24

The OE vowel

The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the modification of separate vowels, and also of the modification of entire sets of vowels. The change begins with growing variation in pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of numerous allophones: after the stage of increased variation, some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes place. It may result in the splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth, which fills in the empty bo es! of the system or introduces new distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old phonemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together. The vocalic system in OE included " subsystems: monophthongs, diphthongs. #ll vowels e isted in the pairs: , a , e , o , i , u , y y ! ""# $% &' , ((, ) $ %&'( )*+ ,-.(,/%0%*1& & '&2/034&: ea ea, eo eo, ie ie* The ma5or factor in OE was a category of 6uantity vowels. It means, that all OE vowels, including diphthongs, could be both long and short. It it the system of vowels on the beginning of OE. The new system came with #nglo7 8a on tribes 9:0*33*;<: In most cases these new processes represent result of influence of the ne t sounds and called the =O>?I@#TOAB =C#@DE8. +*,-.lue-/e o. 0he -e10 /o-2o-a-0345ea6i-7 diph thongiEation< 8hort vowel were diphthong7sed before consonant. The short vowels & %, a* 8hort vowels and % were diph7niEed8 0u5- i-0o ea 9e.o5e /o:9i-a0io-2 5 ; , l ; , h ; , a-< 9e.o5e h o- 0he e-< o. a wo5<8 wearF,healp,eahta,seah e.g.: GeH I GeoH in OE deorc, @E dark. e 0u5- i-0o eo 9e.o5e /o:9i-a0io-2 5 ; , l ; vela5 /o-/o5<a-0 / a-< h, 9e.o5e h o- 0he e-< o. a wo5<8 weorFan,meolcan,feoh The essence of breaking consists that front vowel assimilates with the subse6uent firm consonants by development of a sound of glide, which forms a diphthong. The glide, together with the original monophthong formed a diphthong. =ala0ali>a0io#fter the palatal consonants GkJH, GskJH and G5H short and long GeH and G:H turned into diphthongs with a more front close vowel as their first element, e.g. OE sc:mu I sceamu 9@E shame<. In the resulting diphthong the initial GiH or GeH must have been unstressed but later the stress shifted to the first element, which turned into the nucleus of the diphthong, to conform with the structure of OE diphthongs. This process is known as ?<i@h0ho-7i2a0io- a.0e5 @ala0al /o-2o-a-02A* It observes in Kesse dialect. 7 ea sceal , cearu. 7 ea scLMwian, NLMfon. a 7 ea scacan7 sceacan. o 7 eo sceort, ceort. e 7 ie scield, N iefan Bo-05a/0io- 3 "C%$D%) The vowels contracted into O when they were separated by h and E disappeared. e;aFeo 2eha- 3 2eo-* i;aFeo 0iha-G 0eo-)* a;aFea 2leha- 3 2lea-)* o;aFo .oha- 3 .o-) Hu0a0io- G%%I#JI >utation is the change of one vowel to another through the influence of a vowel in the succeeding syllable. " types: i7Pmlaut mutation 9palatal mutation< and ?ack mutation 9guttural<740+/*33QR. +) iGK:lau0 G under its influence vowel moves ahead or narrowed. 3 e s:t5an S settan, aGe talu S tellan, oGe ofost 3 efstan, 3 dTm S dLma-, u G y fullian 7 fyllan , u G y cuF7 cUFFan. =hanges in diphthongs: ea 3 ie, ea 3 ie , eo 3 ie, eo 3 ie * 4a/6 :u0a0io- 3 KGK:lau0 i0 i2 /au2e< 9y 9a/6 vowel2 a, o, u)* In Kesse dialect take place only before consonants r, l, p, f, m. a7ea saru S searu, i7 io hira S hioru, e7eo herot S heorot. The

words which begin with wi S mutation occurred without dependence from the subse6uent concordant: widu S wiodu P7umlaut was optiona9facultative< and i7umlaut was the main 9,&,/(V00W+*N-F.<.

Levelo@:e-0 o. :o-o@h0ho-72 The XD short GaH and the long Ga:H, which had arisen in Kest and @orth Dermanic, underwent similar alterations in Early OE: they were fronted, and in the process of fronting, they split into several sounds. The principal regular direction of the change S GaH I G:H and Ga:H I G::H S is often referred to as the fronting or palatalisation of Ga, a:H. The other directions can be interpreted as positional deviations or restrictions to this trend: short GaH could change to GoH or GMH and long Ga:H became Go:H before a nasalY the preservation of the short GaH was caused by a back vowel in the ne t syllable. Levelo@:e-0 o. <i@h0ho-72 The XD diphthongs S Gei, ai, iu, eu, auH S underwent regular independent changes in Early OEY they took place in all phonetic conditions irrespective of environment. The diphthongs with the i7glide were monophthongised into Gi:H and Ga:H, respectivelyY the diphthongs in u were reflected as long diphthongs Gio:H, Geo:H and Gea:H. 2M The OE /o-2o-a-0 The consonants were subdivided: +* O- a wayN:o<e o. a- a50i/ula0io-: constrictives 7,VQZ3Q( and fricatives7.(1(%Q( and 8onants 24y @la/e o. a- a50i/ula0io-8 labial74-W30R, guttural9velar< N*'3(;N7(, dental consonants. O* O- a le-7h0 all /o-2o-a-02 2ha5e<8 short 9simple< t and long 9geminate 74(V&3*/Q< tt7 -'%0(33Q(. =onsctictives3 2ha5e< a2 voi/e< 3P#$JD% 9,<,7) D voi/ele22 @,0,6)* QR'S$'%8 "'%8 N0N G N<NT N@NG N9NT N6N G N7NT N6UNG N7UN %RD$I"'8 N08N G N<8NT N@8N G N98NT N68N G N78NT N6U8N G N7U8N [ricatives voiced 9v, th, E< f\f ]f]S ofer ]v] , s^t, hus ]s] S risan ]E], Feof, wearF ]_] 7 weorFan ]+]. voiceless Gf, `, , sH and voiced Gv, +, a, EH. VI$%CP'S$'% W%%#'% Sh ] C S bJ] 7 habban, nitht. ]w] ]5] ]r] ]l] ]m] ] nhave paired geminate. c,/0+&Z(,d& 4(V&3*/Q -)0/+(W1;1&,e /01ed0 &3/(+%0d*1e30. Bha-7e2 The XD voiced G+H 9due to fernerJs gaw< was always hardened to GdH in OE and other KD languages, e.g. Icel, gr and OE Td. The two other fricatives, GvH and GaH were hardened to GbH and GgH initially and after nasals, otherwise they remained fricatives. XD GEH underwent a phonetic modification through the stage of GH into GrH and thus became a sonorant, which ultimately merged with the older IE GrH. This process is termed rhotacism. h0,1( 2030104&N*i&& 0N%03Z(3&; )0 N*d03- $(+3(+* 3(d0/0+Q( &N 0N%03Z&%j&k,; 203(V &NV(3&1&,e d*Z(,/%(330. l%03d&R '(3/*1e3QR ,1&1,; ,0 N%03d&V ,VQZ3QV,m 0/,F'* %0N3&d1* N*,%&'(/(1e,/%0%*33*; % '+(%3(*341&R,d0V 20+V* f:der. c3'0(%+0)(R,d*; 203(V* ]s] )+& 0N%03Z(3&& )0 N*d03$(+3(+* )+(%+*/&1*,e % n]E], 203(V-, 0Z(3e 3('0140 )+0,-.(,/%0%*%j-F & )(+(j('j-F

N*/(V % /r/. o/0/ )(+(k0' ]s] Z(+(N n]E] % ]4] 3*NQ%*(/,; +0/*i&NV0V. p*W&0%(1;+3QR ]hw] )0 N*d03- $(+3(+* &NV(3;(/,; % ]w], 30 &304'* % *341,d&k '&*1(d/*k %,/+(Z*(/,; ]N]: sawon, s:Non q-%&'(1&q. l*d03 r/0/ WQ1 0/d+Q/ '*/,d&V -Z(3QV s*+10V $(+3(+0V. t+*2&Z(,d& r/)0N&i&F V0:30 &N0W+*N&/e /*d: m .(1(%0R7u7 &1&: 7u7,041.m .(1(%0R. vN%03Z(3&( wx )+0&,k0'&10 % )0N&i&&: 7u7 .(1(%0Rm. Xe:i-a0io- le-70he-i-7 o. /o-2o-) before Y The process along with i7mutation, after a short sylible. Z22i:ila0io- 3 k,g ydental into h,t. 9pyncan7puhte<. X,bydent. Into f,t. 9liban7lifte<. zentalydent into ss,st. 9vittan7visse<. [,m into mm 9wifman9n< Swiman9n<. m is dropped before h,f,s,p9/.(.th< Sfimf7 fif. {,g dropped before dental. >acian7made. =ala0ali2a0io- 3 k,gJ,sk,into sounds closed to affricares dE..ch,sh. 8k into sh.[ront vowel was a resalt of mutation. 9cuni7cyn7kin.<+0',/%(33&d, 9cuni7cin7chin<)0'W0+0'0d.

+[

The 5e.o5: o. OE o50ho75a@hy i- HE

The most conspicuous feature of gate >E te ts in comparison with OE te ts is the difference in spelling. The written forms of the words in gate >E te ts resemble their modern forms, though the pronunciation of the words was different. In the course of >E many new devices were introduced into the system of spellingY some of them reflected the sound changes which had been completed or were still in progress in >EY others were graphic replacements of OE letters by new letters and digraphs. In >E the runic letters passed out of use. Thorn S F S and the crossed d S |, + S were replaced by the digraph th, which retained the same sound value: G`H and G+HY the rune wynn! was displaced by double u! S w S Y the ligatures and fell into disuse. #fter the period of #nglo7@orman dominance 9OOthSO}th c.< English regained its prestige as the language of writing. Though for a long time writing was in the hands of those who had a good knowledge of [rench. Therefore many innovations in >E spelling reveal an influence of the [rench scribal tradition. The digraphs ou, ie, and ch which occurred in many [rench borrowings and were regularly used in #nglo7@orman te ts were adopted as new ways of indicating the sounds Gu:H, Ge:H, and Gt~H. other alterations in spelling cannot be traced directly to [rench influence though they testify to a similar tendency: a wider use of digraphs. In addition to ch, ou, ie, and th gate >E notaries introduced sh 9also ssh and sch< to indicate the new sibilant G~H, e.g. >E ship 9from OE scip<, dg to indicate GdH alongside j and gY the digraph wh replaced the OE se6uence of letters hw as in OE hwt, >E what GhwatH. gong sounds were shown by double letters, e.g. >E book Gbo:kH, though long Ge:H could be indicated by ie and ee, and also by e. 8ome replacements were probably made to avoid confusion of resembling letters: thus o was employed not only for GoH but also to indicate short GuH alongside the letter uY it happened when u stood close to n, m, or v, e.g. OE lu u became >E love GluvH. The letter ! came to be used as an e6uivalent of i and was evidently preferred when i could be confused with the surrounding letters m, n and others. 8ometimes, !, as well w, were put at the end of a word, so as to finish the word with a curve, e.g. >E ver! GveriH, m! Gmi:HY w was interchangeable with u in the digraphs ou, au, e.g. >E doun, down Gdu:nH, and was often preferred finally, e.g. >E how Ghu:H, now Gnu:H. [or letters indicating two sounds the rules of reading are as follows. " and # stand for GdH and GsH before front vowels and for GgH and GkH before back vowels respectively. $ stands for G5H at the beginning of

