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INTRODUCTION
1.1GENERAL
Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional type of energy are the sources which are continuously replenished by natural processes. Solar energy, bio-energy, bio-fuels grown sustainably, wind energy and hydropower are some of the examples of renewable energy sources. A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, falling-water, wind, sea-waves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, which we can use in the form of heat or electricity. The majority of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from the sun and can never be exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable. However, the majority of the world's energy sources come from conventional sourcesfossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil. These fuels are often termed non-renewable energy sources. Though, the available amount of these fuels are extremely large, but due to decrease in level of fossil fuel and oil level day by day after a few years it will end. Hence renewable energy source demand increases as it is environmental friendly and pollution free which reduces the greenhouse effect .
1.2 MOTIVATION
The Conventional sources of energy are rapidly depleting. Moreover the cost of energy is rising and therefore photovoltaic and wind energy conversion systems are promising alternatives. They are abundant, pollution free, distributed throughout the earth and recyclable. The hindrance factor is its high installation cost and low conversion efficiency. Therefore our aim is to increase the efficiency and power output of the system by implementing Maximum Power Point tracking (MPPT) for both PV system and WECS. It is also required to model PV system and WECS with appropriate power electronic interfacing with the grid and load under varying solar irradiance,wind speed and load variations.
implemented in several ways: six step, pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) and pulse width modulation (PWM). By using the PWM technique, lower frequency harmonics can be eliminated; the frequencies of the first higher order harmonics lie at about the switching frequency of the inverter. There are different control strategies for the Machine side converter ( MSC) such as Flux oriented control (FOC) and Direct Torque Control (DTC) that allow very efficient and controlled variable speed operation enabling MPPT [24] . In this work, a rotor flux oriented vector control strategy is used for generator control to achieve high dynamic performance. A vector control approach is generally used for GSC with the reference frame oriented along with the grid voltage sector, where an independent control of active and reactive power is achieved. Hysteresis Current Control (HCC) and Synchronous Voltage
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Oriented Control (VOC) are the state of the art control techniques being used presently for the inner current control loop [23]. In synchronous reference frame control, all the voltage and current variables are transformed to a synchronously rotating reference frame so that control variables become DC quantities and hence one can use traditional PI controllers to control the same. Phase angle detection has a significant role in control of GSC. several algorithms capable of detecting the grid voltage phase angle like zero crossing detection, use of arc tangent function or Phase Locked Loop (PLL).We are using Phase locked loop technique [25] in this project.
CHAPTER 2
MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF PHOTO-VOLTAIC SYSTEM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Many renewable energy technologies today are well developed, reliable and cost competitive with the conventional fuel generators. Among various renewable energy technologies, the solar energy has several advantages like clean power, unlimited, and provides sustainable electricity. However, the solar energy produces DC power, and hence power electronics and control equipment are required to convert DC to AC power. The performance of the power inverter depends on the control strategy adopted to generate the gate pulses. To control the inverters, current control methods are normally used.There are several current control strategies. Among the various current control techniques, hysteresis control is the most popular one for voltage source inverter, most of photovoltaic inverters are voltage-source inverters. The hysteresis band current control is very simple, has robust current control performance with good stability, very fast response, an inherent ability to control peak current and easy to implement. MATLAB simulations are carried out for modelling solar photovoltaic array based on its mathematical equations and the developed model is used to interconnect DC to DC converter, hysteresis current controlled DC to AC converter with the grid. By implementing MPPT to DC-DC converter we can track maximum power from PV array [10]. Simulation results of PV system are presented in this chapter.
where S is the solar constant (1369 w/m^2 ), r is the earth radius. The Handy formula which is used to calculate solar energy received by earth
where E is the solar energy in EJ. S is the Solar Constant in w/m2. n is the number of hours. r is the Earth's radius in km .
Where, Vmp is the voltage at peak power, Imp is the current at peak power, I is the solar intensity per square metre, A is the area on which solar radiation fall.
The efficiency will be maximum if we track the maximum power from the PV system at different environmental condition such as solar irradiance and temperature by using different methods for maximum power point tracking.
2.2.5.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE Due to the low voltage generated in a PV cell (around 0.5V), several PV cells are connected in series (for high voltage) and in parallel(for high current) to form a PV module for desired output. Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics. Reverse currents waste power and can also lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels. 2.2.5.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY The power that one module can produce is not sufficient to meet the requirements of home or business. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power into alternating current that can power the motors, loads, lights etc. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltages; the individual modules are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current.
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) It is a polycrystalline compound made of cadmium and telluride with a high light absorbility capacity (i.e a small thin layer of the compound can absorb 90% of solar irradiation).The main disadvantage of this compound is that the instability of PV cell or module performance. As it a toxic substance, the manufacturing process precaution Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2) It is a polycrystalline compound semiconductor made of copper, indium and selenium. It delivers high energy conversion efficiency without suffering from outdoor degradation problem. It is one of the most light-absorbent semiconductors. As it is a complex material and toxic in nature so the manufacturing process face some problem.
