3.CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF METALS A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way.

Patterns are located upon the points of a lattice, which is an array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions. The points can be thought of as forming identical tiny boxes, called unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice. The lengths of the edges of a unit cell and the angles between them are called the lattice parameters. UNIT CELL The crystal structure of a material (the arrangement of atoms within a given type of crystal) can be described in terms of its unit cell. The unit cell is a small box containing one or more atoms, a spatial arrangement of atoms. The unit cells stacked in three-dimensional space describe the bulk arrangement of atoms of the crystal. The crystal structure has a three-dimensional shape. The unit cell is given by its lattice parameters, which are the length of the cell edges and the angles between them, while the positions of the atoms inside the unit cell are described by the set of atomic positions (xi , yi , zi) measured from a lattice point. Body-Centered Cubic (BCC); Face-Centered Cubic (FCC); Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP). 4.GRAIN BOUNDARIES Grain boundaries are interfaces where crystals of different orientations meet. A grain boundary is a single-phase interface, with crystals on each side of the boundary being identical except in orientation. Grain boundary areas contain those atoms that have been perturbed from their original lattice sites, dislocations, and impurities that have migrated to the lower energy grain boundary. Since grain boundaries are defects in the crystal structure they tend to decrease the electrical and thermal conductivity of the material. The high interfacial energy and relatively weak bonding in most grain boundaries often makes them preferred sites for the onset of corrosion and for the precipitation of new phases from the solid. 7.POLYMORPHISM refers to the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystalline form or structure. These unique crystalline phases will be dependent on intensive variables such as pressure and temperature. Polymorphs have different stabilities and may spontaneously convert from a metastable form (or thermodynamically unstable form) to the stable form at a particular temperature. They also exhibit different melting points, solubilities, and X-ray diffraction patterns. 5.Metallographic Samples The surface of a metallographic specimen is prepared by various methods of grinding, polishing, and etching. After preparation, it is often analyzed using optical or electron microscopy. Successively finer abrasive particles are used to remove material from the sample surface until the desired surface quality is achieved.The specimen is wet ground to reveal the surface of the metal. The specimen is successively ground with finer and finer abrasive media. Typically it is polished with a slurry of alumina, silica, or diamond on a napless cloth to produce a scratch-free mirror finish, free from smear, drag, or pull-outs and with minimal deformation remaining from the preparation process. After polishing, certain microstructural constituents can be seen with the microscope. 6.Nonmetallic solids have 4 main classes of crystals: Metallic, Individual metal atoms of metallic crystals sit on lattice sites. This leaves the outer electrons of these atoms free to float around the lattice. Metallic crystals tend to be very dense and have high melting points. Ionic, the atoms of ionic crystals are held together by electrostatic forces (ionic bonds). Ionic crystals are hard and have relatively high melting points. This structure is based on the FCC

lattice, but there are two atoms per lattice point, one centered on the point and another at distance away along the edge of the FCC unit cell. Covalent, in which the atoms are bound together with chemical covalent bonds; diamond; covalent crystals has true covalent bonds between all of the atoms in the crystal. Molecular, which includes those crystals made up of chemically saturated molecules held together by Van der Waals forces. Molecular crystals tend to be soft with relatively low melting points. 10.Strength- The ability of a material to stand up to forces being applied without it bending, breaking, shattering or deforming in any way. Elasticity- The ability of a material to absorb force and flex in different directions, returning to its original position. Toughness- A characteristic of a material that does not break or shatter when receiving a blow or under a sudden shock. Hardness- The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and tear and indentation.