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Transmission &Distribution

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UNI -I

IN !"DU# I"N

1.1 Development of Modern Power System - A Brief Historical Preview The development of the modern day electrical energy system took a few centuries. Prior to 1800, scientists like William Gil ert, !. ". de !oulom , #uigi Galvani, $en%amin &ranklin, "lessandro 'olta etc. worked on electric and magnetic field principles. (owever, none of them had any application in mind. They also pro a ly did not reali)e that their work will lead to such an e*citing engineering innovation. They were %ust motivated y the intellectual curiosity. $etween 1800 and 1810 commercial gas companies were formed + first in ,urope and then in -orth "merica. "round the same time with the research efforts of scientists like .ir (umphrey /avy, "ndre "mpere, George 0hm and 1arl Gauss the e*citing possi ilities of the use of electrical energy started to dawn upon the scientific community. 2n ,ngland, 3ichael &araday worked on his induction principle etween 1841 and 1851. The modern world owes a lot to this genius. &araday su se6uently used his induction principle to uild a machine to generate voltage. "round the same time "merican engineer 7oseph (enry also worked independently on the induction principle and applied his work on electromagnets and telegraphs. &or a out three decades etween 1880 and 1890 engineers like !harles Wheatstone, "lfred 'arley, .iemens rothers Werner and !arl etc. uilt primitive generators using the induction principle. 2t was also o served around the same time that when current carrying car on electrodes were drawn apart, rilliant electric arcs were formed. The commerciali)ation of arc lighting took place in the decade of 1890s. The arc lamps were used in lighthouses and streets and rarely indoor due to high intensity of these lights. Gas was still used for domestic lighting. 2t was also used for street lighting in many cities. &rom early 1800 it was noted that a current carrying conductor could e heated to the point of incandescent. Therefore the idea of using this principle was very tempting and attracted attention. (owever the incandescent materials urnt very 6uickly to e of any use. To prevent them from urning they were fitted inside either vacuum glo es or glo es filled with inert gas. 2n 0cto er 189: Thomas "lva ,dison lighted a glass ul with a car oni)ed cotton thread filament in a vacuum enclosed space. This was the first electric ul that glowed for 88 hours efore urning out. ,dison himself improved the design of the lamp later and also proposed a new generator design.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

The Pearl .treet power station in -ew ;ork !ity was esta lished in 1884 to sell electric energy for incandescent lighting. The system was direct current three+wire, 440<110 ' and supplied ,dison lamps for a total power re6uirement of 50 kW. The only o %ective of the early power companies was illumination. (owever we can easily visuali)e that this would have resulted in the under utili)ation of resources. The lighting load peaks in the evening and y midnight it reduces drastically. 2t was then o vious to the power companies that an ela orate and e*pensive set up would lay idle for a ma%or amount of time. This provided incentive enough to improve upon the design of electric motors to make them commercially via le. The motors ecame popular very 6uickly and were used in many applications. With this the electric energy era really and truly started. (owever with the increase in load large voltage and unaccepta le drops were e*perienced, especially at points that were located far away from the generating stations due to poor voltage regulation capa ilities of the e*isting dc networks. 0ne approach was to transmit power at higher voltages while consuming it at lower voltages. This led to the development of the alternating current. 2n 18:0s the newly formed Westinghouse !ompany e*perimented with the new form of electricity, the alternating current. This was called alternating current since the current changed direction in synchronism with the generator rotation. Westinghouse !ompany was lucky to have .er ian engineer -icola Tesla with them. (e not only invented polyphase induction motor ut also conceived the entire polyphase electrical power system. (e however had to face severe o %ection from ,dison and his General ,lectric !ompany who were the proponents of dc. The ensuing attle etween ac and dc was won y ac due to the following factors= Transformers could oost ac voltage for transmission and could step it down for distri ution. The construction of ac generators was simpler. The construction of ac motors was simpler. 3oreover they were more ro ust and cheaper than the dc motors even though not very sophisticated. With the advent of ac technology the electric power could reach more and more people. "lso si)e of the generators started increasing and transmission level voltages started increasing. The modern day system contains hundreds of generators and thousands of uses and is a large interconnected network. 1.$ Introd%ction of Modern Power System 3odern electric power systems have three separate components + generation, transmission and distri ution. ,lectric power is generated at the power generating stations y synchronous alternators that are usually driven either y steam or hydro tur ines. 3ost of the power generation takes place at generating stations that may contain more than one such alternator+tur ine com ination. /epending upon the type of fuel used, the generating stations are categori)ed as thermal, hydro, nuclear etc. 3any of these

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Transmission &Distribution

1.5

generating stations are remotely located. (ence the electric power generated at any such station has to e transmitted over a long distance to load centers that are usually cities or towns. This is called the power transmission. 2n fact power transmission towers and transmission lines are very common sights in rural areas. 3odern day power systems are complicated networks with hundreds of generating stations and load centers eing interconnected through power transmission lines. ,lectric power is generated at a fre6uency of either >0 () or ?0 (). 2n an interconnected ac power system, the rated generation fre6uency of all units must e the same. 2n 2ndia the fre6uency is >0 ().

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction 1.& Need for 'H( ransmission

To provide ade6uate grid system capacity, the electricity transmission lines need to operate at 800 k' or 9?> k'. The e*isting transmission capacity is inade6uate. .o the developers are constructing to connect to ,(' Transmission system. ,(' transmission provides more relia le and less constrained electricity network capacity. (i)Increase in size of generating units (ol%me )

4 L

#ost

) (ol%me

"s voltage increases, 'olume of conductor decreases and cost of the line decreases and the si)e of generating unit increases. Transmission of large amount of power over long distance is economically feasi le for ,(' transmission. (ii)Increase in Transmission efficiency "s voltage increases, current flows through the line decreases and 24@ loss reduces and transmission efficiency increases. (ii)Pithead steam plants and remote hydro plants !ost of transportation depends on cost of coal in thermal plants. Too avoid this, steam or thermal plants are situated near coal mines are called as Pithead steam plants. (ydro plants are mostly situated at remoter places. 2n remoter places, Water availa ility is more, land and la our cost is cheap.,(' systems are needed to transmit large amounts of power over long distance as from pithead and remote hydro plants to load centers. (iv)Number of circuits and land requirement "s voltage increases, num er of circuits and land re6uirement for transmission decreases. (v)Line Costs "s voltage increases, the line insulation cost<3W<1m decreases. The total line cost including the cost of losses<3W<1m decreases with increase in voltage.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Transmission &Distribution (vi) urge Impedance loading ( IL)

1.>

SIL

= V 1!L

"#$r$ ZC % surg$ im&$danc$ !