words, otherwise, it is an e6uivalent of the letter i, e.g. >E !et G5etH, kn!ght Gkni JtH. The letters th and s indicate voiced sounds between vowels, and voiceless sounds S initially, finally and ne t to other voiceless consonants, e.g. >E worth! Gwur+iH. To determine the sound value of o one can look up the origin of the sound in OE or the pronunciation of the word in @E: the sound GuH did not change in the transition from OE to >E 9the OE for some was sum<Y in @E it changed to GH. It follows that the letter o stood for GuH in those >E words which contain GH today, otherwise it indicates GoH. \ HE <iale/02* Ea5lie20 5e/o5<2* The basic OE <iale/02 continued to function in the >E period, and their territorial borders, in general, were kept. The >E dialects are called on the basis of their geographical position. @orthumbrian now refers to northern 9@orthern<, >ercian7 central 9>idland< is divided into Kest >idland and East >idlandY -r,,(d,d&R 7 98outhern, 8outh7Kestern<Y only %entish dialect has kept the name, because {ent continued to e ist, but the dialect sometimes called 98outh7Eastern.< The &ou th'rh group included the %entish and the &outh()estern dialects. The 8outhwestern group was a continuation of the OE 8a on dialects, 7 not only Kest 8a on, but also East 8a on. #mong the dialects of this group we may mention the Dloucester dialect and the gondon dialect. In the course of Early >E the area of the English language in the ?ritish Isles grew. In the late O"th c. the English made their first attempts to con6uer Ireland. Theinvaders settled among the Irish and were soon assimilated, a large proportion of the invaders being Kelshmen. The English language was used there alongside =eltic languages mIrish and Kelsh m and was influenced by =eltic.[or a long time after the @orman =on6uest there were two foreign written languages in England: gatin and [rench. Ea5lie20 5e/o5<2 ]e20 Hi<la-< Liale/0* The continue of #nglo78a son hronicles 7 from the year OO"" to the year OO, known as the The Xeterborough =hronicle. Ormulum, 3*Z*10 O} %. a poem composed by the monk Orm in about O" in the @orth7East >idland dialect 9gincolnshire<. It consists of unrhymed metrical paraphrases of the Dospels. The te t abounds in 8candinavianisms and lacks [rench borrowings. #lso were wrote {ing Corn & Cavelok the zane 9*%(10d */,d&R< 7" verse novel O}%. 0W(+/ *33&34 &N -+3* The 8tory of England7verse chronicle. Ea20GHi<la-< <iale/0. 8ir Dawayne and the Dreen {night 9r+ t*%(R3 & l(1(3QR +Qi*+e< 7 knightqs novel, d03(i O %.Y the "7nd knightqs novel Killiam of Xalerne 9&1e;V h*1(+3,d&R, O %.<. ne of the main satirical poem The fision of Killiam =oncerning Xiers, the Xlowman 9$&'(3&( h(/+* h*k*+;< against corruption in church, and at court. The author is &1e;V pr341(3'.^ou0he5- <iale/0. h0rV* p*R*V03* ?rut 93*Z*10 O} %< with a touch of >idlest dialect. #ncren Aiwle 7 93*Z*10 O} %.<. 0W(+/ t10,/(+,d&R =hronicle 7 ,/&k0/%0+3*; k+03&d* 9d03(i O} %.<, % 3*Z*1( &N1*4*F.*; d*d +(*1e3-F &,/0+&F d(1e/,d&( 1(4(3'Q 9,+('& 3&k 1(4(3'- 0 d0+01( p&+(<, * '*1ej( 7 0W &,/.,0WQ/&;k. _e-0i2h <iale/0* *3 &Z(1 The #yenbite of Inwit 94+QN(3&; ,0%(,/&<, bIf %., )(+(%0' , 2+*3i-N,d040. &1e;V _0+rV,d&R 7,/&k0/%0+(3&; 93*Z*10 bIf %.<.^ou0he5- <iale/0* =ursor >undi 9(4-.&R )0 ,%(/-<, O} %.7 +&2V0%*33*; )0rV*, about bible legend. The Xricke of =onscience 94+QN(3&; ,0%(,/&< )(+%*; )010%&3* O %. a translation attributed to Aichard Aolle of Campole. #mong the Early >E te ts in the 8outh7Kestern dialects should mention TCE gO@zO@ XAO=g#>#TIO@ of the year O".

 +4

OE 2y-0a1

The syntactic structure of OE was determined by two ma5or conditions: the nature of OE morphology and the relations between the spoken and the written forms of the language. OE was largely a synthetic languageY it possessed a system of grammatical forms which could indicate the connection between words. It was primarily a spoken language, conse6uently, the synta of the sentence was relatively simple. The =h5a2e* `ou-, Z<Ye/0ive a-< ae59 =a00e5-2 The syntactic structure of a language can be described at the level of the phrase and at the level of the sentence. In OE te ts we find a variety of word phrases. OE noun patterns, ad5ective and verb patterns had certain specific features which are important to note in view of their later changes. # noun pattern consisted of a noun as the head word and pronouns, ad5ectives, numerals and other nouns as determiners and attributes. >ost noun modifiers agreed with the noun in gender, number and case, e.g. on *+m *rum *r,m daum in those other three daysJ S zat. pl >asc. #n ad5ective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in one of the obli6ue cases9d0,%(33QR< with or without prepositions, and infinitives, e.g. him ws manna *ear he was in need of manJ. ferb patterns included a great variety of dependant components: nouns and pronouns in obli6ue cases with or without prepositions, adverbs, infinitives and participles, e.g. brin *- *,n bring those thingsJ. ]o5< o5<e5The order of words in the OE sentence was relatively free. The position of words in the sentence was often determined by logical and stylistic factors rather than by grammatical constraints. @evertheless the freedom of word order and its seeming independence of grammar should not be overestimated9%0N%Qj(3<. The order of words could depend on the communicative type of the sentence S 6uestion versus statement, on the type of clause, on the presence and place of some secondary parts of the sentence. # peculiar type of word order is found in many subordinate and in some coordinate clauses: the clause begins with the sub5ect following the connective, and ends with the predicate or its finite part, all the secondary parts being enclosed between them. It also should be noted that ob5ects were often placed before the predicate or between two parts of the predicate. Those were the main tendencies in OE word order. ^e-0e-2 8imple sent. =omposite9compound, comple <. 8entense sometimes have opposition9)+&10:(3&(<. >embers of the dentense were the same y opposition. } types of word order: direct9sub5ypredyob5< and inversion:begins with an adverbal modifier]any other subdivision part. 8yntactic sent Swhen any secondary member is between the sub5 and predicate. Impersonal sent. =ontaines: Impersonal verbs9z.=aseyOX.8g< e.g: him puhte. =ompound sent S wre connected with con5unction9and, un, ac9but<. =omple 7 pat, pe, pone. 2b `ou- i- OE

The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. #lso, nouns distinguished three genders, but gender was not a grammatical categoryY it was merely a classifying feature accounting for the division of nouns into morphological classes. The category of number consisted of two

members: singular and plural There were five ma5or cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.The nominative case indicated the sub5ect of the sentence. It was also used for direct address. The accusative indicated the direct ob5ect of the sentence. It was never distinguished in the plural, or in a neuter noun.The genitive case indicated possession. It also indicated partitive nouns. The meanings of the Den. case were very comple and can only be grouped under the headings 8ub5ective! and Ob5ective! Den. 8ub5ective Den. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin. Ob5ective Den. is associated with what is termed partitive meaning! .The dative case indicated the indirect ob5ect of the sentence. was the chief case used with prepositions, e.g. on morNenne in the morningJThe instrumental case indicated an instrument used to achieve something. zuring the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having largely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong ad5ectives retained separate forms for the instrumental. Ho5@holo7i/al /la22i.i/a0io- o. -ou-2* Le/le-2io-2 Cistorically, the OE system of declensions was based on a number of distinctions: the stem7suffi , the gender of nouns, the phonetic structure of the word, phonetic changes in the final syllables. 8tem7suffi es could consist of vowels 9vocalic stems, e.g. a7stems, i7 stems<, of consonants 9consonantal stems, e.g. n7stems<, of sound se6uences, e.g. 75a7stems, 7nd7stems. 8ome groups of nouns had no stem7forming suffi or had a Eero7suffi !Y they are usually termed root7stems! and are grouped together with consonantal stems, as their roots ended in consonants, e.g. OE man, bTc. OE nouns distinguished three genders: >asc., [em. and @eut. 8ometimes a derivational suffi referred a noun to a certain gender and placed it into a certain semantic group, e.g. abstract nouns built with the help of the suffi SFu were [em. S OE lenNFu, ere were >asc. S OE fiscere.>asculine and neuter words generally share their endings. [eminine words have their own subset of endings. The plural does not distinguish between genders. The division into genders was in a certain way connected with the division into stems, though there was no direct correspondence between them: some stems were represented by nouns of one particular gender, e.g. T7stems were always [em., others embraced nouns of two or three genders. Other reasons accounting for the division into declensions were structural and phonetic: monosyllabic nouns had certain peculiarities as compared to polysyllabicY monosyllables with a long root7syllable differed in some forms from nouns with a short syllable. The ma5ority of OE nouns belonged to the a7stems, T7stems and n7stems. Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Keak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. 8trong 9a,o,i,u Sstem<. #7stem and its variation 5awa S m,n. O7stem S 5owo Sf noun. I7 stem S m,f,n. P7stem S m,f. 5,w Sappeare before infle ion. Keak decl S n Sm,f,n. es Sn. room7stem 9Aoot7stemm formed some cases not by an infle ional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation<7no form suffi es. 8ound of donation inner fle ion. >utation was used to define number and gender of noun. Xrimary compound 9both parts in @omcase< yad5ynoun. 8econdary comp.noun 9the "7nd part in Den =ase.<nounynoun, verbynoun 8tem S part of the word comparasing9connected< root and stem.

2\

Z<Ye/0ive2 i- OE

The ad5ective in OE could change for number, gender and case. Those were dependent grammatical categories or forms of agreement of the ad5ective with the noun it modified or with the sub5ect of the sentence S if the ad5ective was a predicative. gike nouns, ad5ectives had three genders and two

numbers. The category of case in ad5ectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to the four cases of nouns they had one more case, Instr. It was used when the ad5ective served as an attribute to a noun in the zat. case e pressing an instrumental meaning. #d5ectives can be declined either strong]weak. Cistorically ad5ective is a younger class of words as compared to noun it ha2 borrowed many inflections from nouns pronouns. zeclensions 9unlike nouns ad5ectives could be declined both ways<:+* 205o-7 #7sterm, O7stemi, when ad5ective was used attributeliy without any determined .articles, demonstrative / possesive pronouns0 when used predicatively ". wea6 @7sterm, when an ad5ective was preceded by demonstrative pronoun or genitive case. 8ome ad5ectives were declined always strong: call, , operY others always weak: ilca 9some<. The endings of ad5ectives showed agreement between noun /. ad5ective. There were a lot of anonymous forms (1 inflections were lost ad5ective became an unchangeable part of speech. Dender7 .i520 cathegory to disappear 9O rO century< =ases: O.instrumental ease ell together with dative .end o 230 4. all other cases disappeared by the end of O}th century The difference between the strong and weak declension of ad5ectives was not only formal but also semantic. The choice of the declension was determined by a number of factors: the syntactical function of the ad5ective, the degree of comparison and the presence of noun determiners. The ad5ective had a strong form when used predicatively and when used attributively without any determiners. The weak form was employed when the ad5ective was preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or the Den. case of personal pronouns. Le75ee2 o. /o:@a5i2o- >ost OE ad5ectives distinguished between three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. The regular means used to form the comparative and the superlative from the positive were the suffi es Sra and Sest]7ost. 8ometimes suffi ation was accompanied by an interchange of the root7vowel. 2c OE =5o-ou-2

Xronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories: personal 9now I, you<, demonstr 9this, that<, interrogative 9who, which<, possesive 9my, his<, indefinite 9one, some<, negative 9noybody<. #nd relative particle which are used for connection of subordinate clauses, and refle ive pron. 9mine<. #s for the other groups S relative, possessive and refle ive S they were as yet not fully developed and were not always distinctly separated from the four main classes. =e52o-al In OE, while nouns consistently distinguished between four cases, personal pronouns began to lose some of their case distinctions: the forms of the zat. case of the pronouns of the Ost and "nd p. were fre6uently used instead of the #cc. It is important to note that the Den. case of personal pronouns had two main applications: like other obli6ue cases of noun7pronouns it could be an ob5ect, but far more fre6uently it was used as an attribute or a noun determiner, like a possessive pronoun, e.g. sunu m\n. They have categories of } persons, } numbers 9- }1&i* 7 "<, cases, in } person, % } 1&i( ('.Z 7 } +0'*. O," Xerson have dual number, the }X 7 gender. O," S it is ancient paradigm, they are suppletive, } S is late, non suppletive. 8uppletivity S the e pression of grammatical categories of different roots by means of root vowel be, es, ves. Le:o-205a0ive @5o-ou-2 There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of @E that, which distinguished three genders in the sg. #nd had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the

prototype of this. They were declined like ad5ectives according to a five7case system: @om., Den., zat., #cc., and Instr. zemonstrative pronouns were fre6uently used as noun determiners and through agreement with the noun indicated its number, gender and case " types: the Ost with the demonstrative meaning considerably weakened. #nd have 7th case SInstrumental 9/%0+&/(1e3QR<. "nd S with a clear demonstr.meaning.. =o22e2ive @5o-* In the basic form coincided with D.=ase.Xersonal pron. but they were perceived as @om case.. O7" person declined by strong declinations 9,+.+-, my, your<, and it is no } person ,-0e5o7a0ive @5o- S hwM, >asc. and [em., and hw^t, @eut., 7 had a four7case paradigm 9@E who, what<. The Instr. case of hw^t was used as a separate interrogative word hw 9@E why<. 8ome interrogative pronouns were used as ad5ective pronouns, e.g. hwelc ,-<e.i-i0e @5o- S were a numerous class embracing several simple pronouns and a large number of compounds: Mn and its derivative niN 9@E one, any<Y nMn, made up of Mn and the negative particle ne 9@E none<Y nMnFinN, made up of the preceding and the noun FinN 9@E nothing<. `e7a0ive @5o- G '+-40( ,10%0y0/+.Z*,/&i* ne '*1& noythingnothing. O," S ,d103;F/,; d*d 3&d*d0R!. } S d*d ,-. 1&W0 :.+., 1&W0 ,+.+ S 3&Z/0.

