Civil engineering

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Design of complex structures such as the !! necessitates an in"depth understanding of structural analysis Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals #ith the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including #orks like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.$%&$'&$(& )ivil engineering is the second"oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,$*& and it is defined to distinguish non"military engineering from military engineering.$+& t is traditionally broken into several sub"disciplines including architectural engineering, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, geophysics, geodesy, control engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, earth science, atmospheric sciences, forensic engineering, municipal or urban engineering, #ater resources engineering, materials engineering, offshore engineering, ,uantity surveying, coastal engineering,$*& surveying, and construction engineering.$-& )ivil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeo#ners through to international companies.

Contents

% .istory of the civil engineering profession ' .istory of civil engineering ( The civil engineer
o

(.% /ducation and licensure

* !ub"disciplines
o o

*.% 0aterials science and engineering *.' )oastal engineering

o o o o o o o o o o o

*.( )onstruction engineering *.* /arth,uake engineering *.+ /nvironmental engineering *.- 1eotechnical engineering *.2 Water resources engineering *.3 !tructural engineering *.4 !urveying *.%5 Transportation engineering *.%% 0unicipal or urban engineering *.%' Forensic engineering *.%( )ontrol engineering

+ )ivil engineering associations - !ee also 2 6eferences 3 Further reading 4 /xternal links

History of the civil engineering profession

!ee also7 .istory of structural engineering

8eonhard /uler developed the theory explaining the of buckling of columns

/ngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced bet#een *555 and '555 9) in :ncient /gypt and 0esopotamia ;:ncient ra,< #hen humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the #heel and sailing. Until modern times there #as no clear distinction bet#een civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect #ere mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably.$2& The construction of pyramids in /gypt ;circa '255='+55 9)< #ere some of the first instances of large structure constructions. >ther ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the ?anat #ater management system ;the oldest is older than (555 years and longer than 2% km,$3&< the Parthenon by ktinos in :ncient 1reece ;**2=*(3 9)<, the :ppian Way by 6oman engineers ;c. (%' 9)<, the 1reat Wall of )hina by 1eneral 0eng T@ien under orders from )h@in /mperor !hih .uang Ti ;c. ''5 9)<$-& and the stupas constructed in ancient !ri 8anka like the Aetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation #orks in :nuradhapura. The 6omans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially a,ueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. n the %3th century, the term civil engineering #as coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.$+& The first self"proclaimed civil engineer #as Aohn !meaton, #ho constructed the /ddystone 8ighthouse.$*&$-& n %22% !meaton and some of his colleagues formed the !meatonian !ociety of )ivil /ngineers, a group of leaders of the profession #ho met informally over dinner. Though there #as evidence of some technical meetings, it #as little more than a social society. n %3%3 the nstitution of )ivil /ngineers #as founded in 8ondon, and in %3'5 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a 6oyal )harter in %3'3, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. ts charter defined civil engineering as7

the art of directing the great sources of po#er in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, a,ueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, break#aters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial po#er for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and to#ns.$4&

The first private college to teach )ivil /ngineering in the United !tates #as Bor#ich University, founded in %3%4 by )aptain :lden Partridge.$%5& The first degree in )ivil /ngineering in the United !tates #as a#arded by 6ensselaer Polytechnic nstitute in %3(+.$%%&$%'& The first such degree to be a#arded to a #oman #as granted by )ornell University to Bora !tanton 9latch in %45+.$%(&

History of civil engineering

The :rchimedes@ scre# #as operated by hand and could efficiently raise #ater, as the animated red ball suggests )ivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. 9ecause civil engineering is a #ide ranging profession, including several separate specialiCed sub"disciplines, its history is linked to kno#ledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction #as carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Dno#ledge #as retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. !tructures, roads and infrastructure that existed #ere repetitive, and increases in scale #ere incremental.$%*& >ne of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the #ork of :rchimedes in the (rd century 9), including :rchimedes Principle, #hich underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as :rchimedes@ scre#. 9rahmagupta, an ndian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 2th century :D, based on .indu":rabic numerals, for excavation ;volume< computations.$%+&