L C

.urge 2mpedance loading A.2#B is proportional to the s6uare of the operating voltage, so surge impedance loading increases as voltage increases. *imitations of 'H(A# ransmission 1. 3ore insulation is re6uired for the conductor and towers. 4. 3ore clearance is re6uired etween the conductor and the ground. 5. 3ore distance is re6uired etween the conductors. .o the length of cross arms used increases. 8. The transformers, .witchgears and other terminal e6uipment should e designed to handle such high voltage. >. #ong ulk power transmission is not possi le. Advanta+es of 'H(A# ransmission @eduction in the cost of material for given power 2mprovement of transmission efficiency @eduction in percentage line drop 2mprovement in voltage regulation

'H(A# Systems in India ,i- .// 0( *ine1 /ehar+panipat line 0 ra+sultanpur line sultanpur C#ucknow line 0 ra+1anpur line 1anpur 3oradnagar line 1oradi+katwa line .rinagar+7ammu+kashmir line ,ii- 234 0( *ine1 "npara+Dnnao Tehri+3eerut 'indhyachal+$ina+-"gda 1isanpur+3ogaAoperated at 800k'B 3onu ulu+.riperum udur Aoperated at 800k'B "gra+Gwalior Pichor+3alanpur

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

1... History of H(D# transmission "n early method of high+voltage /! transmission was developed y the .wiss engineer @ene Thury. This system used series+connected motor+generator sets to increase voltage. ,ach set was insulated from ground and driven y insulated shafts from a prime mover. The line was operated in constant current mode, with up to >000 volts on each machine, some machines having dou le commutators to reduce the voltage on each commutator. "n early e*ample of this system was installed in 188: in 2taly y the .ociety Ac'u$dotto d$ ($rrari)*a++i$ra. This system transmitted ?50 kW at 18 k' /! over a distance of 140 km. 0ther Thury systems operating at up to 100 k' /! operated up until the 1:50s, ut the rotating machinery re6uired high maintenance and had high energy loss. 'arious other electromechanical devices were tested during the first half of the 40th century with little commercial success The grid controlled mercury arc valve ecame availa le for power transmission during the period 1:40 to 1:80. 2n 1:81 a ?0 3W, E<+ 400 k', 11> km uried ca le link was designed for the city of $erlin using mercury arc valves A,l e+Pro%ectB, ut owing to the collapse of the German government in 1:8> the pro%ect was never completed F>G. The nominal %ustification for the pro%ect was that, during wartime, a uried ca le would e less conspicuous as a om ing target. The e6uipment was moved to the .oviet Dnion and was put into service there. 2ntroduction of the fully+static mercury arc valve to commercial service in 1:>8 marked the eginning of the modern era of ('/! transmission. 3ercury arc valves were common in systems designed up to 1:9>, ut since then, ('/! systems use only solid+ state devices. 2ntroducing &le*i le "! Transmission .ystems A&"!T.B technology, high+speed controlla le power electronics device will ena le utilities to reduce transmission congestion and more fully utili)e the e*isting transmission system without compromising the relia ility and security of the system with the following potential enefits=

2ncrease the power transfer capa ility of e*isting transmission systems, /irectly control real and reactive power flow, Provide fast dynamic reactive power support and voltage control, 2mprove system sta ility and damp power system oscillations, and @educe financial costs and environmental impact y possi le deferral of new transmission lines.

1.4 INDIA AD"P S H(D# !ANSMISSI"N When the Talcher + 1olar, (igh 'oltage /irect !urrent F('/!G transmission was commissioned y Power Grid !orporation on &e 18, the implication of the event may have een lost on many 2ndians.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Transmission &Distribution

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&or one, it signalled 2ndiaHs arrival at the leading edge of world class, state of the art, electrical engineering technology. &or another, it was a pro%ect completed nine months ahead of schedule y a pu lic sector company. &inally,as an effective means of delivering generated power far away to places where it is needed, environmental gains are immense, as we will see. 2n the second era of electricity revolution "lternating !urrent F"!G displaced /irect !urrent F/!G ecause its voltage can e stepped up and the lower current that results can e pumped through relatively thinner wires. "t the receiving end the voltage can e stepped down to the 440 v we use. This claim for "! is still valid and used, ut only over IshorterH distances typical in local networks. ('/! comes into play if very high volumes of electricity need to e transmitted over distances a ove 800 km. 2n this very advanced technology "! is converted to /! and pumped into the lines. This may seem a convoluted, complicated way. 2t is indeed= very few countries can today master, install and manage ('/! systems. The advantages are lower line losses, IslimmerH hardware across the countryside, sta le grid ehavior, dispersed generation of power, and overall economy. 2ndiaHs hydel riches are in the -orth ,ast, coals in the ,ast and consumers all over the land. Pristine locations can silently generate power and need not create polluting industries near y as consumers. ('/! IvacatesH massive 6uantum of power with ease to far away points. 2ndia has een a pioneer developer of ('/! since 1::0 when the 1000 mw @ihand + /adri line was commissioned in DP. .ince then many >00 mw lines have come up. The 4000 mw Talcher + 1olar link is the iggest so far and spans four states= 0rissa, "ndhra Pradesh, Tamil -adu and 1arnataka. The >?>1 towers used are as high as the 1ut 3inar. 2n all 100,00 metric tonnes of steel and 80,000 tonnes of cement were used. The pro%ect cost @s.900 crores and was e*ecuted y 2ndians. "s we already noted, we finished it ahead of time. These facts should give you a measure of the little+known developmental works of very high cali re that are going on in 2ndia right now. ;ou should e %ustly proud of this achievement. Greater plans are cooking. 2ndia is racing to a saturation point in electricity availa ility y 4014. 100,000 mw of power is planned to e added. ('/! technology will e waiting to ferry this power to all corners of 2ndia. "nd did you know that 3r. @ ' .hahi the .ecretary in the 3inistry of Power is not a ureaucrat ut picked from the private sectorJ Advanta+es of H(D# over A# transmission 2n a num er of applications the advantages of ('/! makes it the preferred option over "! transmission. ,*amples include=

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

Dndersea ca les, where high capacitance causes additional "! losses. Ae.g. 4>0 km $altic !a le etween .weden and GermanyF9GB. ,ndpoint+to+endpoint long+haul ulk power transmission without intermediate KtapsK, for e*ample, in remote areas. 2ncreasing the capacity of an e*isting power grid in situations where additional wires are difficult or e*pensive to install. "llowing power transmission etween unsynchroni)ed "! distri ution systems. @educing the profile of wiring and pylons for a given power transmission capacity. !onnecting remote generating plant to the distri ution grid, for e*ample -elson @iver $ipole. .ta ili)ing a predominantly "! power+grid, without increasing ma*imum prospective short circuit current. @educing corona losses Adue to higher voltage peaksB for ('"! transmission lines of similar power @educing line cost since ('/! transmission re6uires less conductor Ai.e. 4 conductors one is positive another is negativeB

#ong undersea ca les have a high capacitance. While this has minimal effect for /! transmission, the current re6uired to charge and discharge the capacitance of the ca le causes additional I4! power losses when the ca le is carrying "!. 2n addition, "! power is lost to dielectric losses. ('/! can carry more power per conductor, ecause for a given power rating the constant voltage in a /! line is lower than the peak voltage in an "! line. This voltage determines the insulation thickness and conductor spacing. This allows e*isting transmission line corridors to e used to carry more power into an area of high power consumption, which can lower costs. Increased sta5ility of power systems $ecause ('/! allows power transmission etween unsynchroni)ed "! distri ution systems, it can help increase system sta ility, y preventing cascading failures from propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another, whilst still allowing power to e imported or e*ported in the event of smaller failures. This has caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use of ('/! technology for its sta ility enefits alone. Possi5le 6ealt6 advanta+es of H(D# over A# transmission " high+voltage /! transmission line would not produce the same sort of e*tremely low fre6uency A,#&B electromagnetic field as would an e6uivalent "! line. 2t is speculated y those who elieve that ,#& radiation is harmful that such a reduction in ,3 fields would e eneficial to health. The enefits would e*tend only to those near the transmission lines, as the electric and magnetic fields associated with high current "! transmission lines do not travel far eyond the actual lines themselves. These fields are,

