1

MAE 455 notes for 11-8-07 & 11-13-07

Notes and Lectures by Dr. Hassan
7 urbu!ent "!o#s
1. $ntroduct%on
It is not easy to define turbulence. However, we can indicate its important features.
Probably, the most important characteristic of turbulence is its randomness. This makes a
deterministic approach extremely difficult and, in most cases, we rely on statistical methods.
The diffusivity of turbulence, which causes rapid mixing and increased rates of momentum and
heat transfer, is another feature.
The mean flow may be two or threedimensional. However, turbulence is three
dimensional and rotational and always occurs at high !eynolds numbers. "orticity plays a ma#or
role in turbulence$ thus, the random vorticity fluctuations that characteri%e turbulent flows,
cannot maintain themselves without the mechanism of vortex stretching which is absent in two
dimensional flows.
Turbulent flows are highly dissipative, viscous shear stresses perform deformation work
at the expense of the kinetic energy of turbulence. Thus, without the continuous supply of
energy provided the mean flow, turbulence cannot be sustained.
&inally, turbulence is not a property of the fluid, it is a property of the flow. Thus
turbulent flows are highly dependent on initial and boundary conditions.
&. urbu!ent 'oundary Layer E(uat%ons
Turbulent flows are governed by the exact unsteady 'avier(tokes e)uations. *ecause of
the large number of scales that exist in turbulent flows, current solutions of the unsteady 'avier
(tokes e)uations are limited to low !eynolds numbers and, as such, are not suited for
engineering applications. +s a result an approach based on a statistical description of turbulence
will be employed. This approach describes the manner in which turbulence affects the mean
flow.
In the statistical approach, a flow variable is set as the sum of a mean and fluctuating
)uantity. Thus, as an example,
, , , , - , , , , - , , , , - t z y x u t z y x u t z y x u +
-..1,
where

+

T t
t
dt , t , % , y , x - u
T
u
1
-../,
thus
0 u
-..0,
It is important to remember that turbulence flows are three dimensional. Thus, even if u is two
dimensional
, , - - y x u u
,, the velocity fluctuations in the x, y, and z directions
, , , - w v u

are not %ero. 1oreover, although the average of each flow property fluctuation is %ero, averages
of products of various fluctuations are not %ero, i.e. 0 0 w u v u , .
/
The boundary layer e)uations in twodimensions for incompressible or constant density
flow can be written as
0

y
v
x
u
-..2,
y
u
where
y dx
dP
y
u
u
x
u
u
xy
xy

,
_

,
-..3,
1ultiplying 4). -..2, by
u
and adding to 4). -..3, yields
y dx
dP
y
uv
x
u xy

, -
2
-..5,
4)uation -..5, is an alternative form of 4). -..3,
(etting xy xy xy
p P P v v v u u u + + + + , , ,
-...,
(ubstituting into 4)s. -..2, and -..3,, and averaging, the following e)uations that govern the
mean flow result.
0

y
v
x
u
-..6,
[ ]
xy
y dx
P d
v u v u
y
u u
x

+ +

+ +

7 , - , 8-
2 2
-..9,
or
, -
, -
/ /
v u
y x
u
dx
P d
v u
y x
u
xy

-..1:,
2
u
and v u are called the turbulent normal and shear stresses, respectively. In boundary
layers, the normal stresses are usually much less than shear stresses. 1oreover
y x

.
Therefore, the term involving normal turbulent stress is a small term and will be neglected.
4xpanding the left hand side of 4). -..1:, and substituting for xy

, 4). -..1:, reduces to

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

v u
y
u
y dx
P d
y
u
v
x
u
u
-..11,
The resulting turbulent boundary layer e)uations cannot be solved without a closure
assumption which relates the turbulent shear stress to the mean flow variables. +s a first attempt
in this direction and using the analogy of laminar flow, *oussines) proposed that
0
y
u
v u
t

-..1/,
where t

is the turbulent shear viscosity or eddy viscosity. There is a ma#or difference between
and t

. is a property of the fluid and is a function of the temperature, while t

is a
function of the flow and its value depend on the initial and boundary conditions of the problem
under consideration.
The first theory for predicting t

is the mixing length theory developed by Prandtl. He

used a combination of dimensional analysis and experiments on a flat plate to develop his theory.
&or laminar flows on a flat plate all velocity profiles reduce to a single curve given by u;u
e
<
f-,. Prandtl discovered that such similarity does not exist in a turbulent boundary and he had to
consider two regions, one close to the wall, the inner region, and one away from the wall, the
outer region. He reasoned that, in the near region, the velocity u should depend on the y location,
wall shear stress, shear viscosity and density but does not depend on the freestream conditions.
=n the other hand, the velocity in the outer region is independent of the direct effects of
viscosity. 'oting that w

can be written as
2
> u
w

-..10,
where u> is called the friction velocity and using the methods of dimensional analysis, one can
show that