2d

OE ve59

X5a::a0i/al /a0e7o5ie2 G The verb7predicate agreed with the sub5ect of the sentence in two grammatical categories: number and person. Its specifically verbal categories were mood and tense. [inite forms regularly distinguished between two numbers: sg and pl. The category of Xerson was made up of three forms: th Ost, the "nd and the }rd. The category of >ood was constituted by the Indicative, Imperative and 8ub5unctive. The category of Tense in OE consisted of two categorical forms, Xresent and Xast. The use of 8ub5. forms conveyed a very general meaning of unreality or supposition. In addition to its use in conditional sentences and other volitional, con5ectural and hypothetical conte ts 8ub5. was common in other types of construction: in clauses of time, clauses of result and in clauses presenting reported speech. The meanings of the tense forms were also very general, as compared with later ages and with present7day English. The forms of the Xresent tense were used to indicate present and future actions. The Xast tense was used in a most general sense to indicate various events in the past. In addition to >ood and Tense we must mention #spect and foice. In OE the category of aspect was e pressed by the regular contrast of verbs with and without the prefi Ne7Y verbs with the prefi had a perfective meaning while the same verbs without the prefi indicated a non7completed action, e.g. feohtan S Nefeohtan fightJ S gain by fightingJ. it has been shown that the prefi Ne7 in OE can hardly be regarded as a marker of aspect, it could change the aspective meaning of the verb by making it perfective, but it could also change its le ical meaning, e.g. beran S Neberan carryJ S bear a childJ. It follows that the prefi Ne7 should rather be regarded as an element of word7building, a derivational prefi of vague general meaning, though its ties with certain shades of aspective meaning are obvious. It is important to note that in OE te ts there were also other means of e pressing aspective meanings: the Xast or Xresent Xarticiple. The phrases with Xarticiple I were used to describe a prolonged state or action, the phrases with Xarticiple II indicated a state resulting from a previous, completed action. The category of voice in OE is another debatable issue. The passive meaning was fre6uently indicated with the help of Xarticiple II of transitive verbs used as predicatives with the verbs beTn beJ and weor+an becomeJ. X5a::a0i/al /a0e7o5ie2 o. 0he ae59al2

In OE there were two non7finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive and the Xarticiple. The Infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. ?eing a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of reduced case7 system: two forms which roughly corresponded to the @om. and the zat. cases of nouns S beran S uninflected Infinitive 9@om.! case< tT berenne or tT beranne S inflected Infinitive 9zat.! case< gike the zat. case of nouns the inflected Infinitive with the preposition tT could be used to indicate the direction or purpose of an action. The uninflected Infinitive was used in verb phrases with modal verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication. The Xarticiple was a kind of verbal ad5ective which was characteriEed not only by nominal but also by certain verbal features. Xarticiple I 9Xresent Xarticiple< was opposed to Xarticiple II 9Xast Xarticiple< through voice and tense distinctions: it was active and e pressed present or simultaneous processes and 6ualities, while Xarticiple II e pressed states and 6ualities resulting from past action and was contrasted to Xarticiple I as passive to active, if the verb was transitive. Xarticiple II of intransitive verbs had an active meaningY it indicated a past action and was opposed to Xarticiple I only through tense. Xarticiples were employed predicatively and attributively like ad5ectives and shared their grammatical categories: they were declined as weak and strong and agreed with nouns in number, gender and case. O[ OE ^05o-7 ve592

The ma5ority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verbs. ?esides these two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as minor! groups. The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the principal parts, or stems! of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding certain suffi esY in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Xast Tense S one for the Ost and }rd p. sg Ind. >ood, the other S for the other Xast tense forms, Ind. and 8ub5. the weak verbs derived their Xast tense stem and the stem of Xarticiple II from the Xresent tense stem with the help of the dental suffi 7d7 or 7t7Y normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs suffi ation was accompanied by a vowel interchange. >inor groups of verbs differed from the weak and strong verbs. 8ome of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a peculiar way 9preterite7present! verbs<Y others were suppletive or altogether anomalous. 8trong ferbs The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into seven classes. =lasses from O to use vowel gradation which goes back to the IE ablaut7series modified in different phonetic conditions in accordance with XD and Early OE sound changes. =lass includes reduplicating verbs, which originally built their past forms by means of repeating the root7morphemeY this doubled root gave rise to a specific kind of root7vowel interchange. The principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings irrespective of class: 7an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Xast sg stem, 7on in the form of Xast pl, 7en for Xarticiple II. 8trong vrb indicate tense by a change in the 6uality of a vowel. They are original9germ. Europ<. Aestrictive group of verb. Oe S over }8v. O class Si class, a. " class7u7classuyrootdiphthong,. Aoot consonant changed9rotasism<. }, class7 the gradation was caused by consonant.9breaking<, 7 6ualitative76uantities ablaut class Sreduplication of the root7morpheme. They use form of con5ugation known as ablaut. #nd this form of con5ugation the stem of the word change to indicate the tense. O+ OE ]ea6 ve592

K.v. form their Xreterit and Xarticiple" by addition of a dental suffi 9d]t< Slove, loved. Keak verbs form the ma5ority of Old English verbs. There are three ma5or classes of weak verbs in Old English. The first class displays i7mutation in the root. The verbs of =lass I usually were i7stems, originally contained the element G7i]75H between the root and the endings. The verbs of =lass II were built with the help of the stem7suffi 7T, or 7T5 and are known as T7stems. =lass III was made up of a few survivals of the XD third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly 757stems. Each Kv. is characteriEed by } basic forms: infinitive, Xreterit and a participle ". +20 /la22 5e7ula5 ve592 are formed either from noun, or from other verbs. In regular verbs the root vowel in all forms sub5ected to mutation under the influence Gi in suffi . O. The verbs with long root vowels 7i disappears irrespective of which consonant stood before it* dLman7dLmde7dLmed The Ost class formally with 5a in the present and i in the past. Its root vowel is mutated 9anomalous<. } forms, because Xlsg distinguished only the inflection. There are OO irregular verbs in O class. Their irregularity consist that they have suffi only in O form 7 the infinitive and present tense, and it means, that umlaut was only in O7st form, that is the Ost form distinguished from the second and the third by 6uality of the root vowel. 9sellan, sealed, seald7to give<. Irreg verbs which have a mutated vowel in the Xresent tense and no mutation in the Xreterit and X" 25< /la22 So7class. This o Sis preserved by preterit and Xarticiple". " nd class has 7 o5a 7in the infinitive and So7 in preterit. The vowel is not mutated. O5< /la22 contained few verbs: habban7h:fde7h:fd 9have<, gibban7lifde7lifd 9live<, 8ecNan7 s:Nde]s:de7s:Nd] 9say<. The dental suffi is 5oined immediate to the root. In the present there was S 57, but the "nd and }rd pers.8g show no trace of S57.

O2

OE a-o:alou2 ve592

#mong the verbs of the minor groups there were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms. 8uppletive v9beon, wesen Sroot be, es,wes<is verb which create different grammatical categories by means of root vowel9be,es,wes<. The most important group of these verbs were the so7called ?@5e0e5i0eG@5e2e-02A* Originally the Xresent tense forms of these verbs were Xast tense forms. gater these forms had a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Xast tense. >ost of these verbs had new Xast Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffi . 8ome of them also had the forms of the verbals: Xarticiples and Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite7present verbs. 8i of them have survived in >od E: OE MNY cunnanY cannY dear9r<, sculan, scealY maNan, m:NY mTt 9@E owe, oughtY canY dareY shallY mayY must<. >ost preterite7presents did not indicate actions, but e pressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb, an Infinitive which followed the preterite7present. In other words they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into modern modal verbs. They have i- =5e2e-0 vowel 75a<a0io- a-< i- 0he =a20 3 <e-0al 2u..i1* OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and desireY it resembled9&V(10 ,k0',/%0< the preterit7presents in meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive. Killan had a Xast tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Xast tense of the preterite7present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite7presents, and, together with sculan developed into an au iliary 9@E shall, will, should, would<. 8ome verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Xast tense with a vowel interchange: and a Xarticiple in 7n: don m dyde m Ne7don 9@E do<. OE buan qliveq had a weak Xast m bude and Xarticiple II, ending in 7n, ie7bun like a strong verb.

 OO

Bha-7e2 o. vowel i- HE

There are 6ualitative and 6uantitative changes of vowel in >E. eua-0i0a0ive vowel /ha-7e2 G In gater OE and in Early >E vowel length began to depend on phonetic conditions. The earliest of positional 6uantitative changes was the read5ustment of 6uantity before some consonant clusters: O< fe-70he-i-7 7 >E 7 in 7O century. 8hort vowels were lengthened before two consonants S a sonorant and a plosive. #ll vowels occurring in this position became long, e.g. OE wild S >E wild Gwi:ldH S @E wild. ^ho50e-i-7 G occurred at long vowels before two consonants. #ll vowels in this position became or remained short, e.g. OE cLpte I >E kepte GkeptH S @E kept. }) ^ho50 vowel2 9e/a:e lo-7 in open syllables, e.g. OE nama I >E name Gna:mH S @E name. This lengthening initially affected the more open of the short vowels GeH, GaH and GoH O} cent. u-205e22e< vo/ali2:8 There was a reduction of unaccented syllables in a final position, and then it is lost. #t [irst there was weakening, and then loss of a unstressed syllable. euali0a0ive vowel /ha-7e2* #fter @orman invasion continued to develop the dialect: @orthern dialect9WQ%j&R @orthumbrian<, East7>idland9>ercian<, Kestmidlend9>ercian<, 8outh7Eastern9{entish<, 8outh7 Kestern9Kesseks<. ^ho50 vowel G - d+*/d040 7*7 7 ,0k+*3&1,; %0 %,(k '&*1(d/*k. 7*7 &1&707 befor nosal: in east7 >idland N*d+()&10,e9fi < S07 9con<, % 0,/*1e3Qk N*d+()&10,e S *7 9can<. 7:7 91&4*/-+*< S found %0 %,(k '&*1(d/*k, 30 ,*V N3*Z0d 3( ,-.(,/%0%*1. l*)7i(3/+, s(3/ 7 7: turn into S(7 9w:s S wes<. In the rest 7 7: )(+(j(1 % S*7 9w:s S was<. e7 %0 %,(k '&*1(d/*k W(N &NV(3(3&R. 0 S W(N &NV(3(3&R. i S W(N &NV(3(3R . u 7 W(N &NV(3(3&R. y 3 # IP$'g DI%J"Ig IP#D#Ih IP$Ri8 ,(%, %0,/7i(3/+ S]y]7]i] & % )0,1(',/%&& N3*d Sy7 ,/*1 0W0N3*Z*/e /01ed0 r/0/ N%-d 9bisy<. K(3/+, F407N*) S letter Su7 ,/*1* 0W0N3*Z*/e N%-d ]e] 9busy<. s(3/ S ]y] 7 ]e] 9besy<. y7i S labialiEation. B7e Slabialyopening. B7u. The vowels GyH and Gy:H e isted in OE dialects up to the Oth c., when they were replaced by GeH, Ge:H in {entish and confused with GieH and Gie:H or GiH and Gi:H in K8. In Early >E the dialectal differences grew. In some areas OE GyH, Gy:H developed into GeH, Ge:H, in others they changed to GiH, Gi:HY in the 8outh7Kest and in the Kest >idlands the two vowels were for some time preserved as GyH, Gy:H, but later were moved backward and merged with GuH, Gu:H fo-7 vowel2 S This was and early instance of the growing tendency of all long monophthongs to become closer, so Ga:H became Go:H in all the dialects e cept the @orthern group 9hMm S hTm, stMn S stTn< 7T7 &304'* depicts as digraph S0*7. 014*; :9WQ1* /01ed0 % r,,(d,d0V '&*1(d/(< )+(k0'&/ % SL7 0/d+Q/-F. 9&N0W+*:*1*,e '&4+*20V S(*7<. OE sl:pan S >E slLpan $ '+-4&k '&*1(d/*k S:7 9;%1;1*,e +(N-1e/*/0V -V1*-/*< )(+(.1* % SL7 N*d+Q/0(. 9 &N0W+*:*1*,e '&4+*20V S((7<. L S LN*d+. T7 TN*d+., S W(N &NV(3(3&R, \7 W(N &NV(3(3&R. OE <i@h0ho-72 in >E were monophtongoniEed. ea S a 9healf7 half<. eo: 3*Z*1* (0 )+(j10 % 41*,3QR i9d0/0+QR &N0W+*:*1,; d*d (0 & )+0,-.(,/%0%*1 * N*)7i(3/+ & F407N*) '&*1(d/*k '0 O%.< $ 0,/*1e3Qk '&*1(d/*k , O" %. i )+(+(j(1 % S(7< heorte7 herte. 014&R ea )+(k0'&/ % L 0/d+. hleapan S lepen. 014&R eo S L N*d+. 9&N0W+*:*1,; d*d S((< seon S sen. One of the mosl important sound change:, of the Early >E period was the loss of OE diphthongs and the growth of new diphthongs, with new 6ualitative and 6uantitative changes. gong and short: Gea:H, Geo:H, Gie:H and GeaH, GeoH, GieH. Towards the end of the OE period some of the diphthongs merged with monophthongs: all diphthongs were monophthongised before G tH, G JtH and after GskJHY the diphthongs Gie:H, GieH in gate K8 fused with Gy:H, GyH or Gi:H, GiH. In Early >E the remaining

diphthongs were also contracted to monophthongs: the long Gea:H coalesced 9united< with the refle of OE G:H S >E G:HY the short GeaH ceased to be distinguished from OE G:H and became GaH in >EY the diphthongs Geo:H, GeoH S as well as their dialectal variants Gio:H, GioH S fell together with the monophthongs Ge:H, GeH, Gi:H, GiH. #s a result of these changes the vowel system lost two sets of diphthongs, long and short. In the meantime anew set of diphthongs developed from some se6uences of vowels and consonants due to the vocaliEation of OE G5H and GaH, that is to their change into vowels. In Early >E the sounds G5H and GaH between and after vowels changed into GiH and GuH and formed diphthongs together with the preceding vowels, e.g. OE d:N I >E day GdaiH. These changes gave rise to two sets of diphthongs: with i7glides and u7glides. The same types of diphthongs appeared also from other sources: the glide 7u developed from OE GwH as in OE snMw, which became >E snow GsnouH, and before G H and GlH as in gate >E smaul and taughte.