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Transmission &Distribution

1.:

however, also associated with electrical e6uipment and household appliances. 2t should e noted that the current scientific consensus does not consider ,#& sources and their associated fields to e particularly harmful, and that deployment of ('/! e6uipment would not completely eliminate electric fields, as there would still e time+independent electric field gradients etween the conductors and ground. Disadvanta+es The re6uired static inverters are e*pensive and cannot e overloaded very much. "t smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may e igger than in an "! power line, and the cost of the inverters may not e offset y reductions in line construction cost. 2n contrast to "! systems, reali)ing multiterminal systems is comple*, as is e*panding e*isting schemes to multiterminal systems. !ontrolling power flow in a multiterminal /! system re6uires good communication etween all the terminalsL power flow must e actively regulated y the control system instead of y the inherent properties of the transmission line. A# networ0 interconnections "! transmission lines can only interconnect synchroni)ed "! networks that oscillate at the same fre6uency and in phase. 3any areas that wish to share power have unsynchroni)ed networks. The power grids of the D1, -orthern ,urope and continental ,urope all operate at >0 () ut are not synchroni)ed. 7apan has >0 () and ?0 () networks. !ontinental -orth "merica, while operating at ?0() throughout, is divided into regions which are unsynchronised= ,ast, West, Te*as and Mue ec. $ra)il and Paraguay, which share the massive 2taipu hydroelectric plant, operate on ?0() and >0() respectively. (owever, ('/! systems make it possi le to interconnect unsynchroni)ed "! networks, and also add the possi ility of controlling "! voltage and reactive power flow. " generator connected to a long "! transmission line may ecome unsta le and fall out of synchroni)ation with a distant "! power system. "n ('/! transmission link may make it economically feasi le to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off+shore may use ('/! systems to collect power from multiple unsynchroni)ed generators for transmission to the shore y an underwater ca le. 2n general, however, an ('/! power line will interconnect two "! regions of the power+distri ution grid. 3achinery to convert etween "! and /! power adds a considera le cost in power transmission. The conversion from "! to /! is known as rectification, and from /! to "! as inversion. " ove a certain reak+even distance Aa out >0 km for su marine ca les, and perhaps ?00+800 km for overhead ca lesB, the lower cost of the ('/! electrical conductors outweighs the cost of the electronics.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

10

The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid y means of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. "n additional advantage of the e*istence of ('/! links, therefore, is potential increased sta ility in the transmission grid. 1.3 !'# I78IN9 AND IN('! IN9 !ectifyin+ and invertin+ components ,arly static systems used mercury arc rectifiers, which were unrelia le. -evertheless some ('/! systems using mercury arc rectifiers are still in service in 400>. The thyristor valve was first used in ('/! systems in the 1:?0s. The thyristor is a solid+state semiconductor device similar to the diode, ut with an e*tra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular instant during the "! cycle. The insulated+gate ipolar transistor A2G$TB is now also used and offers simpler control and reduced valve cost. $ecause the voltages in ('/! systems, up to 800 k' in some cases, e*ceed the reakdown voltages of the semiconductor devices, ('/! converters are uilt using large num ers of semiconductors in series. The low+voltage control circuits used to switch the thyristors on and off need to e isolated from the high voltages present on the transmission lines. This is usually done optically. 2n a hy rid control system, the low+voltage control electronics sends light pulses along optical fi res to the #ig#)sid$ control electronics. "nother system, called dir$ct +ig#t trigg$ring, dispenses with the high+side electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch light+triggered thyristors A#TTsB. " complete switching element is commonly referred to as a KvalveK, irrespective of its construction. !ectifyin+ and invertin+ systems @ectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. 3any su stations are set up in such a way that they can act as oth rectifiers and inverters. "t the "! end a set of transformers, often three physically separate single+phase transformers, isolate the station from the "! supply, to provide a local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual /! voltage. The output of these transformers is then connected to a ridge rectifier formed y a num er of valves. The asic configuration uses si* valves, connecting each of the three phases to each of the /! rails. (owever, with a phase change only every si*ty degrees, considera le harmonics remain on the /! rails. "n enhancement of this configuration uses 14 valves Aoften known as a twelvep%lse systemB. The "! is split into two separate three phase supplies efore transformation. 0ne of the sets of supplies is then configured to have a star AwyeB secondary, the other a delta secondary, esta lishing a thirty degree phase difference

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

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Transmission &Distribution

1.11

etween each of the sets of three phases. With twelve valves connecting each of the two sets of three phases to the two /! rails, there is a phase change every 50 degrees, and harmonics are considera ly reduced. 2n addition to the conversion transformers and valve+sets, various passive resistive and reactive components help filter harmonics out of the /! rails. 1.2 H(D# *IN: - #"N7I9U!A I"NS Monopole and eart6 ret%rn 2n a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected to earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high a ove, or elow, ground, is connected to a transmission line. The earthed terminal may or may not e connected to the corresponding connection at the inverting station y means of a second conductor. 2f no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth etween the earth electrodes at the two stations. Therefore it is a type of .ingle wire earth return. The issues surrounding earth+return current include

,lectrochemical corrosion of long uried metal o %ects such as pipelines Dnderwater earth+return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise affect water chemistry. "n un alanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect magnetic navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater ca le.

These effects can e eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor etween the two ends of the monopolar transmission line. .ince one terminal of the converters is connected to earth, the return conductor need not e insulated for the full transmission voltage which makes it less costly than the high+voltage conductor. Dse of a metallic return conductor is decided ased on economic, technical and environmental factors. 3odern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1>00 3W. 2f underground or sea ca les are used the typical value is ?00 3W. 3ost monopolar systems are designed for future ipolar e*pansion. 2f overhead power transmission lines are used, the used electricity pylons are often designed to carry two conductors and in many cases they do also. The second conductor is either unused, used as electrode line or permanently paralleli)ed with the other Aas in case of $altic+ !a leB.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

14

Bipolar
2n ipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to ground, in opposite polarity. .ince these conductors must e insulated for the full voltage, transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. (owever, there are a num er of advantages to ipolar transmission which can make it the attractive option.

Dnder normal load, negligi le earth+current flows, as in the case of monopolar transmission with a metallic earth+returnL minimising earth return loss and environmental effects. When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the line, current can continue flow using the earth as a return path, operating in monopolar mode. .ince for a given power rating ipolar lines carry only half the current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a monopolar line of the same rating. 2n very adverse terrain, the second conductor may e carried on an independent set of transmission towers, so that some power may continue to e transmitted even if one line is damaged.