The civil engineer

Education and licensure
0ain article7 )ivil engineer

: 6oman a,ueduct $built circa %4 9)& near Pont du 1ard, France Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree #ith a maEor in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a 9achelor of /ngineering, though some universities designate the degree as a 9achelor of !cience. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, proEect management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. nitially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub"disciplines of civil engineering. !tudents then choose to specialiCe in one or more sub"disciplines to#ards the end of the degree. While an Undergraduate Degree ;9/ngF9!c< #ill normally provide successful students #ith industry accredited ,ualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering a#ards ;0/ngF0!c< #hich allo# students to further specialiCe in their particular area of interest #ithin engineering.$%-& n most countries, a bachelor@s degree in engineering represents the first step to#ards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. :fter completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of re,uirements ;including #ork experience and exam re,uirements< before being certified. >nce certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional /ngineer ;in the United !tates, )anada and !outh :frica<, )hartered /ngineer ;in most )ommon#ealth countries<, )hartered Professional /ngineer ;in :ustralia and Be# Gealand<, or /uropean /ngineer ;in much of the /uropean Union<. There are international engineering agreements bet#een relevant professional bodies #hich are designed to allo# engineers to practice across international borders. The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United !tates and )anada Honly a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and dra#ings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering #ork for public and private clients.H$%2& This re,uirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as ?uebec@s /ngineers :ct.$%3& n other countries such as the UD no such legislation exists. n :ustralia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of ?ueensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.$%4& n this #ay, these organiCations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. /ven in Eurisdictions #here certification has little or no legal bearing on #ork, engineers are subEect to contract la#. n cases #here an engineer@s #ork fails he or she may be subEect to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, criminal charges.$'5& :n engineer@s #ork must also comply #ith numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental la#.

Sub-disciplines

The Falkirk Wheel in !cotland n general, civil engineering is concerned #ith the overall interface of human created fixed proEects #ith the greater #orld. 1eneral civil engineers #ork closely #ith surveyors and specialiCed civil engineers to fit and serve fixed proEects #ithin their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, #ater supply, se#er service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. 1eneral engineers spend much of their time visiting proEect sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. 1eneral civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. )ivil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public #orks proEects of all siCes and levels of construction.

Materials science and engineering

0ain article7 0aterials science >ne of the maEor aspects of )ivil engineering is materials science. 0aterial engineering deals #ith ceramics such as concrete, mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such as polymethylmethacrylate ;P00:< and carbon fibers. 0aterials engineering also consists of protection and prevention like paints and finishes. :lloying is another aspect of materials engineering, combining t#o types of metals to produce a more useful metal. t incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With significant media attention focused on nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities. t is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis. 0aterials science also deals #ith fundamental properties and characteristics of materials.

Coastal engineering
0ain article7 )oastal management

Coastal engineering is concerned #ith managing coastal areas. n some Eurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defense against flooding and erosion. The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techni,ues that allo# erosion to claim land.

Construction engineering
0ain article7 )onstruction engineering Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. :s construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business"like in nature7 drafting and revie#ing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and closely monitoring prices of necessary supplies.

Earthquake engineering
0ain article7 /arth,uake engineering

!napshot from shake"table video$'%& testing of base"isolated ;right< and regular ;left< building models Earthquake engineering covers ability of various structures to #ithstand haCardous earth,uake exposures at the sites of their particular location. /arth,uake engineering is a sub discipline of the broader category of !tructural engineering. The main obEectives of earth,uake engineering are$''& to understand interaction of structures #ith the shaky groundI foresee the conse,uences of possible earth,uakesI and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earth,uake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance #ith building codes.

Environ ental engineering

0ain article7 /nvironmental engineering Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the haCardous #aste management and environmental remediation #ork covered by the term environmental engineering. !ome other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering. /nvironmental engineering deals #ith the treatment of chemical, biological, andFor thermal #aste, the purification of #ater and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior #aste disposal or accidental contamination. :mong the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, #ater purification, #aste #ater treatment, air pollution, solid #aste treatment and haCardous #aste management. /nvironmental engineers can be involved #ith pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. /nvironmental engineering also deals #ith the gathering of information on the environmental conse,uences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process.

!eotechnical engineering
0ain article7 1eotechnical engineering Geotechnical engineering is an area of civil engineering concerned #ith the rock and soil that support civil engineering systems. Dno#ledge from the fields of geology, material science and testing, mechanics, and hydraulics are applied by geotechnical engineers to safely and economically design foundations, retaining #alls, and similar structures. /nvironmental concerns in relation to ground#ater and #aste disposal have spa#ned a ne# area of study called geoenvironmental engineering #here biology and chemistry are important.$'(&$'*& !ome of the uni,ue difficulties of geotechnical engineering are the result of the variability and properties of soil. 9oundary conditions are often #ell defined in other branches of civil engineering, but #ith soil, clearly defining these conditions can be impossible. The material properties and behavior of soil are also difficult to predict due to the variability of soil and limited investigation. This contrasts #ith the relatively #ell defined material properties of steel and concrete used in other areas of civil engineering. !oil mechanics, #hich describes the behavior of soil, is also complicated because soils exhibit nonlinear ;stress"dependent< strength, stiffness, and dilatancy ;volume change associated #ith application of shear stress<.$'(&