4O The 75ea0 vowel ^hi.0 Include >E long vowels which were monophtongoniEed. Deneral case: i8 j ai N5i8<e-N j N5ai<N 5i<e, k8 j i8 N2le8@e-N j N2li8@N 2lee@, l8 j e8 j i8 N:l8l N j N:e8lN j N:i8lN :eal, a8 j ae8 j ei N-a8:N j N-ei:N, "8 G% "J'"%) j ou N5o8<N j N5ou<N, m8 G% PIJ'"%) j u8 N:o8-N j N:u8-N, u8 j au Nhu82N j Nhau2N* There is a contraction9,-:(3&(< and push out 9%Q/(,3(3&(< of vowels i: and u:, which became diphthongs, e: and o: have taken their place. 8pelling 9Orthography<: 7 ee!: 7 ea!, /: 7 ou!: 7 oa! 98ee]seaY meet]meat 7 the spelling e plaince a condition ofO century, and the end of a phase of merge9,1&;3&(<:it: is O century.<. Dreat, steak, break 7: : turn into ei. The basic result of this shift is reduction of number of vowel phonemes due to reduction of number of long vowels. i8GGGGGGGu8, k8GGGGG"8, l8GGGm8, a8* The Dreat fowd 8hift O7O cc<. O theory 7 O7O century, "7nd 7 O7O century, in O century 7 rhymes and 0+20r)&Z(,d&( te ts. Cistorian D.8.Pa5ld at dating started with an illiterate writing. ?leynd 9blind<, credyll 9cradle< in bf century. On the basis of some similar spelling it dates the beginning of the shift of vowels to O century S the beginning of. O century, and the end of merge ]:] & ]:] , ]i:] from >E. ]e:] 7 d03i0V bfI %. ^o:e 0heo5ie2 e1@lai-2 Qn G O.push7chain. $,( 3*Z*10,e , e: & o: . v3& ,/*1& push out narrow. ".drag7chain Nd&( -j1& % '&2/034& & )0/;3-1&9drag< N* ,0W0R V0302/034&. ?ut: ?oth theory shows that: O. In this chain it became tight 9/(,30<. ". #t first the narrow monophtongs have gone 9-j1&< and more wide have taken their place. >E 7 @E Gi:H S GaiH 7 TimeGiH7timeGaiH Ge:H7Gi:H 7 {epen GeH7keepGi:H Ga:H7GeiH 7 >akenGa:H S make GeiH Go:H7GouH 7 8tohe

Go:H7GuH Gu:H7GauH GauH7Go:H

7 7 7

>oon >ous S mouse cause

42 The evolu0io- o. a-aly0i/al .o5:2* In OE there were no analytical formsY they appeared in >E in all Dermanic langs and consisted of two elementsY O< a verb of broad semantics 9to be, to have< and high fre6uencyY "< non7finite forms 9inf., XI]II<. They are Xerfect Xassive. [uture, =ont, zo7forms. The rise of Xerfect forms O.habbant 9transitive verb<] beon 9intransiuve verb< yXII beon in >E ceased9)+(d+*.*(/< to be used not to confuse ". In >E also inf. and Xarticiple ac6uired9)+(0W+&/*/e< Xerfect forms. The rise of Xassive forms O. beon] weor 9died out in >E< 0/ )(+(k0'3Qk 41*4010% yXII. The Xass. Inf., consisting of beon plus Xart. II, is found in OE te ts. $ ,7* 41 weoran -k0'&/ &N -)0/+(W1(3&;. v,/*(/,; O 41*401 ']%Q+*:(3&; )*,,&%* 7 bLon. 0+V* 41*401* WQ/e -/+*/&1* ,%0( 1(d,&Z N3*Z(3&(. ".Xassive constructions were often used with prepositions by]with to show the doer9&,)013&/(1e< of the action and the instrument. $ ,7* )+('104 by (.( 3( -)0/+(W1;1,; 9/01ed0 % d03i( +737*<, * WQ1& of, from, mid, with, through. Xerfect withXassive.

The rise of the [uture forms O. #nalytical [uture Tense forms developed from OE verbs 8culan]willanyinf. ". O}7O cent. m [uture Tense forms became very common willan]scullan were completely interchangeable.9%N*&V0N*V(37R< }.Olb cent. ohn Kales established rule 7 qshall S first person, will 7 "]} person day tendency will! is used with ail93(N'0+0%QR< persons .present

The rise of the =ontinuous [orms OE beon yXI 7 denoted a 6uality of a lasting9)+0'01:7R< state of the sub5ect. >E in >E this form fell into disuse. @E in the @E there were two forms to show continuous aspect 9beyXI] be ypreposition on<. In the O cent. =ont. forms were well established9)+&3;/*<. Oth cent 7 =ont. forms appear in Xassiven, before this time such forms were considered clumsy and a grammatical. The rise of the do7formsO. do7forms 9do7periphrasis< appeared in Xast and Xresent in Indicative >ood. ". do7forms were used in negative, affirmative9)010:&/7 R< and interrogative scents and freely interchanged with simple forms 7 without do .56(57 cent0 9e . zid you hear this] Ceard you this donqt know] I know notY I do like ice cream] I like ice7cream< }. 57 cent, do7forms only in negative and interrogative sents. $ +73* )(+&0' +*N%&%*(/,; -)0/+(W1(3&( 41*401* do d*d %,)0V04*/(1e3040. $ bfI m bfII %%. 20+VQ 3*,/0;.(40 & )+0j('j(40 %+(V(3& Z*,/0 0W+*N-F/,; &N ,0Z(/*3&; do y &32&3&/&%.

O%. zo d*d %,)0V.41*401 ,0k+*3&1,; 1&je /*V, 4'( 03 )01-Z*1 '0).4+*VV.N3*Z(3&(: O<'1; 0W+*N0%*3&; 0/+&i.20+VQ 41*401* "< '1; 0W+*N0%*3&; %0)+0,&/.20+VQ 41*401* }< '1; 0W+*N0%*3&; rV2*/&Z(,d0R 20+VQ 41*401*. 44 The evolu0io- o. 2y-0a1* OE The synta of Old English was much more fle ible than modern English because of the declensions of the nouns. The case endings told the function of the word in the sentence, so word order was not very important. ?ut as the stress began to move to the first syllable of words, the endings were not pronounced as clearly and began to diminish from the language. 8o in modern English, word order is very important because we no longer have declensions to show case distinctions. Instead we use prepositions. The general word order was 2u9Ye/0 G ve59 G o9Ye/0, but it did vary in a few instances:O. Khen an ob5ect is a pronoun, it often precedes the verb. ". Khen a sentence begins with an adverb, the sub5ect often follows the verb. }. The verb often comes at the end of a subordinate clause. >E 7 8ynta was stricter and more prepositions were used. @ew compound tenses were used, such as the perfect tenses, and there was more use of the progressive and passive voice. The use of double negation also increased as did impersonal constructions. The use of the verbs will and shall for the future tense was first used too. [ormerly, will meant want and shall meant obliged to. The most obvious difference between OE synta a-< the synta of the >E and @E periods is that the word order became more strict and the use of prepositions more e tensive. In >E is used the direct word order. ?ut in the sentences which began with ad5unct 90W,/0;/(1e,/%(330(< word, it was indirect word order. The synthetical word order gradually disappears. The word order in >E is not so fi ed, as in @E, but has important meaning. Then a direct word order becomes obligatory. The indirect word order begins to be used in 6uestions. The au iliary word do is entered, which was fi ed in 6uestions and negations. ^e-0e-/e2* In OE is distinguished part of the sentence, as in the modern language: the main and minor clause. In >E The word order from a rhetorical category becomes syntactic. # sub5ect is absolutely obligatory member of the sentence. If it is absent there is a formal sub5ect. The model with a formal sub5ect there! is traced already in OE. In Earlu@E the simple sentence develops basically on a way of ordering of all rules connected with an arrangement of all members, 6uestions and negation. 4M The evolu0io- o. Xe5u-< Xe5u-< appears in the O"th century. OE verbal noun90/41*401e30( ,-.<with suffi mung, 7ing and XO overlapped9Z*,/&Z30 ,0%)*'<Y verbal noun later turned into Derund and could O< take direct ob5ect 9e . buying the book< 7 verbal featureY "< preceded by article or possessive pronoun S nominal9&V(330R<feature. The gerund can be traced to three sources: the OE verbal noun in (uns and (ins, the Xresent Xarticiple and the Infinitive. In OE the verbal noun derived from transitive verbs took an ob5ect in the Den. case, which corresponded to the direct ob5ect of the finite91&Z3Qk< verb. The syntactic functions of the verbal noun, the infinitive and the participle partly overlapped. This verbal feature m a direct ob5ect as well as the fre6uent absence of article before the 7ing7form functioning, as a noun m transformed the verbal noun into a Derund in the modern understanding of the term. The nominal features, retained from the verbal noun, were its syntactic functions and the ability to be modified by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the Den. case.

 4\ D 4d

The evol* O. =a50i/i@leo,-.i-i0ive

=a50i/i@le, had an active meaning and e pressed a process or 6uality simultaneous with the events described by the predicate of the sentence. =a50i/i@le,, had an active or passive meaning depending on the transitivity of the verb, and e pressed a preceding action or its results in the subse6uent situation. =a50i/i@le , coincided with the verbal noun, which was formed in OE with the help of the suffi es (ung and (ing, but had preserved only one suffi , (ing, in >E. 9The fusion of the Xarticiple with the verbal noun was an important factor of the growth of a new verbal, the Derund, and played a certain role in the development of the =ontinuous forms. =a50i/i@le 2 In >E the weak verbs built Xarticiple II with the help of the dental suffi (.e0d, (t, the strong verbs m with the help of vowel gradation and the suffi (en.8trong v 7 grades9O7the form of the inf, "7Xreterit 8g, }7Xret. Xl, 7Xartic"< Keak v 7} grades 9O7inf, "7Xret, }7X"<. =a50i/i@le , 7 suffi 7ende 9e . OE berende, >E bering. @E bearing< =,, 7 suffi 7enstrong verbs<, and 7t,7d according to the type of verb 9weak verbs< and commonly marked by prefi 7}e. in OE: active voice 9e . 2e7a-) and passive voice 9e .seboren<. XI and XII were used predicatively and attributively 9like ad5.< and agreed with noun in number, "ender, case. 89 and XII lost number, "ender, case in >E. ,-.. loss of dative case 9>E< 9e . OE @omin.: writan, zative: to writanneY >E: to written, @E: to write, 9to! is a formal sign<. The preposition to, which was placed In OE to show direction or purpose, lost Its prepositional force and changed into a formal sign of,the Infinitive. In >E the Infinitive with to does not necessarily e press purpose. In order to reinforce the meaning of purpose another preposition, or. Od The evolu0io- o. ^05o-7 ve592