" ipolar system may also e installed with a metallic earth return conductor. $ipolar systems may carry as much as 5000 3W at voltages of E<+>55 k'. .u marine ca le installations initially commissioned as a monopole may e upgraded with additional ca les and operated as a ipole.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

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Transmission &Distribution

1.15

Back to back
" 5ac0-to-5ac0 station is a plant in which oth static inverters are in the same area, usually even in the same uilding and the length of the direct current line is only a few meters. ('/! ack+to+ ack stations are used for

coupling of electricity mains of different fre6uency Aas in 7apanB coupling two networks of the same nominal fre6uency ut no fi*ed phase relationship different fre6uency and phase num er Afor e*ample, as a replacement for traction current converter plantsB /ifferent modes of operation Aas until 1::><:? in ,t)enricht, /Nrnrohr and 'iennaB.

The /! voltage in the intermediate circuit can e selected freely at ('/! ack+ to+ ack stations ecause of the short conductor length. The /! voltage is as low as possi le, in order to uild a small valve hall and to avoid parallel switching of valves. &or this reason at ('/! ack+to+ ack stations valves with the highest availa le current rating are used. APP*I#A I"NS "7 H(D# #"N('! '!S The first application for ('/! converters was to provide point to point electrical power interconnections etween asynchronous a.c. power networks. There are other applications which can e met y ('/! converter transmission which include= 1. 2nterconnections etween asynchronous systems. .ome continental electric power systems consist of asynchronous networks such as the ,ast, West, Te*as and Mue ec networks in -orth "merica and island loads such as the 2sland of Gotland in the $altic .ea make good use of ('/! interconnections. 4. /eliver energy from remote energy sources where generation has een developed at remote sites of availa le energy, ('/! transmission has een an

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

18

economical means to ring the electricity to load centers. Gas fired thermal generation can e located close to load centers and may delay development of isolated energy sources in the near term. 5. 2mport electric energy into congested load areas. 2n areas where new generation is impossi le to ring into service to meet load growth or replace inefficient or decommissioned plant, underground d.c. ca le transmission is a via le means to import electricity. 8. 2ncreasing the capacity of e*isting a.c. transmission y conversion to d.c. transmission. -ew transmission rights+of+way may e impossi le to o tain. ,*isting overhead a.c. transmission lines if upgraded to or over uilt with d.c. transmission can su stantially increase the power transfer capa ility on the e*isting right+of+way. >. Power flow control. ".!. networks do not easily accommodate desired power flow control. Power marketers and system operators may re6uire the power flow control capa ility provided y ('/! transmission. ?. .ta ili)ation of electric power networks. .ome wide spread a.c. power system networks operate at sta ility limits well elow the thermal capacity of their transmission conductors. ('/! transmission is an option to consider to increase utili)ation of network conductors along with the various power electronic controllers which can e applied on a.c. transmission. 7irst H(D# lin0 in t6e world Swedis6 main *oad 'oltage = 100 k' Power = 40 3W, This is the world first /.!.#ink. H(D# lines in India. 1. !i6and-Del6i H(D# transmission system 'oltage = O 800 k' Power = 1000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system $. alc6er-:olar H(D# transmission system 'oltage = O >00 k' Power = 4000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system &. #6andrap%r-pad+6e H(D# transmission system ,;estern !e+ion'oltage = O >00 k' Power = 1>00 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

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Transmission &Distribution .. Hirma -<aip%r H(D# transmission system ,Nort6ern !e+ion'oltage = O ?00 k' Power = 5000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system Other HVDC Links 1. :or5a S PS-:aramsad H(D# transmission system 'oltage = O 9?> k' Power = 8000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system $. alc6er-Ban+alore H(D# transmission system ,So%t6ern !e+ion'oltage = O >00 k' Power = 4000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system 1.= #"MPA!ISI"N B' ;''N H(D# AND 'H(A# !ANSMISSI"N 1.=.1 'conomics of Power ransmission Sl.No. H(D# 1. &or lines designed for same insulation level, 2t can carry more power with two conductors APositive and negativeB 4. &or a given power level, 2t re6uires less right of way, cheaper towers, and reduced conductor costs. 5. !a le insulation re6uired is less. 8. Power losses are reduced ecause of two conductors Aoperational cost reducesB >. /o not re6uire compensation ?. 9. 8. :.

1.1>

'H(A# 2t can carry as much power with three conductors of the same si)e &or a given power level, cost of towers, conductors are high.

10.

!a le insulation re6uired is more. Power losses are increased ecause of three conductorsAoperational cost increasesB !ost for compensation devices are high Terminal e6uipment cost is high Terminal e6uipment cost is low due to the presence of converters and filters " sence of skin effect reduces /ue to skin effect power losses power losses, there y operational increases there y operational cost cost reduces increases /ielectric losses in the power ca les /ielectric losses is high. is less. !orona loss and radio interference is !orona loss and radio interference is less compared to that of ".!. This high there y operational cost increases leads to the choice of economic si)e of conductors for /.!. 3aintenance cost is high 3aintenance cost is low

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

1?

A.# #ost D.#

Brea0 even point

Distance 7i+. (ariation of costs wit6 line len+t6 &ig shows the 'ariation of costs for /.! and ".! transmission system with distance. ".! transmission is more economical upto the reakeven distance and /.! transmission is more economical after reakeven distance. $reakeven distances may vary from >>km to ?00km depending on p.u line cost. 1.=.$ ec6nical Performance ,i- 7%ll #ontrol over power transmitted

/.! Power $reak even point ".!

/istance 2n ('/!, power carrying capacity of /.! is unaffected y the distance of transmission as shown in fig. A#ong distance ulk power transmissionB. 2n ,('"! power transfer in ".! depends on P

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

1?

Transmission &Distribution

1.19

Power transfer P Q

V
,

Sin

Where P Q"ngle etween sending end and receiving end voltages. &or a given power level, P increases with distance. Power carrying capacity of an ".!.line decreases after some distance as shown in fig. Power transfer is limited y the consideration of transient and steady state sta ility AiB H(D# (olta+e #ontrol1 'H(A# 2t is complicated due to line charging and inductive voltage drops. /.! converter station re6uires 'oltage profile is flat due to surge reactive power related to the line impedance loading. loadings, the line itself does not re6uire @e6uires reactive power control to reactive power control. maintain constant voltages at the ends from inductive to capacitive as the line loading is increased. @eactive power re6uirements increases with the increase in line length. S6ort circ%it c%rrent1 2nterconnection of two ".! systems y The contri ution of /.! line to an ".! line increases the short circuit short circuit current is only upto rated current in the system. current of /.! line *ine #ompensation1 @e6uires shunt and series /oes not re6uire line compensation compensation in long transmission lines to overcome line charging and sta ility limitations. .tatic '"@ system are used to increase power transfer and voltage control Pro5lems of A.# interconnection1 Two systems are not Two systems are interconnected interconnected which have different which have different fre6uencies. fre6uencies. &or synchronous /.! tie lines, Two power systems are no need of coordinated control for interconnected when they have interconnection. coordinated using tie line power and fre6uency. The pro lems arise due to the presence of large power oscillations which can lead to fre6uency tripping, increase in fault level, transmission of distur ances from one to the other. 9ro%nd Impedance1 Ground current cannot e permitted in Ground im,pedance is negligi le, so steady+state due to high magnitudes of /.! link can operate using one ground impedance which will result conduutor with ground return. telephone interference.