Fig.2.3 Equivalent circuit of a PV cell An ideal PV cell is modeled by a current source in parallel with a diode. However no solar cell is ideal and there by shunt and series resistances are added to the model as shown in the PV cell diagram above. is the intrinsic series resistance whose value is very small.
is the equivalent shunt resistance which has a very high value . Applying Kirchoffs law to the node where + +I , diode, and meet, we get
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Where, Iph is the Insolation current, I is the Cell current, Io is the Reverse saturation current, V is the Cell voltage, is the Series resistance, is the Parallel resistance, is
the Thermal voltage ( kT/q), K is the Boltzman constant, T is the Temperature in Kelvin, q is the Charge of an electron. MATLAB simulations are carried out for modelling solar photovoltaic array based on its mathematical equation and Figure 2.4 shows the simulation diagram for a PV cell. Simulation diagram for diode equivalent circuit is also shown in Figure 2.5.
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Parameters
Values
11 3 64.2 V 5.96 A 54.7 V 5.58 A 305.2W
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important role in predicting the PV characteristic, and effects of both factors have to be
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considered while designing the PV system. Whereas the irradiance affects the output, temperature mainly affects the terminal voltage.
Fig.2.6 P-V Characteristic of a Solar Array for a fixed temperature but varying irradiance Red dots on blue curves indicate module specifications (Voc, Isc, Vmp, Imp) under standard test conditions (25 degrees Celsius, 1000 W/m2).
Fig.2.8 The off state diagram of the boost converter When the switch is off, the sum total of inductor voltage and input voltage appear as the load voltage. ON STATE:
Fig.2.9 The on state diagram of the boost converter When the switch is ON, the inductor is charged from the input voltage source Vg and the capacitor discharges across the load. The duty cycle, D= /T where T=1/f
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Fig.2.11 Inductor voltage waveform From the inductor voltage balance equation, we have:Vg(DTs) +(Vs-Vo)(1-D)Ts=0 Vg(DTs)-Vg(DTs)-VgTs+VoDTs-VoTs=0 Vo=Vg/(1-D) Conversion ratio, M=Vo/Vg=1/(1-D)
perturbation in the duty ratio of the power converter, and the P&O method is perturbation in the operating voltage of the PV array. However, the P&O algorithm cannot compare the array terminal voltage with the actual MPP voltage, since the change in power is only considered to be a result of the array terminal voltage perturbation. As a result, they are not accurate enough because they perform steady-state oscillations, which consequently waste the energy .
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By minimizing the perturbation step size, oscillation can be reduced, but a smaller perturbation size slows down the speed of tracking MPPs. Thus, there are some disadvantages with these methods, where they fail under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions .
Fig.2.12 Basic idea of Inc cond method on a PV curve of a solar module The Incremental Conductance method is the one which overrides over the aforementioned drawbacks. In this method, the array terminal voltage is always adjusted according to the MPP voltage. It is based on the incremental and instantaneous conductance of the PV module shows that the slope of the PV array power curve is zero at the MPP, increasing on the left of the MPP and decreasing on the right-hand side of the MPP. The basic equations of this method are as follows :
Where I and V are the PV array output current and voltage, respectively. The lefthand side of the equations represents the IncCond of the PV module, and the right-hand side represents the instantaneous conductance. From (1-3) it is obvious that when the ratio of change in the output conductance is equal to the negative output conductance, the solar array will operate at the MPP. In other words, by comparing the conductance at each sampling time, the MPPT will track the maximum power of the PV module.
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This is the basic idea of the IncCond algorithm. One noteworthy point to mention is that (7) or (8) rarely occur in practical implementation, and a small error is usually permitted . The size of this permissible error (e) determines the sensitivity of the system. This error is selected with respect to the swap between steady-state oscillations and risk of fluctuating at a similar operating point. It is suggested to choose a small and positive digit .
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Thus, (10) can be rewritten as + . = e. In this project, the value of e was chosen as 0.002 on the basis of the trial-and-error procedure. The flowchart of the IncCond algorithm within the direct control method is shown in Figure2.13. According to the MPPT algorithm, the duty cycle (D) is calculated. This is the desired duty cycle that the PV module must operate on the next step. Refer to Figure 2.14 which shows simulation diagram for incremental conductance method with direct control.
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Fig 2.14 Simulation diagram for incremental conductance method with direct control
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The Fig 2.17 explains the operation principle of HBPWM for a half bridge inverter. The control circuit generates the sine reference current wave of desired magnitude and frequency, and it is compared with the actual phase current wave. As the current exceeds a prescribed hysteresis band, the upper switch in the half-bridge is turned off and the lower switch is turned on. As a result the output voltage transitions from +0.5Vd to -0.5Vd, and the current starts to decay. As the current crosses the lower band limit, the lower switch is turned off and the upper switch is turned on. The actual current wave is thus forced to track the sine reference wave within the hysteresis band by back- and-forth switching of the upper and lower switches. The inverter then essentially becomes a current source with peak to peak current ripple, which is controlled within the hysteresis band irrespective of Vd fluctuations. The peak-to peak current ripple and the switching frequency are related to the width of the hysteresis band. The HBPWM inverter control method is shown in the Fig 2.18. The inputs to the HBPWM controller are three phase current errors and the outputs are the switching patterns to the PWM inverter.