The seven classes of OE strong verbs underwent multiple grammatical and phonetic changes. In >E the final syllables of the stems were weakened, in Early @E most of them were lost. O.The OE endings :an, (on, and (en 9of the Ost, }rd and th principal forms< were all reduced to >E (en; conse6uently in =lasses and , where the infinitive and the participle had the same gradation vowel, these forms fell together. In =lasses O and } it led to the coincidence of the}rd and th principal90,30%3Q(< forms. ". There were phonetic changes in root of verbs. The ma5or factor is lengthening of root the vowel: in and class because the syllable is opened, also in } class 7 where after n goes d S 9findan7I fiindan<. zestruction of interchange GErH under fernerqs law 9remains only was7were<. The and class in >E it begins to merge in favour of 7th class. It is visible at =haser. . ?eren7bar7bren7boren.. Treden7trad7trde7treden]trodden. The letter o gets into " and } form. Treden7trod 7 troden 9,/-)*/e<. Early @E. po5:a0io- o. a @a5a<i7: .5o: O .o5:2 comes to the end. O class 7 has the form of Xreterit 8g in all verbs, e cept bite. " class has the form of V3.Z. In } class it is differently, basically the form V3.Z. find7found7found, but ring7rang7rung. and class has vowel of Xarticiple", and these classes completely coincide. In and class ('.& V3.Z )+.%+(V(3& were identical. "< @5e2e-/eNa92e-/e o. 0he 2u..i1 o. =a50i22 The unaccented inflection of infinitive was lost already in the >E, and Xart" in >E was: le7treden, Ne7writen, Ne7funden. #s a result, +*33(7@E has the form without prefi . Aemains: speak7spoken, find7found, but ring7 rung. } class has re5ected a prefi and the form of Xreterite and Xart" coincided, as well as at weak verbs. Xart" has no suffi .There were kept some distinction in class: *341 get]forget 7 got]forgot,

*V(+ gotten]forgotten. One of the most important events in the history of the strong verbs was their transition into weak. In >E and Early @E many strong verbs began to form their Xast and Xarticiple II with the help of the dental suffi instead of vowel gradation. Therefore the number of strong verbs decreased. In OE there were about three hundred strong verbs. 8ome of them dropped out of use owing to changes in the vocabulary, while most of the remaining verbs became weak. The changes in the formation of principal parts of strong verbs e tended over a long period m from the O"th toqOth c. 4[ The evolu0io- o. wea6 ve59* =lass I are described used as sources of modern non7standard verbs. >E verbs of =lass I took the ending (de in the past without an intermediate vowel before the dental suffi m and the ending (ed in the Xast Xarticiple. 8everal groups of modern non7standard verbs have developed from the weak verbs of =lass I. 9O< ferbs like OE sellan and t<can had an interchange in the root caused by palatal mutation in the Xresent tense stem and its absence in the other stems 9Xast tense salde/sealde, tahte.0 In >E and @E they preserved the root7vowel interchange, though some of the vowels were altered due to regular 6uantitative and 6ualitative vowel changes: >E sellen = solde >E Iqso:ldHI @E sold GsouldH<, techen m taughte; @E sell = sold, teach m taught. 9"< #nother group of weak verbs became irregular in Early >E as a result of 6uantitative vowel changes. In verbs like OE cepan edan me tan the long vowel in the root was shortened before two consonants in the Xast and XarticipleIIY OE cepte1 >E kepte GqkeptaH. The long vowel in the Xresent tense stem was preserved and was altered during the Dreat fowel 8hift, hence the interchangeG i : e H , @E keep = kept, eed m ed. 9}< ferbs like OE settan, with the root ending in a dental consonant, added the dental suffi without the intervening vowel Ge H m OE sette. Khen the inflections were reduced and dropped, the three stems of the verbs m Xresent, Xast and Xarticiple II fell together: @E set mset m set; =lass " formed a basis of the future irregular verbs. There are some verbs 5oined: O.8ome verbs of O class weak deem7deemed. ".} class live7lived. The verbs of =lass II, which were marked by (ode, (od in OE, had weakened these endings to (ede, (ed in >E. In gate >E the vowel GeH in unstressed medial and final syllables became very unstable and was lost. This change eliminated the differences between the two classes and also the. distinctions between the "nd and }rd principal forms. }. #ll borrowings 9uni6ue loan word take from ,d*3' remains in class,<. =lass } was destroyed. Ke have " classes by the end of this process: O. Aegular 9on the basis of weak< ". Irregular: O< all remained strong "< weak Od1 irregular }< weak Od1 with devocaliEation in the end < " remained verbs of } class 7 have, say. 4+ The evolu0io- o. a-o:alou2 ve592 8everal preterite7present verbs died out. The surviving verbs losl some of their old forms and grammatical distinctions but retained many specific peculiarities. They lost the forms of the verbals which had sprung up in OE and the distinctions between the forms of numbei and mood in the Xresent tense. In @E their paradigms have been reduced to two forms or even to one.

#mong the verbs of the minor groups there were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms. OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and desireY it resembled the preterite7 presents in meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive. Killan had a Xast tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Xast tense of the preterite7 present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite7presents, and, together with sculan developed into an au iliary 9@E shall, will, should, would<. 8ome verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Xast tense with a vowel interchange: and a Xarticiple in 7n: don m dyde m Ne7don 9@E do<. OE buan qliveq had a weak Xast m bude and Xarticiple II, ending in 7n, ie7bun like a strong verb. OE sdn has had a most unusual history. In OE its Xast form was built from a different root and had a weak ending: code; its Xart. II ended in (n, similarly with strong verbs .ie0>dn. In >E the verb ac6uired a new Xast tense wente, which came from an entirely different verb, OE wendan 9>E wenden, @E wend0. Its OE Xast form wente had entered the paradigm of goon 9@E go, went0, while wend ac6uired a new past form wended. Thus the verb go remained a suppletive verb, though its OE Xast was replaced by a new form 9this is a rare instance of suppletion appearing at a relatively recent period of history<. 4b The evolu0io- o. wo5<G.o5:a0io-* ]ay2 o. .o5:a0io- G word formation fell into two types: word derivation and word composition. ]o5< Le5iva0io8uffi ation has always been the most productive way of deriving new words, most of the OE productive suffi es have survived, and many new suffi es have been added from internal and e ternal sources. The development of prefi ation was uneven: in >E many OE prefi es fell into disuseY after a temporary decline in the Oth and Oth c. the use of prefi es grew againY like suffi es, Early @E prefi es could come from foreign sources. The Early @E period witnessed the growth of a new, specifically English way of word derivation m conversion 9also known as functional change<, which has developed into a productive way of creating new words. ^ou-< i-0e5/ha-7e2 In OE they served as a supplementary means of word differentiation and were mostly used together with suffi es. In >E and Early @E sound interchanges continued to be used as an accompanying feature together with other derivational means. The role of sound interchanges has grown due to the weakening and loss of many suffi es and grammatical endings. ]o5< ^05e22 The role of stress in word7building has grown in >E and Early@E in conse6uence of the same changes namely the weakening and loss of final syllables. =5e.i1a0iozuring the >E period prefi es were used in derivation less fre6uently than before. OE prefi es were productive means of forming verbs from other verbs. The simple and derived verb were synonymous. =onse6uently the prefi could be easily dispensed with. Instead of the OEpairs of synonyms, differing in the prefi , >E retained only the simple verb. `a0ive =5e.i1e2 G >any OE verb prefi es dropped out of use, e.g. a7, to7, on7. The negative prefi es mis7 and un7 produced a great number of new words. OE un7 was mainly used with nouns and ad5ectives, seldom with

verbsY @ew formations in>E are unable, unknowen, in Early @E m unhook, unload and othersY 4o55owe< =5e.i1e2G In gate >E, and in Early @E new prefi es began to be employed in word derivation in English: [rench, gatin, and Dreek. com7 and sub7. [rench and gatin. ?etween the years O" and O English borrowed many [rench words with the prefi re7, e.g.: >E re7dressen, re7 formen. Ae7 was separated, as an element of the word. The verb prefi es de7 and dis7 of Aomance origin 9[rench and gatin< entered the English language in many loan7words, e.g.: >E destructive, discomforten. ^u..i1a0io8uffi ation has remained the most productive way of word derivation through all historical periods. Though some of the OE suffi es were practically dead, many new suffi es developed from native and foreign sources.`a0ive 2u..i1e2 G suffi es:<8everal OE suffi es of agent nouns 7end 9friend<, 7ere9fiscere< were lost as means of derivationY in >E 7end, 7en, 7estre occur as inseparable parts of the stem. The old suffi es of abstract nouns 7ap, 7op, 7p, had long been dead in >E. The suffi 7ness was e6ually productive in all historical periods. It was mainly used with ad5ectival stems, irrespective of their origin: >E derkness,, @E narrowness, 9native stems<Y >Ecleerness, @E politeness 9borrowed stems<. new suffi es derived from noun root morphemes 7 # new suffi (man, developed from a root7 morpheme in >E. 4o55owe< ^u..i1e2 G borrowed suffi es entered the English language with the two biggest waves of loan7words: [rench loans in >E and classical loans in Early @E. [rench loan7 words with the suffi able .agreeable0. In gate >E the suffi (able began to be used in ad5ective derivation m at first with Aomance stems madmittable. The [rench suffi (ess produced many derivatives in >E, as it had replaced the native (estre; e.g.: >E authoress. The suffi (or 9from [r< resembled the native suffi er. Ob The evolu0io- o. -ou-2* The 5i2e o. 0he a50i/le2 OE The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. There were five ma5or cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.vW.(( d01&Z(,/%0 /&)0% ,d103(3&; : O< 41*,3Q( 0,30%Q: 7a7, 7T7, 7i7, 7u7, "< 0,30%Q 3* ,041*,3QR: 7n7, 7s7, 7r7.OE nouns distinguished three genders: >asc., [em. and @eut. Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Keak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. 8trong 9a,o,i,u 7stem<. Keak decl 7 n 7m,f,n. es 7n. room7 stem 9Aoot7stemm formed some cases not by an infle ional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation<7no form suffi es. >utation was used to define number and gender of noun. 8tem 7 part of the word comparasing9connected< root and stem. HE 3 @oun have no gender. " group e ist in >E in Xl form. The one is the former a7declention and n7decl, which of former feminine noun9 weak decl<. The root7decl. has lost some words, but it cont to e ist. The noun has " cases: the =ommon and Xossessive. The weak decl. has no case forms at all. @oun was re5ected into reduction of their fle ion. #ll vowels endings Se7. OE a7stem, became the productive type. Drammatical gender was lost and difference between Keak and 8trong decl. disappeared. 97n<]: 7s7 became for Xl all nouns 9for D<. 8ome nouns retain Xl with o7infle ions. [or root7stem nouns their mutated forms were used only in Xl. Keak decl. Sn7 e press the Xl. The 5i2e o. 0he a50i/le2 i2 E-7li2h =auses: O.loss of strong weak declensions of ad5ectives 7 articles wereemployed to show definiteness indefiniteness. ".word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. zefinite articles 7I mascul, singular se Indefinite

article 7I an 9 one<9numeral<. It had case declension 7I in * >iddle English cases were lost, O}th century an I oon]one 7I a]an

O\ The evolu0io- o5 @5o-ou-* OE Xronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories: personal 9now I, you<, demonstr 9this, that<, interrogative 9who, which<, possesive 9my, his<, indefinite 9one, some<, negative 9noybody<. In OE personal pron. Cad } persons, O," had } numbers: 8g, Xl, dual. }X. 8g, Xl had } genders in 8g. S m,f,n. HE 3 Xerson. Xron OX change Ich into Ea5ly `E I. "X S>E thou]thow into @E 7thou]ye, }X S>E m7he, f7 he]she, n7hit, it into @E S he, she, it. The forms of the dual number of the Ost and "nd p. went into disuse in Early >E. two cases fell togetherm zat. and #ce. m into what may be called the Ob5. case but its distinction from the @om. case was preserved. In gate >E the paradigm of personal pronouns consisted of two cases: @om. and Ob5. The OE Den. case of personal pronouns split from the other forms and turned into a new class of pronouns m @o22e22ive. In >E possessive pron lost thir declention. 8ome possessive pronouns had two variant forms in >E: m!ne/m!,our.e0/ours, etc. #ppears a new type of pron S 5e.le1ive. The appeared from obli6ue case7forms of personal pronounsy>E Xossesivey ad5ective self. Le:o-205a0ive =5o-ou-2* There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of @E that, which distinguished three genders in the sg. #nd had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the prototype of this. They were declined like ad5ectives according to a five7case system: @om., Den., zat., #cc., and Instr. In >E they lost category of case and gender, preserve only number. Thetheo7thes7this S8g and these7Xl. Keak form of zem. Xron was used as a definite of the noun]formal indicator of noun. . The 5i2e o. 0he a50i/le2 i2 E-7li2h Bau2e28 O.loss of strong weak declensions of ad5ectives 7 articles were employed to show definiteness indefiniteness. ".word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. zefinite articles 7I mascul, singular se in the O}th c. the uninflected oon]one and their reduced forms an]a Indefinite article 7I an 9 one< 9numeral<. It had case declension 7I in. >iddle English cases were lost, O}th century an I oon]one 7I a]an OE demonstrative and interrogative pronouns became thesource of a new type of pronouns m relative.qela0ive @5o- S 5oined in subordinate clauses9from interog. Xron< Oc The evolu0io- o. a<Ye/0ive* In OE the ad5ective was declined to show the gender, case and number of the noun it modifiedY it had a five7case paradigm and two types of declension, weak and strong. In >E lost all its grammatical categories with the e ception of the degrees of comparison. The first category to disappear was Dender, which ceased to be distinguished by the ad5ective in the OOth c. The number of cases shown in the ad5ective paradigm was reduced: the Instr. case had fused with the zat. by the end of OEY In the O}th c. case could be shown only by some variable ad5ective endings in the strong declension 9but not by the weak forms<Y towards the end of the century all case distinctions were lost. #d5ectives lost agreement with the noun, but the weak ending 7e still remained. Le75ee2 o. Bo:@a5i2o- G In OE the forms of the comparative and the superlative degree, like all the grammatical forms, were synthetic: they were built by adding the suffi es (ra and (estl(ost, to the form of the positive degree. In >E the comparative degree is formed with the suffi 7er, and superlative with the suffi S est.