AiiB

AiiiB

AivB

AvB

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction AviB AviiB ,conomical use of underground ca les or su marine ca les are possi le &ast control to limit fault currents in /.!= /.!. reakers in two terminal /.! links are avoided. $ut cost of /.!. reakers are high 2na ility to use transformer to change voltage levels !ost of conversion e6uipment is high -ot Possi le !annot avoid reakers.

18

Aviii B Ai*B

Transformers are used to change voltage level -o conversion e6uipment cost

1.=.& !elia5ility 2t is the pro a ility that an item or a collection of items will perform satisfactory, under specified condition during a given period. This is called relia ility. @elia ility of /.! is good compared to that of ".!. The performance of thyristor valves is much relia le than mercury are valves, and control and protection is to improve the relia ility level. The development of direct light triggered thyristors A#TTB has een used to improve the relia ility. There are two measures of overall system relia ility

PART-B 1. ;it6 a neat s0etc6 e>plain t6e Str%ct%re of a +eneral transmission and distri5%tion system "pr#$ay %&&' Basic Str%ct%re of a Power System The asic structure of a power system is shown in &ig. 1.1.

7i+. 1.1 A typical power system. 9eneral str%ct%re of a power system

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

18

Transmission &Distribution

1.1:

1. Power generating plants, where energy resources, such as natural gas and coal are converted to electricity 4. Giant transmission lines move electricity intrastate from power plants at very high voltage. 5. "t su stations, voltage is stepped down or reduced for use at large industrial comple*es 8. "t additional su stations farther down the line, power is stepped down again ,so it can e used in homes for lights and appliances. 2t contains a generating plant, a transmission system, a su transmission system and a distri ution system. These su systems are interconnected through transformers T1 , T4 and T5 . #et us consider some typical voltage levels to understand the functioning of the power system. The electric power is generated at a thermal plant with a typical voltage of 44 k' Avoltage levels are usually specified line+to+lineB. This is oosted up to levels like 800 k' through transformer T1 for power transmission. Transformer T4 steps this voltage down to ?? k' to supply power through the su transmission line to industrial loads that re6uire ulk power at a higher voltage. 3ost of the ma%or industrial customers have their own transformers to step down the ?? k' supply to their desired levels. The motivation for these voltage changes is to minimi)e transmission line cost for a given power level. /istri ution systems are designed to operate for much lower power levels and are supplied with medium level voltages.

The power distri ution network starts with transformer T5, which steps down the voltage from ?? k' to 11 k'. The distri ution system contains loads that are either commercial type Alike office uildings, huge apartment comple*es, hotels etcB or residential AdomesticB type. Dsually the commercial customers are supplied power at a voltage level of 11 k' whereas the domestic consumers get power supply at 800+880 '.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

40

-ote that the a ove figures are given for line+to+line voltages. .ince domestic customers get single+phase supplies, they usually receive 450+4>0 ' at their inlet points. While a domestic customer with a low power consumption gets a single+phase supply, oth industrial and commercial consumers get three+phase supplies not only ecause their consumption is high ut also ecause many of them use three+phase motors. &or e*ample, the use of induction motor is very common amongst industrial customers who run pumps, compressors, rolling mills etc. 6e main components of a power system are +enerators? transformers and transmission lines. 2n this module we shall discuss the models of these components that will e used su se6uently in power system studies. Power +eneration " power generation plant is a facility designed to produce electric energy from another form of energy, such as=

&igure 1. Power Generation Plant to transmission line Heat ,t6ermal- ener+y +enerated from1 fossil fuelsL coal ,petroleum, natural gas solar thermal energy geothermal energy nuclear energy Potential energy from falling water in a hydroelectric facility Wind energy .olar electric from solar AphotovoltaicB cells !hemical energy from= fuel cells, atteries There are many different types of electric power generating plants. The ma%or types generating electric power today are shown elow. ransmission *ines Transmission lines carry electric energy from one point to another in an electric power system. They can carry alternating current or direct current or a system can e a com ination of oth. "lso, electric current can e carried y either overhead or underground lines. The main characteristics that distinguish transmission lines from distri ution lines are that they are operated at relatively high voltages, they transmit large 6uantities of power and they transmit the power over large distances.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

40

Transmission &Distribution ypes of transmission lines 0verhead Transmission #ines .u transmission #ines Dnderground Transmission #ines

1.41

"ver6ead A# transmission lines 0verhead "! transmission lines share one characteristicL they carry 5+phase current. The voltages vary according to the particular grid system they elong to. Transmission voltages vary from ?: kv up to 9?> kv. The following are e*amples of different overhead transmission line structures in use today. The /! voltage transmission tower has lines in pairs rather than in threes Afor 5+phase currentB as in "! voltage lines. 0ne line is the positive current line and the other is the negative current line.

S%5 transmission lines .u transmission lines carry voltages reduced from the ma%or transmission line system. Typically, 58.> kv to ?: kv, this power is sent to regional distri ution su stations. .ometimes the su transmission voltage is tapped along the way for use in industrial or large commercial operations. .ome utilities categori)e these as transmission lines Under+ro%nd transmission lines Dnderground transmission lines are more common in populated areas. They may e uried with no protection, or placed in conduit, trenches, or tunnels. S%5stations " su station is a high+voltage electric system facility. 2t is used to switch generators, e6uipment, and circuits or lines in and out of a system. 2t also is used to change "! voltages from one level to another, and<or change alternating current to direct current or direct current to alternating current. .ome su stations are small with little more than a transformer and associated switches. 0thers are very large with several transformers and do)ens of switches and other e6uipment. There are three aspects to su stations=

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction /epending on the purpose, the su stations may e classified into five categories. Generating .u stations AorB .tep up .u stations Grid .u stations .econdary .u stations /istri ution .u stations .pecial Purpose .u stations. /epending on the physical features, the su stations may also e of four types. 0utdoor Type 2ndoor Type Pole mounded AorB 0pen AorB 1iosk Type Dnderground Type S%5stations f%nctions1 .u stations are designed to accomplish the following functions, although not all su stations have all these functions= !hange voltage from one level to another @egulate voltage to compensate for system voltage changes .witch transmission and distri ution circuits into and out of the grid system 3easure electric power 6ualities flowing in the circuits !onnect communication signals to the circuits ,liminate lightning and other electrical surges from the system !onnect electric generation plants to the system 3ake interconnections etween the electric systems of more than one utility !ontrol reactive kilovolt+amperes supplied to and the flow of reactive kilovolt+ amperes in the circuits

44

Distri5%tion system " distri ution system originates at a distri ution su station and includes the lines, poles, transformers and other e6uipment needed to deliver electric power to the customer at the re6uired voltages. !ustomers are classed as= 2ndustrial !ustomer !ommercial !ustomer @esidential !ustomer Transportation !ustomer distri The electric energy is supplied to consumers through a distri ution system. " ution system can e su divided into three ma%or parts. &eeders, /istri utors, .ervice mains.

7eeders &eeders are designed ased on the current density. A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE 44

Transmission &Distribution

1.45

Distri5%tors /istri utors are designed ased on the 'oltage drop Service Mains .ervice 3ains are conductors etween a distri utor and the metering point of the consumerHs premises. S%5 Mains The diameter of conductors of su mains is more than the service mains.