"ater resources engineering

!ee also7 .ydraulic engineering and .ydrology

.oover dam Water resources engineering is concerned #ith the collection and management of #ater ;as a natural resource<. :s a discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the ,uality and the ,uantity of #ater in both underground ;a,uifers< and above ground ;lakes, rivers, and streams< resources. Water resource engineers analyCe and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of #ater as it flo#s into, through, or out of a facility. :lthough the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. .ydraulic engineering is concerned #ith the flo# and conveyance of fluids, principally #ater. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, #ater supply net#ork, drainage facilities ;including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm se#ers<, and canals. .ydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

Structural engineering
0ain article7 !tructural engineering Structural engineering is concerned #ith the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, to#ers, flyovers ;overpasses<, tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads #hich act upon a structure and the forces and stresses #hich arise #ithin that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self #eight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving ;#heel< load, #ind load, earth,uake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for ;to be servicea le<. Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub"disciplines #ithin structural engineering have emerged, including #ind engineering and earth,uake engineering.$'+& Design considerations #ill include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure #hen subEected to loads #hich may be static, such as furniture or self"#eight, or dynamic, such as #ind, seismic, cro#d or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. >ther considerations include cost, constructability, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.

Surveying
0ain articles7 !urveying and )onstruction surveying Surve!ing is the process by #hich a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally occur on the surface of the /arth. !urveying e,uipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horiContal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement ;/D0<, total stations, 1P! surveying and laser scanning have supplemented ;and to a large extent supplanted< the traditional optical instruments. This information is crucial to convert the data into a graphical representation of the /arth@s surface, in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. /lements of a building or structure must be correctly siCed and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adEacent structures. :lthough surveying is a distinct profession #ith separate ,ualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as #ell as geographic information systems. !urveyors may also lay out the routes of rail#ays, tram#ay tracks, high#ays, roads, pipelines and streets as #ell as position other infrastructures, such as harbors, before construction. 8and surveying n the United !tates, )anada, the United Dingdom and most )ommon#ealth countries land surveying is considered to be a distinct profession. 8and surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their o#n professional associations and licencing re,uirements. The services of a licenced land surveyor are generally re,uired for boundary surveys ;to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description< and subdivision plans ;a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, #ith boundary lines dra#n inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of ne# boundary lines and roads<, both of #hich are generally referred to as cadastral surveying. )onstruction surveying )onstruction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. )onstruction surveyors perform the follo#ing tasks7

!urvey existing conditions of the future #ork site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and even including underground infrastructure #henever possibleI )onstruction surveying ;other#ise Hlay"outH or Hsetting"outH<7 to stake out reference points and markers that #ill guide the construction of ne# structures such as roads or buildings for subse,uent constructionI Jerify the location of structures during constructionI :s"9uilt surveying7 a survey conducted at the end of the construction proEect to verify that the #ork authoriCed #as completed to the specifications set on plans.

Transportation engineering
0ain article7 Transport engineering "ransportation engineering is concerned #ith moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure #hich includes streets, canals, high#ays, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. t includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, ,ueueing theory, pavement engineering, ntelligent Transportation !ystem ; T!<, and infrastructure management.

Municipal or urban engineering

0ain article7 Urban engineering #unicipal engineering is concerned #ith municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, side#alks, #ater supply net#orks, se#ers, street lighting, municipal solid #aste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public #orks ;salt, sand, etc.<, public parks and bicycle paths. n the case of underground utility net#orks, it may also include the civil portion ;conduits and access chambers< of the local distribution net#orks of electrical and telecommunications services. t can also include the optimiCing of #aste collection and bus service net#orks. !ome of these disciplines overlap #ith other civil engineering specialties, ho#ever municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure net#orks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority.

#orensic engineering
0ain article7 Forensic engineering

Failed fuel pipe $on right& from a high#ay traffic accident

)ontrol systems play a critical role in space flight $orensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal inEury or damage to property. The conse,uences of failure are dealt #ith by the la# of product liability. The field also deals #ith retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subEect is applied most commonly in civil la# cases, although it may be of use in criminal la# cases. 1enerally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure #ith a vie# to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. t can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.

Control engineering
0ain article7 )ontrol engineering Control engineering ;or control s!stems engineering< is the branch of civil engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems #ith desired behaviors. The practice uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being controlled ;often a vehicle< and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the input actuators that can make corrections to#ard desired performance. When a device is designed to perform #ithout the need of human inputs for correction it is called automatic control ;such as cruise control for regulating a car@s speed<. 0ultidisciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.

Civil engineering associations

:merican !ociety of )ivil /ngineers )anadian !ociety for )ivil /ngineering /arth,uake /ngineering 6esearch nstitute /ngineers :ustralia

nstitution of )ivil /ngineers nstitution of /ngineers of reland nstitute of Transportation /ngineers nternational Federation of )onsulting /ngineers Transportation 6esearch 9oard The nstitution of )ivil /ngineering !urveyors Pakistan /ngineering )ouncil