The alternation of root7vowels in Early @E survived in the ad5ective old, elder, eldest, where the difference in meaning from older, oldest, made the formal distinction essential. O4 The evolu0io- o. /o-2o-a-0 English consonants were on the whole far more stable than vowels. # large number of consonants have probably remained unchanged through all historical periods. Thus we can assume that the sonorants Gm, n, lH, plosives Gp,b, t, dH and also Gk, gH in most positions have not been sub5ected to any noticeable changes. The most important developments in the history of English consonants were the growth of new sets of sounds, 7 affricates and sibilants. X5ow0h o. 2i9ila-02 a-< a..5i/a0e2 In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, e cept Gs, EH. the new type of consonants developed from OE palatal plosives GkJ, gJH, which had split from the corresponding velar plosives GkH and GgH, and also from the consonant cluster GskJH. The three new phonemes which arose from these sources were Gt~H, GdNH and G~H. In Early >E they began to be indicated by special letters and digraphs, which came into use mainly under the influence of the [rench scribal tradition S ch, tch, g, dg, sh, ssh, sch. #s a result of these changes S and also as a result of the vocaliEation of GaH S the consonant system in gate >E was in some respects different from the OE system. Xalatal sonsonant finished palataliEation: k7g, sk7~ 7sh. #ll palatal consonants disappeared. There was some dropping9,0Z(/*3&(< of consonants in initial position before sonorant. Clof7lof, hlafa7 lord. In 8outhern dialect Sf7 in initial position turn into Sv7. focaliEation of 7N7 in the initial position before front vowel. N7 formed new diphthong after front vowels. N S 5 Sinitial, N S I S final. 9d:N Sday GaiH, weN S wei GeiH, f:Ner Sfair GaiH Smiddle position< `E [rom the combination of ]ng] appeared a phoneme ] ]. goss of consonants in some groups: foiceless velar fricative lost in ]night]Y pronounced as f in ]laugh]. GbH dropped in final 7mb cluster 9dumb, comb<. GlH dropped betweenG aH or GoH and consonant 9half, walk, talk, folk<. GrH dropped sometimes before GsH 9Korcestershire<. GkH and GgH dropped before]n]in initial position 9knee, knight, gnat7nat<. GgH in 7ing endings 9more commonly pronounced GnH<. [inally, assibilation occurred when the alveolars GsH, GdH, GtH, and GEH preceded the palatal glide G5H, producing the palatal consonants: GH, GH, GH, GH. 57:9decision<, t57Z9nature<, d57 dN9solder<. ]w]dropped before ]r] in the initial position9wright7right<. ]h] is dropped in the middle position Swhich7wich. ]p] is not pronounced in the initial position Sphysiology. @E vocaliEation of ]r]9diphton7on< between the vowel and ]r] appeared, then ]r] was reduced9,0d+*.(3*<. Aesults: ]e:]7]i:]7]ir]7here, dear. ]N:]7]e:]7]Nr]bear and ]ir]7clear. ]a:]7]ei:]7]Nr] 7care, dare. ]o:]7]u:]7]ur]7poor, moor. + ^u9Ye/0 :a00e5 a-< ai:2* ^ou5/e2 o. la-7 hi20o5y* ^u9Ye/0 is the historical development of E. language: phonetic structure and spelling, evolution of grammatical system and growth of vocabulary, so as to understand a current status of language, we should to e amine each phenomenon of modern language as known result of long historical development. ganguage constantly develops under the certain laws. The law o. <evelo@:e-0 o. fa-7ua7e8 The gaw of gradual transition of language from one 6uality to another, thus elements of new 6uality slowly collect, and elements of old 6uality slowly die off. #ll the modern languages trace their roots back to great anti6uity. It means, that elements of modern English language laid during period, when the tribes of #ngles, 8a ones and Ptes still lived on the European continent, long before 7th century #.z. 8ince that time the grammatical system of language slowly changed, and its vocabulary structure contained new words. These changes occurred in close relations with development of the society. The >anufacture began to develop, the states are appeared, there was a literature and writing, and the printing7press has been invented.

The ai:2 3 we should achieved both theretical and practical eimes 8o, o-e o. 0he ai:2 i2 0o @5ovi<e 0he 20u<e-0 wi0h a 6-owle<7e o. li-7ui20i/ hi20o5y 2u..i/ie-0 0o a//ou-0 .o5 0he @5i-/i@al .ea0u5e2 o. @5e2e-0G<ay English. [or e ample, through centuries writing and spelling was changing in English. #t the time when gatin letters were first used in ?ritain 9th c.< writing was phonetic: the letters stood for the same sound. #fter the introduction of printing 9Oth c.< the written form of the word became fi ed, while the sounds continued to change. Z-o0he5 i:@o50a-0 ai: o. 0hi2 /ou52e i2 o. a :o5e 0heo5e0i/al -a0u5e* Khile tracing the evolution of the English language through time, the student will be confronted with a number of theoretical 6uestions such as the relationship between statics and dynamics in language, the role of linguistic and e tralinguistic factors and so on. O-e :o5e ai: o. 0hi2 /ou52e i2 0o @5ovi<e 0he 20u<e-0 o. E-7li2h wi0h a wi<e5 @hilolo7i/al ou0loo6* The hi20o5y o. 0he E-7li2h la-7ua7e 2how2 0he @la/e o. E-7li2h i- 0he li-7ui20i/ wo5l<* 2 Xe5:a-i/ i-va2io-* po5:a0io- o. 0he X* 20a0e2 The th c. was the age of increased Dermanic e pansion. The history of the English language begins with the invasion of the ?ritish Isles by Dermanic tribes in the th c. of our era. @ewcomers were of the } races of Dermany: the 8a ons, the #ngles and utes. #ngels and 8a ons the were called by Aomans and by celts S #ngelcyn. #nd their con6ued territories #ngelcunes land. The story of the invasion is told by ?ede 9}7}<, a monastic scholar who wrote the first history of England, CI8TOAI# E==gE8I#8TI=# DE@TI8 #@DgOAP>. #ccording to ?ede, the invaders came to ?ritain in #.z. under the leadership of two Dermanic kings, Cengist and Corsa. The first wave of invaders, the utes or the [risians, occupied the e treme south7east: {ent and the Isle of Kight. The second wave of immigrants was largely made up of the 8a ons, who had been e panding westwards across [risia to the Ahine and to what is known as @ormandy. The 8a ons consolidated into a number of petty kingdoms, the largest and the most powerful of them was Kesse . gast came the #ngles from the lower valley of the Elbe and southern zenmark. They made their landing on the east coast and moved up the rivers to the central part of the island. #ngles founded large kingdoms: East #nglia, >ercia, and @orthumbria. O The ^/a-<i-avia- i-va2io-oi-.lue-2 u@o- E-7li2h* In the th century 8candinavian zanes made their Ost attacks on England. Ce struggle lasted over } years. Then {ing #lfred proclaimed peace treaty of . England was divided into halves: the north7eastern 9zanish< and called zanelagh. #nd south7western 9Kesse <. ?ut in O century OO} zanish attacked again headed by 8weyn and =anute. #nd =anute was a king of England. Pnder =anute death O} England became independent. # most important role in the history of the English language was played by the introduction of =hristianity. It gave a strong impulse to the growth of culture and learning. >onasteries were founded all over the country with monastic schools attached. Aeligious services and teaching were conducted in gatin. Thus due to the introduction of =hristianity the English language ac6uired much influence from gatin. ,-.lue-/e7 The Dermanic tribes in th and th c. spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the west7Dermanic subgroup. Their original tongue transformed into single English tongue. @e t S feudal system and a new phase in dialects. 9{entish, Kest 8a on, >ercian, @orthumblian< 4 `o5:a- Bo-rue20* The 205u77le E-7op5e-/h* #fter =anute death, Edward was king of England. In O, upon EdwardJs death, the Elders of England proclaimed Carold Dodwin king of England. #s soon as the news reached Killiam of @ormandy, he mustered 9gathered< a big army by promise of land and, with the support of the Xope, landed in ?ritain. In the battle of Castings, fought in October O, Carold was killed and the English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date of the @orman =on6uest. #fter their battle, Killiam crown king and then he called the =on6ueror.

#fter a @orman con6uest both secular and church power completely belongs to @ormans. The population of cities was mi ed: it included both English, and @orman handicraftsmen 9+(V(,1<. The ruling class was feudal aristocracy and clergy 7 consisted of people of a @orman origin. The local population, both in countrysides, and in the cities continued to speak in English. The 205u77le 9e0wee- E-7li2h a-< p5e-/h* v'3*d0, *341&R,d&R WQ1 3( ('&3,/%(33QV ;NQd0V, 3* d0/0+0V 40%0+&1& & )&,*1& )0,1( 30+V*3',d040 N*%0(%*3&;. s*d ,d*N*30 %Qj(, )0W('&/(1& )+&3(,1& , ,0W0F 2+*3i-N,d&R ;NQdY /0Z3((, (40 ,(%(+3QR '&*1(d/ 7 30+V*3',d&R. $ /(Z(3&( W1&:*Rj&k )0,1( N*%0(%*3&R ,/01(/&R % 341&& 0W+*N0%*1,; /*d 3*NQ%*(VQR I$G$RI$JDs DI%J". $ /(Z(3&( bII7bIII %%. *3410730+V*3',d&R WQ1 40,-'*+,/%(33QV ;NQd0V 341&&. , /+(/e&V ;NQd0V, 2-3di&03&+0%*%j&V % ,/+*3(, WQ1* 1*/Q3e, d0/0+*; % 341&&, d*d & %0 %,(R l*)*'30R x%+0)(, WQ1* ;NQd0V i(+d0%3040 0W&k0'* & ;NQd0V 3*-d&. *d&V 0W+*N0V, % 341&& ,0,-.(,/%0%*1& /+& ;NQd*: *341&R,d&R, 2+*3i-N,d&R 9*3410730+V*3',d&R< & 1*/Q3e. h(+%QV 40,-'*+,/%(33QV '0d-V(3/0V, 3*)&,*33QV 3* *341&R,d0V ;NQd(, WQ1* h+0d1*V*i&; t(3+&k* III 9O" 4.<. v3* 3*)&,*3* 3* 103'03,d0V '&*1(d/(. )+()0'*%*3&( % jd01*k 3*Z&3*(/ %(,/&,e 3* *341&R,d0VY %)(+%Q( *341&R,d&R ;NQd ,/*1 &N+('d* N%-Z*/e % )*+1*V(3/(, s d03i- bIf %. *341&R,d&R 0d03Z*/(1e30 ,/*1 40,-'*+,/%(33QV ;NQd0V. M Ol< E* <iale/02* OE w5i00e- 5e/o5<* t(+V*3iQ 0W+*N0%*1& ,(Ve d0+01(%,/%Y r/0 WQ1& w0+/-VW+&;, (+,&;, $0,/0Z3*; 341&;, o,,(d,, -,,(d, & r,,(d, & s(3/. o/& ,(Ve 40,-'*+,/% 0W('&3&1&,e % S%"'% $#$'g J%#"#I 7 w0+/-VW+&F, (+,&F, r,,(d, & s(3/, % 4+*3&i*k d0/0+Qk 0W+*N0%*1&,e Z(/Q+( '&*1(d/*: 30+/-VW+&R,d&R, V(+,&R,d&R, -r,,(d,d&R & d(3/,d&R. Old English developed into four ma5or dialects: @orthumbrian, >ercianY {entish, and Kest 8a on. Ol< E-7li2h w5i00e- 5e/o5<2 3 The Ost was runic alphabet consist of " sighs, contain only vertical and inclined lines. #fter Ost letter this alphabet is called [PTC#A{. It is found only two best known runi inscription:9the Authwell =ross<. #nd the " nd [rank =asket. The total number of inscriptions is . >onuments of writing share on prosaic and poetic. !t%JJDs DI%J". 3410,*d,03,d*; k+03&d*. v3* ,-.(,/%-(/ % %&'( +;'* )*+*11(1e3Qk chronicls, 3*Z&3*; , %. w*&W01(( %*:30R ;%1;(/,; /*d 3*NQ%*(V*; h*+d(+0%,d*; k+03&d*, d0/0+*; %(1*,e '0 d03i* %.3* -r,,(d,d0V '&*1(d/(. s %. 0/30,;/,; )(+(%0'Q, ,'(1*33Q( d0+01(V 1e2+('0V: O< ur* Xastoralis 9l*W0/* )*,/Q+;< 7)+0&N%('(3&( )*)Q Dregory I. s O %. 0/30,;/,; the works priest o1e2+&d* 9)+0)0%('&, )(+(%0' c,d-,,/%* 4+*VV*/&d& & '+.<Y d OO %.7 the Comilies of Kulstan. u%DsJDs DI%J". The translations of Xsalter 9Ib %.<, glosses 9 %.< & church 4&V3Q. v"iR&DsJDs DI%J". " runic inscriptions, 0)&,*33Q( %Qj(Y The Dospel was translated by latin, ?edeJs CI8TOAI# E==gE8I#8TI=# DE@TI8 #@DgOAP> 9written in gatin in the th c.< contains and English fragment of five lines known as ?edeJs zeath 8ong! and a religious poem of nine lines, =admonJs Cymn!.w*)&,*3* 3* 1*/&3,d0V & % Ib %. 03* WQ1* )(+(%('(3* 3* '+(%3(*341&R,d&R )(+(%0'Z&d*V& jd01Q d0+01; 1e2+('*. wt"DS%JD% IRC"$DJD. The greatest poem of that time was ?EOKPg[, an epic of the th or th c. *%/0+ d0/0+0R 3(&N%(,/(3Y The poems of monc sF3(%-1e2* 7 Celen, uliana, #ndrewY >ain Xeculiarities of OE poetryO.Old Dermanic alliterative verse.". The 8ines are not rhymed.}. The number of the syllables to a line is free, but the number of stressed syllables is fi ed.. Each line is divided intoo " halves and each half begins with one and the same sound.. There are at least " stressed syllables in a line, one in each half.. >etaphorical phrases. b Bh5o-olo7i/al <ivi2io- i- 0he Eo. E la-7* Traditional periodiEation divides E into } periods: OE, >E, @E. OE begins with Dermanic setlments of ?ritaine9 th c<or with the beginning of writtin9< and ends with @orman =on6uest.9O<. >E Swith @orman =on6uest and ends on the