$. Ma0e a comparison 5etween H(D# and 'H(A# System Sl.No. H(D# 1. 7or lines desi+ned for same ins%lation level? It can carry more power wit6 two cond%ctors ,Positive and ne+ative$. 7or a +iven power level? It reA%ires less ri+6t of way? c6eaper towers? and red%ced cond%ctor costs. &. #a5le ins%lation reA%ired is less. .. Power losses are red%ced 5eca%se of two cond%ctors ,operational cost red%ces4. Do not reA%ire compensation 3. erminal

"pr#$ay %&&'

'H(A# It can carry as m%c6 power wit6 t6ree cond%ctors of t6e same si@e 7or a +iven power level? cost of towers? cond%ctors are 6i+6.

#a5le ins%lation reA%ired is more. Power losses are increased 5eca%se of t6ree cond%ctors,operational cost increases#ost for compensation devices are 6i+6 eA%ipment cost is 6i+6 erminal eA%ipment cost is low

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction d%e to t6e presence of converters and filters A5sence of s0in effect red%ces power losses? t6ere5y operational cost red%ces Dielectric losses in t6e power ca5les is less. #orona loss and radio interference is less compared to t6at of A.#. 6is leads to t6e c6oice of economic si@e of cond%ctors for D.#. Maintenance cost is 6i+6

48

2. =. B.

D%e to s0in effect power losses increases t6ere5y operational cost increases Dielectric losses is 6i+6. #orona loss and radio interference is 6i+6 t6ere5y operational cost increases Maintenance cost is low

1/.

&. ;6at are 7A# S devicesC 7A# S means 7le*i le Alternating #urrent ransmission Systems &le*i le alternating current transmission systems A&"!T.B devices are used for the dynamic control of voltage, impedance and phase angle of high voltage "! lines. Advanta+es 2mproved steady state system performance 2ncrease system security @educes power system oscillations. 2mproved in system transient or dynamic sta ility. @educed financial costs and environmental impacts $elow the different main types of &"!T. devices are descri ed= ,i- Static (ar #ompensators ,S(#Ds.tatic 'ar !ompensators A.'!B is a shunt connected static '"@ generator or a sor er whose output is ad%usted to control capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system. .tatic 'ar !ompensators A.'!HsB the most important &"!T. devices, have een used for a num er of years to improve transmission line economics y resolving dynamic voltage pro lems. The accuracy, availa ility and fast response ena le .'!Hs to provide high performance steady state and transient voltage control compared with classical shunt compensation. .'!Hs are also used to dampen power swings, improve transient sta ility, and reduce system losses y optimi)ed reactive power control. ,ii- 6yristor controlled series compensators , #S#sT!.!s are an e*tension of conventional series capacitors through adding a thyristor+controlled reactor. Placing a controlled reactor in parallel &"!T. C &or cost effective and relia le transmission of electrical energy with a series capacitor ena les a continuous and rapidly varia le series compensation system. The main enefits of T!.!s are increased energy transfer, dampening of power oscillations, dampening of su synchronous resonances, and control of line power flow.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

48

Transmission &Distribution

1.4>

,iii- S A #"M ,Static Sync6rono%s #ompensator.T"T!03 is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt connected static '"@ compensator A.'!B whose inductive and capacitive output current can e controlled independelly of the ".!.supply system.. .T"T!03s are GT0 Agate turn+off type thyristorB ased .'!Hs. !ompared with conventional .'!Hs Asee a oveB they donHt re6uire large inductive and capacitive components to provide inductive or capacitive reactive power to high voltage transmission systems. This results in smaller land re6uirements. "n additional advantage is the higher reactive output at low system voltages where a .T"T!03 can e considered as a current source independent from the system voltage. .T"T!03s have een in operation for appro*imately > years. ,iv- Unified Power 7low #ontroller ,UP7#-. Dnified Power &low !ontroller ADP&!B is a com ination of static synchronous compensator A.T"T!03B and a static synchronous series compensator A...!B which are coupled through a /.!.link, to allow i+directional flow of real power etween serious output of ...! and shunt output of .T"T!03 Dnified Power &low !ontroller ADP&!B. !onnecting a .T"T!03, which is a shunt connected device, with a series ranch in the transmission line via its /! circuit results in a DP&!. This device is compara le to a phase shifting transformer ut can apply a series voltage of the re6uired phase angle instead of a voltage with a fi*ed phase angle. The DP&! com ines the enefits of a .T"T!03 and a T!.!. .. #ompare S A #"M and S(#

Sl.No.
1. $. &. .. 4. 3. 2. =.

S A #"M
It %ses 9ate %rn -off 6yristors It 6as s6ort time overload capa5ility It red%ces System Harmonics 'ven wit6 very wee0 A.#.system? It maintains sta5le volta+e Better performance d%rin+ transients It operates 5ot6 ind%ctive and capacitive re+ions. It is 5ased on volta+e so%rce converter It can serve as a real power e>c6an+er if it 6as an ener+y so%rce at D.#.5%s.

S(#
It %ses conventional 6yristors It cannot 6ave s6ort time over load capa5ility It +enerates System Harmonics 'ven wit6 very wee0 A.#.system? Its operation is diffic%lt. Slow performance d%rin+ transients It operates mostly in capacitive re+ions. It is a volta+e re+%lator and varia5le s%sceptance controller.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

4?

wo Mar0s 1. Define 'lectric s%pply system. The system which ena les the supply of electric power from, a power generating station to consumerHs premises is known as electric supply system. $. ;6at are t6e main components of a power systemC , Nov - /.-

The main components of a power system are generation units Agenerators, transformers, etc.B ,Transmission #ines and distri ution network.

&. Define electric power system ,lectric Power .ystems, components that transform other types of energy into electrical energy and transmit this energy to a consumer. The production and transmission of electricity is relatively efficient and ine*pensive, although unlike other forms of energy, electricity is not easily stored and thus must generally e used as it is eing produced. .. Define Power distri5%tion +rid. ,lectrical power is a little it like the air you reathe= ;ou donKt really think a out it until it is missing. Power is %ust Rthere,R meeting your every need, constantly. 2t is only during a power failure, when you walk into a dark room and instinctively hit the useless light switch that you reali)e how important power is in your daily life. ;ou use it for heating, cooling, cooking, refrigeration, light, sound, computation, entertainment... Without it, life can get somewhat cum ersome. Power travels from the power plant to your house through an ama)ing system called the power distri ution grid. 4. ;6y all transmission and distri5%tion systems are & p6ase systemsC " 5 phase a.c circuit using the same si)e conductors as the single phase circuit can carry three times the power which can e carried y a 1 phase circuit and uses 5 conductors for the 4 phases and one conductor for the neutral. Thus a 5 phase circuit is more economical than a 1 phase circuit in terms of initial cost as well as the losses. Therefore all transmission and distri ution systems are 5 phase systems.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

4?