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Fig.2.18 Hysteresis current controller model The hysteresis current controller gives output pulses to the inverter accordingly to this rule | (high) | < keeps the output pulse at the same state < - let output pulse = 0(low). > let output pulse = 1
Where m=a, b, c phases and is the hysteresis band . The algorithm for this scheme is: (t) = Upper band Lower band = Where If If > , > , == = Sin ( (t) + (t) (3) (4) is (1) (2)
Else, maintain the same state. Where m=a, b, c phases i is inverter output current and the dc link voltage of the inverter.
Classification of Grid Converter Control Strategy In synchronous reference frame control, all the voltage and current variables are transformed to a synchronously rotating reference frame so that the control variables become DC quantities and hence one can use traditional PI controllers to control the same. But in case of Stationary reference frame control the control variables are time varying quantities and hence one cannot use normal PI controllers. To control the system on stationary reference frame, one needs to use Proportional Resonant (PR) Controllers, which makes the control complex. Natural reference frame control, also known as abc control, is normally a structure where nonlinear controllers like hysteresis or dead beat are preferred due to their high dynamics . It is well known that the performance of these controllers has a direct relation to the sampling frequency; hence, the use of high speed digital control systems such as digital signal processors (DSPs) or field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an advantage for such an implementation. In synchronous voltage oriented control (VOC), the switching frequency of the inverter remains constant and hence the harmonics have specific pattern depending on the switching frequency whereas in hysteresis control it varies over a wide range. So, output filter design is difficult in a hysteresis controlled inverter. The necessity of voltage feed24
forward and cross coupling terms is the major drawback of the control structure implemented in synchronous reference frame. All these together makes synchronous VOC highly complex compared to hysteresis controller. Hysteresis control does not require any information about the system parameters[23]
Fig.2.20 Schematic of grid connected PWM inverter Grid side current equations on stationary frame can be represented as follows: iA = Im sin t iB = Im sin (t - 2/3) iC = Im sin (t + 2/3) Transforming these equations to the synchronous frame (d axis coincides with A-phase) The control law for the PI current controllers along the d and q-axes are: ( ( ) )
These currents can be transformed back to stationary 3-phase (abc) frame as shown below and can be used as the reference current to control the inverter.
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After transformation the real and reactive power can be given by following equations, P = 1.5 (Vd Id + Vq Iq) Q = 1.5 (Vq Id Vd Iq) P = 1.5 Vd Id Q = - 1.5 Vd Iq
It is clear that transforming all voltages and currents to synchronous reference frame enables decoupled control of real and reactive power by controlling Id and Iq current components respectively.
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Since the controlled current has to be in phase with the grid voltage, the phase angle used by the abc dq transformation module has to be extracted from the grid voltages. As a solution, filtering of the grid voltages and using phase locked loop (PLL) technique to extract the phase angle are incorporated. The dq control structure is normally associated with PI controllers since they have a satisfactory behavior when regulating DC variables.
Fig.2.22 Block diagram of 3-phase PLL Figure 2.22 shows block diagram of 3-phase PLL.The output of the GSC is connected to the grid by synchronization for which the phase angle of the grid voltage space phasor is needed. This can be derived using different techniques such as zero crossing detection, and PLL technique. The latter one is implemented in d q synchronous reference frame As it can be noticed, this structure needs the coordinate transformation from abc to dq and here it is realized by setting the reference Vq,ref to zero. A controller, usually PI, is used to control this variable and the output of this regulator is the grid frequency. To improve the system performance and fast settling grid frequency (ff) is feed forwarded [25]
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Refer to Figure 2.23 and Figure 2.24 which shows the simulation diagram for hysteresis current control PWM and simulation diagram for grid side converter controller.
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Fig 2.26 (j) Current through the point of grid interconnection (A)
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Fig 2.26 (k) Reactive power curve for maintaining unity power factor
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500
750
1000
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The PV system is operated for irradiance from 250w/m^2 to 1000 w/m^2 .By implementing MPPT algorithm to boost converter we can track maximum power from PV array under various irradiance. The generated power increases with the increasing irradiance from 250W/m^2 to 1000W/m^2 as shown in Table 2. Also, it is observed that generation is possible even at very low irradiance.
2.4 CONCLUSION:
In this Chapter modelling of the PV system of 10 Kw capacity has been done.The PV system is operated for irradiance from 250w/m^2 to 1000 w/m^2 .By
implementing MPPT algorithm to boost converter we can track maximum power from PV array under various irradiance. Simulation results are analyzed to observe the changes in active power harnessed under varying irradiance, the generated power increases with the increasing irradiance. Also, it is observed that generation is possible even at very low irradiance and constant dc link voltage is maintained by GSC controller.
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