,
_

; ,
>
>
u y
f
u
u
-..12,
in the inner region, and
, ; -
>

y g
u
u u
e
-..13,
where e
u
is the edge velocity, and is the boundary layer thickness, in the outer region. It
should be noted that dimensional analysis does not provide expressions for the function f and g.
4)uation -..12, is referred to as the law of the wall and 4). -..13, is referred to as the velocity
defect law or ?lauser defect law.
Prandtl@s measurement in the near wall region produced velocity profiles similar to those
shown in &ig. ..1. It is seen from &ig. ..1 that it consists of three distinct regionsA the viscous
2
sublayer, the log layer and the defect layer. The viscous sublayer lies in the range : B y
+
B 0:
3:, where y
C
< yu
>
;. In this region, the inertia terms are negligible. 1oreover, the turbulent
fluctuations are negligible with the result that the turbulent shear stress is much less than the
laminar shear stress. Dithin the viscous sublayer there is a region very near the wall -y
C
E3,,
called the laminar sublayer, where u
C
<y
C
. The width of log layer is !eynolds number dependent
and typically lies in the range 0:3:Ey
+
E 03:3:: and .:1.:/Ey; E:.1:./. In this region, the
inertia terms are also negligible but the turbulent shear stress dominates the laminar shear stress.
&inally, the defect layer lies between the log layer and the edge of the boundary layer.
>
u
u
u
+

+
; > u y y
&igure ..1. Typical velocity profile for flat plate turbulentboundary layer
In the log layer
2 1
C yu C
u
u
+ , ; > ln-
>
-..15,
where
1
C and
2
C are constants. 'ow Prandtl@s task reduced to finding an expression for t

that reproduces 4). -..15,. &or a flat plate in the near region, where the inertia terms are
negligible, 4)s. -..11, and -..1/, reduce to
0
1
]
1

+
dy
u d
dy
d
t
, -
or
w t
dy
u d
+ , -
-..1.,
=utside the laminar sublayer t
<<
, thus
3
2
> u
dy
u d
w t

-..16,
Prandtl assumed that, analogus to molecular momentum transport,
mix mix t
v
with
y
dy
u d
v
mix mix mix
,
-..19,
where mix

is called the mixing length, and < :.2 is the Farman constant. Gsing 4). -..19,
into 4). -..13,,
2 2
> u
dy
u d
dy
u d
mix

-../:,
(ince u is increasing with y,
0 >
dy
u d
and 4). -../:, reduces to
> u
dy
du
y
-../1,
which upon integration gives
const ln
>
+

y
u
u 1
0 5
1
. ,
>
ln +

,
_

C C
u y
-..//,
+s may be seen from &ig. -..1, and 4). -..//,, the mixing length expression indicated in
-..19, can not produce the entire velocity field. +s a result, two different approaches are
employed in further developing turbulent boundary layer theoryA one suited for use in
con#unction with integral methods while the other is suited for use with differential methods
which solve the turbulent boundary layer e)uations numerically
In the first approach ?oles developed the composite law of the walllaw of the wake,
which describes the velocity profile in the loglaw region and outer region. This law can be
written as
5

,
_

+ +

,
_

y
C
yu
u
u
2
2 1
2
sin
II >
ln
>
-../0,
where II is ?oles@ wakestrength parameter and is the boundary layer thickness. The )uantity
II varies with the pressure gradient and can be estimated using the relation
2
01 0 51 0 6 0
T T
. . . II + -../2,
where
dx
dP
w
T

>
-../3,
+s may be deduced from 4). -../2,, II
H
:.5 for a flat plat.
*y integrating 4). -../0, across the boundary layer, one obtains

II > 2 1
,
2 1
2
;
, ; - >, ; -
f e
C u u
-../5,
2
2
6 4 6 2

+ +

/
II II . >
-../.,
The local skin friction coefficient, f
C
, may be related to II and local !eynolds number

; !e
e
u
by evaluating the wallwake law, i.e., 4). -../0,, at the edge of the boundary layer
+ +

; II , ; ln-!e , ; -
>
;
2
1
2
2 1
C C
u
u
f
e
-../6,
In order to calculate the flow properties as a function of x, use has to be made of the
momentum integral e)uation. The momentum integral e)uation for turbulent flows has the same
form as that developed for laminar flow, i.e.
.
2
2
1 f
e
e
C
dx
du
u dx
d
+ +

