characteristics. And in the scriptures on perfect wisdom, all five are equally denied: O Subhuti, objective form is empty of inherent existence. The same is said concerning the others, including consciousness. This is established both in scripture and through recourse to reason. Candrakirti says Inquire of the various philosophical schools (including Samkhyas), with their absolutist doctrines of a person, of aggregates, and so forth: Who speaks of that (atman) which transcends existence and nonexistence? It is the buddhas who offer the profound, ambrosial teaching that transcends existence and nonexistence: Know that only this is the Dharma Candrakirti says, the teaching that permeates the scriptures of all the Buddhas is characterized by emptiness, non-arising, non-duality, and lack of any distinguishing characteristic.
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Candrakirti (c. 600650). In Tibetan tradition, Candrakirtis Madhyamakavatara or Entry

into the Middle-Way, is considered as definitive introduction to Nagarjunas ideas.

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Social Revolution & Buddhism

French revolution, the basic thrust of modernity: Society has been aiming to lay a new foundation as was summarized by the French Revolution in three words, fraternity, liberty and equality. The French Revolutionfailed to produce equality. We welcome the Russian Revolution because it aims to produce equality. But it cannot be too much emphasized that in producing equality society cannot afford to sacrifice fraternity or liberty. It seems that these three can coexist only if one follows the way of the Buddha (Ambedkar 1987). India needed not an economic revolution, but a socialreligious one: The political revolution led by Chandragupta was preceded by the religious and social revolution of Buddha. The political revolution led by Shivaji was preceded by the religious and social reform brought about the (bhakti) saints of Maharashtra. The political revolution of the Sikhs was preceded by the religious and social revolution led by Guru Nanak (Ambedkar 1979) Hinduism itself had to be questioned because it supported chaturvarna, the main source of Indias social evils: You mustdestroy the sacredness and divinity with which Caste has become invested. In the last analysis, this means you must destroy the authority of the Shastras and the Vedas.You must take the stand that Buddha took. You must take the stand which Guru Nanak took. You must not only discard the Shastras, you must deny their authority, as did Buddha and Nanak. You must have courage to tell the Hindus that what is wrong with them is their religion the religion which has produced in them this notion of the sacredness of Caste (ibid.: 69).

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I was abused, I was hurt, I was beaten, I was robbed! Harbor such thoughts and hatred will never cease. I was abused, I was hurt, I was beaten, I was robbed! Abandon such thoughts and hatred will end. For never in this world Do hatreds cease by hatred. By freedom from hatred they cease: This is the eternal dhamma61

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Dhammapada
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