introduction of printing 9O<. 8o then start @E and lasts to the present day. 8ome authors called them S early, classi al and late. The +20 @e5io<, which may be termed Early Old English. It is the stage of the tribal dialects of the Kest Dermanic invaders, which were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues. The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being no written form of English. The 2-<@e5io< OE]#nglo78a on e tends from the th c. till the end of the OOth. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects. The language of this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a more or less stable system. The O5< @e5io<, known as Early >iddle English, starts after O, the year of the @orman =on6uest, and covers the O"th, O}th and half of the Oth c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences S 8candinavian and [rench. Pnder @orman rule the official language in England was [rench, or rather its variety called #nglo7[rench or #nglo7@ormanY it was also the dominant language of literature. 9from syntactic into analytic<. The 40h @e5io< S from the later Oth c. till the end of the Oth S known the age of =haucer, =lassical >E. It was the time of literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mi ed dialect of gondon. C. 8weet called this period! leveled endings!, because most of inflections in the nominal system had fallen together. The M0h @e5io< is called Early @ew English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of 8hakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by Killiam =a ton in O. This period was also a time of sweeping changes at all levels, in the first place le ical and phonetic. The b0h @e5io< e tends from the mid7Oth c. to the close of the Oth c. In the history of the language it is often called the age of normaliEation and correctness. The Oth c. has been called the period of fi ing the pronunciation!. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabiliEed. Kord usage and grammatical construction were sub5ected to restriction and normaliEation. The \0h @e5io< in the history of English. It is called gate @ew English or >odern English. The "th c. witnessed considerable intermi ture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated and displaced by 8tandard English. The English vocabulary has grown. d fo-<o- <iale/0* The history of the gondon dialect reveals the sources of the literary language in gate >E and also the main source and basis of the giterary 8tandard, both in its written and spoken forms. The history of gondon e tends back to the Aoman period. Even in OE times gondon was by far the biggest town in ?ritain, although the capital of Kesse m the main OE kingdom m was Kinchester. The capital was transferred to gondon a few years before the @orman =on6uest. The Early >E records made in gondon mbeginning with the XAO=g#>#TIO@ of O" m show that the dialect of gondon was fundamentally East 8a onY in terms of the >E division, it belonged to the 8outhwestern dialect group. gater records indicate that the speech of gondon was becoming more mi ed, with East >idland features gradually prevailing over the 8outhern features. In the middle of the Oth c. gondon was practically depopulated during the ?lack zeath 9O}<. #bout one third of the population of ?ritain died in the epidemics. >ost of the new arrivals came from the East >idlands. #s a result the speech of gondoners was brought much closer to the East >idland dialect. The .lou5i2hi-7 o. li0e5a0u5e, whi/h :a562 0he 2e/o-< hal. o. 0he +40h /* This period of literary florescence is known as the age of =haucer, the greatest name in English literature before 8hakespeare. x40 )+0&N%('(3&; =anterbury Tales, # gegend of Dood Komen. Of greatest linguistic conse6uence was the activity of ohn Kyclif 9O}"mO}<, the forerunner of the English Aeformation. Cis most important contribution to English prose was his translation of the ?I?gE completed in O}. p03'03,d&R '&*1(d/ 3*Z*1*

bIf %. )+(',/*%1(3 ,/&k0/%0+(3&;V& '*V* r%&Y %/0+*; )010%&3* )+0&N%('(3&;V& :(22+& 0,(+*, :03* t*-r+* & :03* &d1&2*. ++ OE wo5<G20o/6* Kord stock include }O. words, donJt represent the total number of words. " group of word: O.@ative and ".?orrowings. `a0ive 3are not Comogeneous in their origin. =ommon IE words, =ommon Dermanic 8pecifically OE words. 9most encient part of vocab. This is word of natural phenomena, anomals, human body.< ".=ommon Dermanic9wide layer7,10R< formed independent le . Droup. }.8cpecificall OE words:9donJt occur in other lang.< =ompound wifman or wimman9woman< consist of " roots which occurred in a separate words in other OD lang. 4o55owi-72G from other lang.9very small portions of word7stock<. >a5or borrow. Kere adopted after contact of people in everyday life* fa0i- 9o55ow. S it was well known because of historical events. 9Aoman con6uer, introduction of =hristianity and other<. gatin borrow divided into several layers: O.when Kest Dermanic tribes settled in ?ritanie, #nglo78a on invasion. OE borrow from gatin indicate new things 9trade, agriculture, building, home life<. Through =elts 9were some place7names:e.g: camp< =hristianity: O.word pertaining to religion. ".word connected with learning. E.g! clericos. One more impact is called translations! S word and phrases created on the partten of gatin words as their literal translations. Bel0i/ 9o55ow 3 is very small vocab. Derm. tribes assimilated with celtic tribes. #mong celtic words: cumb7small valey, #von7 river. c The :a6i-7 o. 0he -a0io-al la-7* zuring O century gondon literary lang.gradually e tends, superseding the local dialects. p&/.;NQd gets into all spheres of relations. collo6uial speech in various areas of England gradually 5oins in the general 1&/.30+V-, and distinctions between written norm and is national7spoken speach are lost. In O% the developing of *341 as national language is finished. zialects become actually unwritten, /.d.3*i.;NQd 9on the basis of gondon 1&/.;NQd*< covers all the spheres connected with writing: state documentation, scientific and k-'.1&/7+-. Dradually 4*i.;NQd e tends more and more, modifying and absorbing dialects. +2 ]5i00e- i- OE The 5u-i/ al@ha9e0 The runic alphabet is a specifically Dermanic alphabet, not to be found in languages of other groups. The word rune originally meant JsecretJ, mysteryJ and hence came to denote inscriptions believed to be magic. The runes were used as letters, each symbol to indicate separate sound. This alphabet is called futhark after the first si letters. Aunic letters are angularY straight lines are preferred, curved lines avoidedY this is due to the fact that runic inscriptions were cut in hard material: stone, bone or wood. The shapes of some letters resemble those of Dreek or gatin, other have not been traced to any known alphabet, and the order of the runes in the alphabet is certainly original. The number of runes in different OD languages varied. #s compared to continental, the number of runes in England was larger: new runes were added as new sounds appeared in English 9from " to }} runes in ?ritain against O or " on the continent<. The main use of runes was to make short inscriptions on ob5ects, often to bestow on them some special power or magic. The two best known runic inscriptions in England are the earliest e tant OE written records. One of them is and inscription on a bo called the [ranks =asket!, the other is a short te t on a stone cross near the village of Authwell known as the Authwell =ross!. Old English alphabet and pronunciation

OE scribes used two kinds of letters: the runes and the letters of the gatin alphabet. The bulk of the OE material is written in the gatin script. The use of gatin letters in English differed in some points from their use in gatin, for the scribes made certain modifications and additions in order to indicate OE sounds. The most interesting peculiarity of OE writing was the use of some runic characters, in the first place, the rune called thorn! which was employed alongside the crossed d, to indicate GthH and GH. In the manuscripts one more rune was regularly used S wynn! for the sound GwH. gike any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate sound. This principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest stages of phonetic spelling. 8ome OE letters indicated two or more sounds, even distinct phonemes. The letters could indicate short and long sounds. In reading OE te ts one should observe the following rules for letters indicating more than one sound. The letters f, s and GthH, GH stand for voiced fricatives between vowels and also between a vowel and a voiced consonantY otherwise they indicate corresponding voiceless fricatives. The letter N stands for GgH initially before back vowels, for G5H before and after front vowels, for GaH between back vowels and for GgJH mostly when preceded by c: OE daN G5H The letter h stands for G H between a back vowel and a consonant and also initially before consonants and for G JH ne t to front vowels: OE niht G JH The letter n stands for GnH in all positions e cept when followed by GkH or GgHY in this case it indicates GH: OE sinNan. +O :o5@holo7i/al /la22i.i/a0io- o. 0he ve59 i- OE The ma5ority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verbs. ?esides these two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as minor! groups. The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the principal parts, or stems! of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding certain suffi esY in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Xast Tense S one for the Ost and }rd p. sg Ind. >ood, the other S for the other Xast tense forms, Ind. and 8ub5. the weak verbs derived their Xast tense stem and the stem of Xarticiple II from the Xresent tense stem with the help of the dental suffi 7d7 or 7t7Y normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs suffi ation was accompanied by a vowel interchange. >inor groups of verbs differed from the weak and strong verbs. 8ome of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a peculiar way 9preterite7present! verbs<Y others were suppletive or altogether anomalous. ^05o-7 ae592 The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into seven classes. =lasses from O to use vowel gradation which goes back to the IE ablaut7series modified in different phonetic conditions in accordance with XD and Early OE sound changes. =lass includes reduplicating verbs, which originally built their past forms by means of repeating the root7morphemeY this doubled root gave rise to a specific kind of root7vowel interchange. The principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings irrespective of class: 7an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Xast sg stem, 7on in the form of Xast pl, 7en for Xarticiple II. ]ea6 ae592 The number of weak verbs in OE by far e ceeded that of strong verbs. The verbs of =lass I usually were i7stems, originally contained the element G7i]75H between the root and the endings. The verbs of =lass II were built with the help of the stem7suffi 7T, or 7T5 and are known as T7stems. =lass III was made up of a few survivals of the XD third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly 757stems. Hi-o5 75ou@2 o. ae592 The most important group of these verbs were the so7called preterite7 presents! or past7present! verbs. Originally the Xresent tense forms of these verbs were Xast tense

forms. gater these forms ac6uired a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Xast tense. >ost of these verbs had new Xast Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffi . 8ome of them also ac6uired the forms of the verbals: Xarticiples and Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite7present verbs. 8i of them have survived in >od E: OE MNY cunnanY cannY dear9r<, sculan, scealY maNan, m:NY mTt 9@E owe, oughtY canY dareY shallY mayY must<. >ost preterite7presents did not indicate actions, but e pressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb, an Infinitive which followed the preterite7present. In other words they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into modern modal verbs. +M, ++ po5ei7- ele:e-02 i- 0he OE vo/a9ula5y The OE vocabulary was almost purely DermanicY e cept for a small number of borrowings, it consisted of native words inherited from XD or formed from native roots and affi es. `a0ive wo5<2 @ative OE words can be subdivided into a number of etymological layers from different historical periods. The three main layers in the native OE words are: a< common IE wordsY b< common Dermanic wordsY c< specifically OE words. Kords belonging to the common IE layer constitute the oldest part of the OE vocabulary. #mong these words we find names of some natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultural terms, names of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, etc.Y this layer includes personal and demonstrative pronouns and most numerals. ferbs belonging to this layer denote the basic activities of manY ad5ectives indicate the most essential 6ualities. The common Dermanic layer includes words which are shared by most Dermanic languages, but do not occur outside the group. ?eing specifically Dermanic, these words constitute an important distinctive mark of the Dermanic languages at the le ical level. This layer is certainly smaller than the layer of common IE words. 8emantically these words are connected with nature, with the sea and everyday life. The third etymological layer of native words can be defined as specifically OE, that is words which do not occur in other Dermanic or non7Dermanic languages. These words are few, if we include here only the words whose roots have not been found outside English: OE clipian callJ, OE brid 9@E bird< and several others. Cowever, they are far more numerous if we include in this layer OE compounds and derived words formed from Dermanic roots in England, e.g. OE w\fman or wimman 9@E woman< consists of two roots which occurred as separate words in other OD languages, but formed a compound only in OE. po5ei7- ele:e-02 i- 0he OE vo/a9ula5y #lthough borrowed words constituted only a small portion of the OE vocabulary S all in all about si hundred words, 7 they are of great interest for linguistic and historical study. OE borrowings come from two sources: =eltic and gatin. 4o55owi-72 .5o: Bel0i/ There are very few =eltic loan7words in the OE vocabulary, for there must have been little intermi ture between the Dermanic settlers and the =eltic in ?ritain. Though in some parts of the island the =elts population was not e terminated during the KD invasion, linguistic evidence of =eltic influence is meager. #bundant borrowing from =eltic is to be found only in place7names. The OE kingdoms {ent, zeira and ?ernicia derive their names from the names of =eltic tribes. The name of Bork, the zowns and perhaps gondon have been traced to =eltic sources. farious =eltic