>, -
-../9,
+lthough the momentum integral e)uation for laminar and turbulent flows are the same, there is
no length scale in turbulent boundary layers that leads to the collapse of the complete set of
velocity profiles into a single set as was the case for laminar flows. Therefore, relations amongst
, > and f
C
depend on the assumed velocity profile. +nd, as may be seen from 4). -../0,,
their dependence on x will also depend on the assumed velocity profile. Thus, if 4). -../0, is
chosen as the velocity profile, > and can be expressed in terms of and II from 4)s. -../.,,
and -../., and e)uation -../6, provides an implicit relation for f
C
in terms of . *ecause of
this, a numerical solution of 4). -../9, is re)uired. (uch a solution will yield < -x, and this,
in turn, will provide >-x,, -x,, and
, -x C
f .
+ simple example of historical interest is due to Prandtl who assumed the velocity profile
over a flat plate to be
7
1

,
_

n
y
u
u
n
e
,
;
-..0:,
+bove relation is not valid in the near wall region and thus cannot provide information on the
skin friction coefficient. However, it can provide a relationship between and x which can be
used to calculate
, -x C
f .
&or a flat plate, 4). -../9, reduces to
2 ;
f
C
dx
d

-..01,
4)uation -..0:, and the definition of
>
and give
72 7 8 1 ; ; , ;
>

-..0/,
&or f
C
, Prandtl used the correlation from pipe flow to get
4 1
0456 0
;
, -!e .

f
C
-..00,
(ubstituting 4)s. -..0/, and -..00, into 4). -..01, and integrating
5 1
375 0
;
!e ; .
x
x

-..02,
+lthough the above development is crude, it nevertheless indicates that a turbulent boundary
layer grows much faster than a laminar boundary layer where
2 1
5
;
!e ; ;
x
x .
6
The approach based on the solution of the turbulent boundary layer is discussed next. +s
is seen from &ig. ..1, there is a need to develop an expression for t

which is valid in the

laminar sublayer region. 1oreover, another expression is re)uired for the outer region.
The near wall modification of
t

is due to van Iriest. He modified the expression

derived in the log layer by a damping factor, with the result that the mixing length is now given
by
,7$ + ; y exp- 8 y
mix
+ +
1

+
> yu
y -..03,
+
+
for flat plates is a constant and is chosen so as to reproduce the velocity profile in the near
wall region and loglaw region. (ince in the near wall region the laminar shear stress,

, is not
negligible, 4). -..1., gives
dy
du
dy
du
A
y
y
dy
u d
w
2
2 2
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+
+
exp -..05,
Iividing by w

and using the definitions

, >
2
u
w

>, ; > u u u

+
> u y
y -..0.,
4)uation -..05, can be written as
2 2
2 2
1 1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
dy
du
+
y
exp , y -
dy
du
-..06,
4)uation -..06, is )uadratic in
+ +
dy du ; . (olving explicitly for
+ +
dy du ; gives
0
2
4 1 1
2
2
>

+ +

+
+
dy
du
-..09,
where
( ) [ ]
+ + +
A y y ; exp 1 -..2:,
+s is seen from 4). -..2:, < : when 0
+
y . Therefore, 4). -..09, is singular at 0
+
y .
To remove the singularity we multiply the right hand side of 4). -..09, by
2
2
4 1 1
4 1 1
+
+
9
and simplify, this results in
/
2 1 1
/
+ +

+
+
dy
du
-..21,
'ote that
1
+
+
dy
du
at 0
+
y . 4)uation -..21, can be integrated numerically. To fit
experimental data, van Iriest found that 26
+
A . Jater, ?ebeci and (mith modified
+
A
in
the presence of pressure gradient to
2 1
2
1 26
;
>
;

+
1
1
]
1

+
u
dx dP
y A
-..2/,
=ne of the widely used expressions for the eddy viscosity in the outer region is that
developed by ?lauser
( ) > .
e
outer
t
u 018 0 -..20,
It has been found by ?orrsin and Fistler and Flebanoff that approaching the freestream
from within a turbulent boundary layer that the flow is not always turbulent$ it is intermittent,
i.e., it fluctuates between laminar and turbulent To account for this behavior, 4). -..20, is
multiplied by
1
6
5 5 1

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
y
F
kleb
. -..22,
Dhile carrying out numerical calculations of the turbulent boundary layer, one starts by
the near wall expression for
t

and switches to the outer region expression when the two

)uantities are e)ual.
(ince
0
t at y < :, w

retains its traditional definition

0

y
w
dy
u d
-..23,
+bove e)uation does not mean that the wall shear stress is the same for laminar and turbulent
flows. The turbulent shear stress is higher because
0 y
dy
u d
is higher in turbulent boundary
layers.
1:
The above turbulence model, where t

is given by algebraic expressions works well as

long as the flow is attached. 1ore complicated theories are needed in the presence of flow
separation.