Transmission &Distribution

1.49

3. ;6y t6e transmission systems are mostly over6ead systemsC $ecause of the cost consideration, the transmission systems are mostly overhead systems. 2. ;6y all over6ead lines %se A#S! cond%ctorsC "!.@ conductors comprises of hard drawn aluminium wires stranded around a core of single or multiple strand galvani)ed steel wire. They provides the necessary conductivity while the steel provides the necessary mechanical strength. (as less corona loss. The reaking load is high and has less weight. =. ;6y transmission lines are & p6ase & wire circ%its w6ile distri5%tion lines are & p6ase . wire circ%itsC " $alanced 5 phase circuit does not re6uire the neutral conductor, as the instantaneous sum of the 5 line currents are )ero. Therefore the transmission lines and feeders are 5 phase 5 wire circuits. The distri utors are 5 phase 8 wire circuits ecause a neutral wire is necessary to supply the 1 phase loads of domestic and commercial consumers. =. ;6y over6ead line cond%ctors are invaria5ly strandedC They are stranded to make them fle*i le during erection and while in service. B. State t6e advanta+es of interconnected systems. "ny area fed from one generating station during overload hours can e fed from another power station and thus reserved capacity re6uired is reduced, relia ility of supply is increased and efficiency is increased. 1/. ;6at are t6e pro5lems of interconnectionC 1.it increase the amount of current which flows when a short circuit occurs on a system and there y re6uires the installation of reakers which are a le to interrupt a larger currentS 4. .ynchronism must e maintained etween of all the interconnected systems. 11.Define one line dia+ram. " simplified diagram y omitting the completed circuit through the neutral and y indicating the components of the power system y standard sym ols rather than y their e6uivalent circuits. -ow represent a practical power system where a lot of interconnections etween several generating stations involving a large num er of transformers using three lines corresponding to @, ; and $ phase will ecome unnecessary clumsy and complicated. To avoid this, a single line along with some sym olical representations for generator, transformers su station uses are used to represent a power system rather neatly. &or e*ample, the system shown in fig with three lines will e simplified to figure 4.: using single line.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

48

7i+.1 sin+le line representation of a power system

1$.Draw t6e +eneral str%ct%re of a power system

NovEDec-$//.

1. Power generating plants, where energy resources, such as natural gas and coal are converted to electricity 4. Giant transmission lines move electricity intrastate from power plants at very high voltage. 5. "t su stations, voltage is stepped down or reduced for use at large industrial comple*es 8. "t additional su stations farther down the line, power is stepped down again ,so it can e used in homes for lights and appliances.

1&. Mention t6e disadvanta+es of a & wire system 2n 5 wire system a third wire is re6uired. The safety is partially reduced. " alancer is re6uired and therefore cost is increased. 1.. ;6at are t6e advanta+es of a & wire dc distri5%tion system over a $ wire dc distri5%tion systemC 2f 5 wire system is used to transmit the same amount of power over the same distance with same efficiency with same consumer voltage we re6uire 0.514> times copper as re6uired in 4 wire system. 14. Mention t6e differences 5etween & wire and & p6ase . wire distri5%tion systemC

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

48

Transmission &Distribution

1.4:

5 phase 5 wire is employed for alanced loads, ut 5 phase 8 wire is employed for un alanced loads. 5 phase 5 wire is used for transmission ut 5 phase 8 wire is used for distri ution of power to consumers.

13. ;6y over6ead line cond%ctors are invaria5ly strandedC They are stranded to make them fle*i le during erection and while in service. 12. Mention t6e demerits of H(D# transmission. ,lectric power cannot e generated at high dc voltages. The dc voltages cannot e stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages. The dc switches and circuit reakers have their own limitations. 1=. *ist two merits of H(D# transmission system of ".!. !a le insulation re6uired is less. Power losses are reduced Aoperational cost reducesB /o not re6uire compensation ecause of two conductors NovEDec-$//. &or lines designed for same insulation level, 2t can carry more power with two conductors APositive and negativeB &or a given power level, 2t re6uires less right of way, cheaper towers, and reduced conductor costs. " sence of skin effect reduces power losses, there y operational cost reduces /ielectric losses in the power ca les is less. !orona loss and radio interference is less compared to that

1B. ;6at are t6e advanta+es of 6i+6 volta+e ac transmission. The power can e generated at high voltages. The maintenance of ac su station is easy and cheaper. $/. Mention t6e disadvanta+es of 6i+6 volta+e ac transmission.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction "n ac line re6uires more copper than a dc line. The construction of an ac line is more complicated than a dc transmission line.

50

/ue to skin effect in the ac system the effective resistance of the line is increased. $1. Mention t6e limitations of %sin+ very 6i+6 transmission volta+e. aB The increased cost for the insulation of the conductor. B The increased cost for the transformers, switch gears and other terminal apparatus. $$. Mention t6e terminal eA%ipments necessary in H(D# system. !onverters, mercury arc valves and thyristors. $&. ;6y H(D# line do not reA%ire any reactive power compensationC /ue to a sence of charging currents. $.. Mention t6e eA%ipments t6at s%pply reactive power in H(D# converter stationsC o "! filters o .tatic shunt capacitors o .ynchronous condensers o .tatic'"@ compensators. $4. ;6y dc transmission is economical and prefera5le over ac transmission for lon+er distancesC $ecause with longer distances, the saving in cost of dc overhead lines ecome greater than the additional e*penditure on terminal e6uipment. $3. ;6y is volta+e re+%lation 5etter in case of dc transmission C $ecause of a sence of inductance in dc systems . $2. ;6at are t6e advanta+es of adoptin+ 'H(EUH( for transmission of ac electrical power C o @educed line losses o (igh transmission efficiency o 2mproved voltage regulation o @educed conductor material re6uirement o &le*i ility for future system growth o increase in transmission capacity of the line o 2ncrease of .2#. $=. Mention t6e pro5lems associated wit6 an 'H( transmissionC The pro lems associated with ,(' transmission are corona loss and radio interference, re6uirements of heavy supporting structures erection difficulties and insulation re6uirements.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

50

Transmission &Distribution

1.51

$B. ;6at for series and s6%nt compensation provided in 'H( linesC .eries compensation is provided to reduce the series reactance of the line so as to improve sta ility, voltage regulation and transmission efficiency. .hunt compensation is provided to reduce the line susceptance so as to improve the voltage regulation under light load condition. &/.;6at is t6e volta+e t6at 6as 5een selected for H(D# transmission C O800 1',O >00 1', O ?00 1' , O 800 1', O 1000 1' etc. &1. ;6at are service mainsC "pr#$ay %&&' .ervice mains are conductors which connect the consumers terminals to the distri utor.

&$. ;6at is t6e %sa5le volta+e for secondary distri5%tionC 81> <480 ' A81> volts for 5+phase loads and 480 volts for 1+phase loadsB &&. ;6y +alvani@ed steel wire is not s%ita5le for 'H lines for t6e p%rpose of transmittin+ lar+e amo%nts of power over lon+ distanceC ++ ecause of Poor conductivity ++(igh internal reactance T eddy current T hysteresis &.. Mention t6e transmission volta+es t6at are %sed in IndiaC 55<??<110<154<440<800<9?> 1'. 9?>1' is ,('.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

54

&4. "n w6at 5asis t6e cond%ctor si@e is determined for transmission lines %p to $$/ :(C 2t is determined on the asis of its current carrying capacity. &3. "n w6at 5asis t6e cond%ctor si@e of 'H( line is determinedC 2t is decided on the asis of corona. &2. Mention t6e so%rces of a%di5le noise +eneration in 'H( transmission systemsC !orona (umming of transformers !ooking .ystems 3echanical and ,lectrical au*illiaries &=. Mention t6e material %niversally employed for over6ead transmission lineC ".!@ A"luminium !onductor .teel @einforcedB &B. ;6at is t6e economical val%e of span for .//0v transmission lineC 5>0 + 800mt. ./. 9ive fo%r advanta+es of 'H(A# ransmission( "pr#$ay %&&' o o o o o o o o @eduction of current and losses @eduction of volume of conductor material. (igh transmission efficiency 2mproved voltage regulation @educed conductor material re6uirement &le*i ility for future system growth increase in transmission capacity of the line 2ncrease of .2#.