designations of riverJ and waterJ were understood by the Dermanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Esk, E e, #vonY Thames, 8tour, zover also come from =eltic. >any place7names with =eltic elements are hybridsY the =eltic component, combined with a gatin or a Dermanic component, makes a compound place7name, e.g.: =eltic plus gatin: >an7chester, Kin7chester, gan7casterY =eltic plus Dermanic: Bork7shire, =orn7wall, zevon7shire, =anter7bury. fa0i- i-.lue-/e o- 0he OE vo/a9ula5y gatin words entered the English language at different stages of OE history. =hronologically they can be devided into several layers. The earliest layer comprises words which the KD tribes brought from the continent when they came to settle in ?ritain. =ontact with the Aoman civiliEation began a long time before the #nglo78a on invasion. Early OE borrowings from gatin indicate the new things and concepts which the Teutons had learnt from the Aomans. They pertain to war, trade, agriculture, building and home life. #mong the gatin loan7words adopted in ?ritain were some place7names made of gatin and Dermanic components, e.g. Xortsmouth, Dreenport, Dreenwich. The ne t period of gatin influence on the OE vocabulary began with the introduction of =hristianity in the late th c. and lasted to the end of OE. @umerous gatin words which found their way into the English language during these five hundred years clearly fall into two main groups: O< words pertaining to religion "< words connected with learning. The gatin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to borrowing of words. There were also other aspects of influence. The most important of them is the appearance of the so7called translation7loans! S words and phrases created on the pattern of gatin words as their literal translations. The earliest instances of translation7loans are names of the days of the week found not only in OE but also in other Old Dermanic languages. OE >Tnan7d-N 9>onday< day of the moonJ, g gunae dies. +d ,-05o<u/0io- o. @5i-0i-7* O %.S)0;%1(3&( d3&40)(Z*/*3e;. 341&R,d&V )(+%0)(Z*/3&d0V WQ1 &1e;V srd,/03, -+0:(3(i s(3/*, '0140 ,1-:&1 % w&'(+1*3'*k, 4'( )0N3*d0V&1,; , 30%QV &N0W+(/(3&(V. h(+%-F d3&4- 3* *.;. The collection of stories about Troy 03 3*)(Z*/*1 % O., *,)+0,/+*3(3&(9spread9ing< )(Z*/3Qk d3&4 0Z(3e ,0'(R,/%0%*10 30+V*1&N*i&& ;NQd* % 0W1*,/& 4+*2&d& & 0+204+*2&&. h(+%Q( 4+*VV*/&d& *.;. ,/+0&1&,e )0 0W+*Ni- 1*/&3,d&k. o/0 S 4+*VV*/&d& (3* :03,03*, . */1(+*, :. 011&,* 9O %.<. $ 4+*VV*/&d*k O7O %% lay down " tendenses: 0'3& grammarian ,Z&/*1&, Z/0 ;NQd '01:(3 based on +*N-V*! 9reason!<, /.(. &N 104&d&. +-4&( ,Z&/*1&, Z/0 )+& -,/*30%1(3&& )+*%&1 ,1('-(/ &,k0'&/e &N ,-.(,/%-F.(40 0WQZ*; 9usage!<. w0 0W* r/& 3*)+*%1(3&; 3( ,&1e30 0/1&Z*1&,e.

22 X5a::a5 a-< <i/0io-a5ie2 i- +\o+d /* h(+%Q( 4+*VV*/&d& *.;. ,/+0&1&,e )0 0W+*Ni- 1*/&3,d&k. o/0 S 4+*VV*/&d& (3* :03,03*, . */1(+*, :. 011&,* 9O %.<. $ 4+*VV*/&d*k O7O %% lay down " tendenses: 0'3& grammarian ,Z&/*1&, Z/0 ;NQd '01:(3 based on +*N-V*! 9reason!<, /.(. &N 104&d&. +-4&( ,Z&/*1&, Z/0 )+& -,/*30%1(3&& )+*%&1 ,1('-(/ &,k0'&/e &N ,-.(,/%-F.(40 0WQZ*; 9usage!<. w0 0W* r/& 3*)+*%1(3&; 3( ,&1e30 0/1&Z*1&,e. The largest representative of the principle based on logic, A.gaut, the author of the book ?rief introduction in English grammar ! 9O< is, this book contains a number of recommendations and prohibitions. The opposite representative is :. Xriestley, the author of the book of the ?asis of English grammar ! 9OO<.

In O #merican gindle5 >arre5 has published grammar English Drammar ! which has got enormous authority. The first dictionaries 9O%.< were bilingual english dictionaries, but in O%. there are dictionaries of difficult words 7 Aobert {odriqs dictionaries, s*d+*V*, etc. They included archaisms and latin little7used loans. The first e planatory dictionary has been made by @atanielem ?ailey 9O"O4< the Pniversal etymological dictionary !. It is very important publishing of the dictionary zictionary of the English language ! 8em5uel5a ohnson 9O4<. It was based on works of authors befor of Aestorationqs epoch of the end O7,(+O%. It aspired to keep traditional spelling.

+c qe7io-al va5ie0ie2 o. E Two varieties of English in Dreat ?ritain distinguished from 8tandard English78cottish, and #nglo7Irish 7 claimed to be literary tongues 8cottish English reemerged again into literary eminence, after a decline in the Oth c n the poetry of Aobert ?urns 9O7O<. The literary tradition was not given up in the Oth c.: a series of poets employed the 8cottish dialect in depicting the grievances of the common people. [or the most part, however, 8cottish English was used for oral intercourse by the less educated people, while a Aegional >odified 8tandard displaced it in other functOOns. #s elsewhere the local dialect was transformed into a social local dialect used by the lower classes. zespite the attempts to revive the =eltic tongue Daelic or Irish 9which was one of the ma5or issues in the vigorous struggle for home rule in the Oth c < , by Oz a variety of English with a strong rish accent, known as the brogue, had become the main lanfuage of the population 8ome authorities regard #nglo7Irish as a separate geographical variant of English possessing an independent national 8tandard, others treat it as a locadialect. #nglo7Irish is the official language of @orthern Ireland and Eire and also the language of literature, school and universities. 2[ Xeo75a@hi/al E1@a-2io- o. 0he E-7li2h Englandqs colonial e pansion to the @ew Korld began in the late Oth c. when her first colonies were set up in @ewfoundland 9O}<. later colonists came from other regions, including 8cotland and Ireland. Immigrants to the 8outhern areas were of a higher class origin. >any immigrants from Dreat ?ritain settled in the Kest Indies, which,became a part of the ?ritish Empire in the Oth c. qThe colonists spoke different dialects of English. In @orth #merica those dialects gradually blended into a new type of the language, #merican EnglishY contacts with other languages, especially 8panish in the 8outh and [rench in =anada, have played a certain role in its development. The e pansion of English to #sia is mainly connected with the occupation of India. India was one of the main issues in the colonial struggle of European powers in the Oth c. In the first half of the Oth c. India became a ?ritish colony and ?ritain ac6uired other possessions in #sia, turning them into colonies, dominions or protectorates. Thus the English language e tended to many areas in #sia, as the language of the state and writing. #ustralia was a place of deportation of ?ritish convicts since the late Oth c. # flow of immigrants were attracted to #ustralia, at first by the free grants of land, later m by the discovery of gold. ?ritish penetration into #frica was a lengthy affair that e tended over the Oth c. In conse6uence of financial dependence on ?ritish capital, 8udan and Egypt fell under ?ritish political control.

 2+ ]5i00e- qe/o5<2 i- fa0e Hi<<le E-7li2h* The flourishing of literature, which marks the second half of the Oth c * This period of literary florescence is known as the age of =haucer, the greatest name in English literature before 8hakespeare. x40 )+0&N%('(3&; =anterbury Tales, # gegend of Dood Komen. Of greatest linguistic conse6uence was the activity of ohn Kyclif 9O}"mO}<, the forerunner of the English Aeformation. Cis most important contribution to English prose was his translation of the ?I?gE completed in O}. p03'03,d&R '&*1(d/ 3*Z*1* bIf %. )+(',/*%1(3 ,/&k0/%0+(3&;V& '*V* r%&Y %/0+*; )010%&3* )+0&N%('(3&;V& :(22+& 0,(+*, :03* t*-r+* & :03* &d1&2*. The literary te ts of the late Oth c. preserved in numerous manuscripts, belong to a variety of genresTranslation continued, but originnal compositions were produced in abundanceY poetry was more prolific than prose. qohn Dower, =haucerqs friend and an outstanding poet of the time,was born in {ent, but there are not many {entisms in his gondon dialect. Cis first poems were written in #nglo7@orman and in gatin. Cis longest poem fOb =g#>#@TI8 9The foice of the =rying in the Kilderness<. Ke should mention one more poet whose name is unknown. [our feoems found in a single manuscript of the Oth c. m XE#Ag, X#TIE@=E.=gE#@@E88 and 8IA D#K#I@E #@z TCE DAEE@ {@IDCT it7 have been attributed to the same author. The poems are a blending of elaborate alliteration, in line with the OE tradition,and new rhymed verse, with a variety of difficult rhyme schemes.

2O Ei20o5i/al pou-<a0io-2 o. Ho<e5- E-7li2h ^@elli-7 The alphabetic way of writing was originally based on a phonetic principle: it was designed to give an accurate graphic representation of pronunciation by using letters to indicate sounds. >od E spelling displays many deviations from this principle. The reasons are to be found in the history of English sounds. OE spelling was phonetic: They attempted to use a separate letter for each distinct soundY the sound values of the letters were for the most part the same as in gatin. Their spellings, however, were not absolutely consistent, for some letters indicated two or more sounds: the letter } stood for four different phonemes, c m for twoY f, , and s indicated two allophones each 9which developed into phonemes later<. >E spelling innovations incorporated many sound changes which had taken place since the thmOth c, and spelling become more ambiguous and conventional. In many instances Y the one7to7one correspondence of letter and sound had been lost. >orel letters than before had two sound values: stood for oH, GuH, long o and G:HY c m for GsH and GkHY g m for GgH and GdNH, etc.Y u could even indicate three sounds m the vowels GuH and GyH and the consonant GvH. One and the same sound was commonly shown by different means: GdNH could be indicated by g, 5 or dg, GkH m by k, c and 6, etc. The digraphs introduced in >E look familiar to the modern reader, since many of them are still in

use, but their application in >E was rather contradictory. [or instance, both ou and ow were used for Gu:H and GoulY double stood for the open and close long Go:H and G:H alongside Y long Ge:l and G:H were shown indiscriminately by ie, double e and the single letter e. The conventional principle of spelling was later reinforced by the fi ation of the written form of the word in printing and by e tensive sound changes. The phoneticians and spelling reformers of the Oth c. strove to restrict the freedom of variation and to improve English orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and by the introduction of new symbols. They insisted upon a strict distinction between u and v when used to indicate a vowel and a consonant: GuH and GvH, e.g. Early @E loue, selues, vnripe, unshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe, unshakenY They introduced new digraphs to show the difference between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for G: H as distinguished from e, ee, and ie used for the closed Ge: H, and the digraph oa alongside in open syllables for Go:H, as contrasted to showing a long closed G:H. The use of double consonants became less fre6uent, e cept in traditional spellings like kiss, sell, but double letters were sometimes employed to show that the preceding vowel was short] O. The activities of the scholars in the period of normalisation m late Oth and the Oth c. m had a stabilising effect on the development of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars fi ed the written forms of the words as obligatory standards. Only a few innovations were made: a few new digraphs were adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps m @E photograph, psychology, ch m @E chemistry, scheme and machine, g m genre. In the Oth c. the sound changes slowed down. 8tandard pronunciation 9later known as AX m Aeceived Xronunciation< and standard spelling were firmly established,