.1. ;6at is 7A# S FACTS means Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems &le*i le alternating current transmission systems A&"!T.B devices are used for the dynamic control of voltage, impedance and phase angle of high voltage "! lines. Advanta+es 2mproved steady state system performance 2ncrease system security @educes power system oscillations. 2mproved in system transient or dynamic sta ility. @educed financial costs and environmental impacts .$. ;6at is S(# .tatic 'ar !ompensators A.'!B is a shunt connected static '"@ generator or a sor er whose output is ad%usted to control capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

54

Transmission &Distribution

1.55

.tatic 'ar !ompensators A.'!HsB are the most important &"!T. devices, have een used for a num er of years to improve transmission line economics y resolving dynamic voltage pro lems. The accuracy, availa ility and fast response ena le .'!Hs to provide high performance steady state and transient voltage control compared with classical shunt compensation. .'!Hs are also used to dampen power swings, improve transient sta ility, and reduce system losses y optimi)ed reactive power control. .&. ;6at is UP7#C Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is a combination of static synchronous compensator ASTATCO ) and a static synchronous series compensator A...!B which are coupled through a /.!.link, to allow i+directional flow of real power etween serious output of ...! and shunt output of .T"T!03 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)! Connecting a STATCO " w#ic# is a s#unt connected de$ice" wit# a series branc# in t#e transmission line $ia its %C circuit results in a UPFC! T#is de$ice is com&arable to a &#ase s#ifting transformer but can a&&ly a series $oltage of t#e re'uired &#ase angle instead of a $oltage wit# a fixed &#ase angle! T#e UPFC combines t#e benefits of a STATCO and a TCSC

... ;6at is S A #"MC .T"T!03 is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt connected static '"@ compensator A.'!B whose inductive and capacitive output current can e controlled indwependelly of the ".!.supply system.. .T"T!03s are GT0 Agate turn+off type thyristorB ased .'!Hs. !ompared with conventional .'!Hs Asee a oveB they donHt re6uire large inductive and capacitive components to provide inductive or capacitive reactive power to high voltage transmission systems. This results in smaller land re6uirements. "n additional advantage is the higher reactive output at low system voltages where a .T"T!03 can e considered as a current source independent from the system voltage. .T"T!03s have een in operation for appro*imately > years. .4. ;6at are t6e vario%s types of H(D#C 3onopolar ('/! transmission system

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction $ipolar ('/! transmission system (omopolar ('/! transmission system

58

.3. 9ive any t6ree H(D# lines in India. 1. !i6and-Del6i H(D# transmission system 'oltage = O 800 k' Power = 1000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system $. alc6er-:olar H(D# transmission system 'oltage = O >00 k' Power = 4000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system &. #6andrap%r-pad+6e H(D# transmission system ,;estern !e+ion'oltage = O >00 k' Power = 1>00 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system .. Hirma -<aip%r H(D# transmission system ,Nort6ern !e+ion'oltage = O ?00 k' Power = 5000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system Other HVDC Links 1. :or5a S PS-:aramsad H(D# transmission system 'oltage = O 9?> k' Power = 8000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system $. alc6er-Ban+alore H(D# transmission system ,So%t6ern !e+ion'oltage = O >00 k' Power = 4000 3W Type = $ipolar ('/! transmission system .2. ;6ic6 is t6e first H(D# lin0 in t6e worldC .wedish main #oad 'oltage = 100 k' Power = 40 3W, This is the world first /.!.#ink. .=. ;6at is t6e 6i+6est A.#. transmission volta+e we 6ave in IndiaC 9?>1'. .B. ;6at are t6e limitations of 'H( A.#. ransmissionC 1. 3ore insulation is re6uired for the conductor and towers. 4. 3ore clearance is re6uired etween the conductor and the ground. 5. 3ore distance is re6uired etween the conductors. .o the length of cross arms used increases. 8. The transformers, .witchgears and other terminal e6uipment should e designed to handle such high voltage.

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

58

Transmission &Distribution >. #ong ulk power transmission is not possi le.

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4/. Mention t6e need of +oin+ for 'H( A.#. transmission. ,(' ".!. transmission. Provide more relia le and less constrained electricity network capacity. "s the si)e of the generating unit increases due to increase in voltage ,the cost of the line decreases. Transmission efficiency increases. !ost of the line decreases. .urge impedance loading increases. 41. *ist o%t t6e practical transmission and distri5%tion volta+e level s commonly %sed. Primary transmission = 110k'<154k'<440k'<800k'<9?>k' .econdary transmission = ?? k'<55 k' Primary /istri ution = 11 k'<?.? k' .econdary /istri ution = 800 ' for 5 phaseL 450 ' for single phase 4$. ;6at are t6e advanta+es of D#

ransmission system

#rossin+ of lar+e 5odies of water. "c !a les have too much capacitance. !apacitance does not affect dc. "lso, no ionic motion in ca les. -o induced currents in sheath. Dc *ines do not reA%ire compensation. "c #ines must e compensated with series<shunt capacitance to reduce the total reactance=

Sta5ility #onsiderations1 Phase angles etween ac systems interconnected through dc link can e ar itrary. This is unlike steady+state and transient sta ility limits for ac transmission systems. Thus even ack+ ack, i.e., .akuma &re6. !hanger A7apanB, 2taipu A$ra)ilB where >0 and ?0 () systems are connected together. 2nterconnection etween systems of different fre6uencies is possi le

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

Introduction

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.upply of power to highly populated ur an areas via underground ca le A1ingsnorth .ystemB. ,arth return operation possi le ecause of low earth impedance to dc. ,ffective voltage on the dc line is the actual dc voltage. &or ac lines, it is1<U4 times the peak ac voltage. This results in more transmitted dc power for the same insulation level. No s0in effect. (ence etter use of conductor cross section.

4&. ;6at are t6e disadvanta+es of D# ransmission system (armonic interference with communication circuits -avigation<compass errors and !orrosion when earth or sea return is used (igh cost of conversion e6uipment Transformation Astep up<downB is not possi le Tapping of dc is difficult (igh @eactive power @e6uirements #ack of skill sets for engineers, maintenance staff and operators 4.. #ompare H(D# and 7A# S. 1. 4. 5. 8. &"!T. !ontrollers can e retrofitted into the e*isting line, ut not in ('/!. 2nstallation cost is less for &"!T. !ompared to that of ('/!. &"!T. devices provide '"@ !ompensation. &"!T. device control the line impedance or in%ect phase shift.

>. &"!T. device increases the sta ility margin. ?. &"!T. device uses special dampers which are used to improve dynamic sta ility

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

5?

Transmission &Distribution

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!eference 1.http=<<www.answers.com<topic<high+voltage+direct+current 4.http=<<filpower.umr.edu<papers.htm

A.S.S.Murugan SL/EEE,KLNCE

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