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Quantum Mechanics

Advent of the QUANTUM Mechanics


1. Photo electric effect
2. Black body radiation
3. Compton effect
The Classical mechanics is not able to explain following-
The most outstanding development in modern science was
the conception of the New type of Physics, known as
Quantum Mechanics.

Quantum Mechanics is highly successful in explaining the
behavior of atoms, molecules and nuclei.
Quantum Mechanics
Max Planck in 1900 proposed that the Energy of black
body radiator is distributed in the small packets
(quanta) of Energy.

This was the start of the revolution of Physics i.e. the
start of Quantum Mechanics.

Quantum Mechanics is a branch of science that
deals with discrete, indivisible units of energy
called quanta as described by the Quantum Theory.


Main Points of Quantum Theory


There are five main ideas represented in Quantum Theory:
-Energy is not continuous, but comes in small but discrete
units (Quanta).
-The elementary particles behave both like particles and
like waves.
-The movement of these particles is inherently random.
-It is physically impossible to know both the position and
the momentum of a particle at the same time.
-The atomic world is nothing like the world we live in.
-The Planck's constant (h) characterizes Quantum Physics.



34
6.625 10 .sec h Joule

=
Photo Electric Effect
The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated
by light of suitable wavelength is called photoelectric effect.
The emitted electrons are called photo electrons.
V
Evacuated
Quartz
tube
Metal
plate
Collecting
plate
Light
^^^^^^^^
A
Photo Electric Effect
Experimental findings of the photoelectric effect
1. There is no time lag between the arrival of light at the metal
surface and the emission of photoelectrons.
2. When the voltage of collector plate is increased to a
certain negative value say V
o
, the photocurrent reduces to
zero.
3. Increase in intensity increase the number of the
photoelectrons but the electron energy remains the
same.
4. Increase in frequency of light increases the energy of the
electrons. At frequencies below a certain critical frequency
(characteristics of each particular metal), no electron is
emitted.


Einsteins Photo Electric Explanation
The energy of an incident photon is utilized in two ways
1. A part of energy is used to free the electron from the atom
known as photoelectric work function (W
o
).
2. Other part is used in providing kinetic energy to the
emitted electron.


2
2
1
mv W h
o
+ = v
This is called Einsteins photoelectric equation.
If , no photoelectric effect

o
h W KE v = +
o
h h KE v v = +
( )
o
KE h v v =
o
v v <
o
o o
hc
h W

v = =
o
o o
o
A
eV W W
hc
) (
12400
= =
It is in form of . The graph with on y-axis
and on x-axis will be a straight line with slope
o o
h h eV v v =
o
V
If is the stopping potential, then
( )
o
KE h v v =
e
h
e
h
V
o
o
v v
=
c mx y + =
e h
o
V
v
Compton Effect
When a monochromatic beam of X-rays is incident on a material, then in
addition to the scattered electron, two type of radiations are observed-
1- Original incident radiation (unmodified radiation)
2- A radiation of higher wavelength or lower energy (modified radiation)
This phenomenon is known as Compton Scattering.
electron
scattered
photon
recoiled electron
v h E =
c
h
p
v
=
' ' v h E =
v
u
|
| cos mv
| sin mv
incident
photon
u
v
cos
'
c
h
u
v
sin
'
c
h
From Theory of Relativity, total energy of the recoiled electron
with v ~ c is
2 2
c m K mc E
o
+ = =
Similarly, momentum of recoiled electron is
2 2
c m mc K
o
=
2
2 2
2
1
c m
c v
c m
K
o
o

=
(
(

= 1
1
1
2 2
2
c v
c m K
o
2 2
1 c v
v m
mv
o

=
Now from Energy Conversation
| u
v v
cos
1
cos
'
2 2
c v
v m
c
h
c
h
o

+ =
(
(

+ = 1
1
1
'
2 2
2
c v
c m h h
o
v v
(i)
From Momentum Conversation
(ii) along x-axis
| u
v
sin
1
sin
'
0
2 2
c v
v m
c
h
o

= (iii)
along y-axis
and
Rearranging (ii) and squaring both sides
| u
v v
2
2 2
2 2
2
cos
1
cos
'
c v
v m
c
h
c
h
o

=
|
.
|

\
|

(iv)
| u
v
2
2 2
2 2
2
sin
1
sin
'
c v
v m
c
h
o

=
|
.
|

\
|
(v)
Rearranging (iii) and squaring both sides
Adding (iv) and (v)
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
1
cos
' 2 '
c v
v m
c
h
c
h
c
h
o

=
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
u
vv v v
(vi)
From equation (i) (Energy Conservation equation)
2 2
1
'
c v
c m
c m
c
h
c
h
o
o

= +
v v
On squaring, we get
Subtracting (vi) from (vii)
(vii)
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
1
) ' ( 2
' 2 '
c v
c m
hm
c
h
c m
c
h
c
h
o
o o

= + +
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
v v
vv v v
0 ) ' ( 2 ) cos 1 (
' 2
2
2
= + v v u
vv
o
hm
c
h
) cos 1 (
' 2
) ' ( 2
2
2
u
vv
v v =
c
h
hm
o
) cos 1 (
'
) ' (
2
u
vv
v v =
c
h
m
o
But
is the Compton Shift.

v
c
=
) cos 1 (
' '
1 1
u

=
|
.
|

\
|

h
c m
o
and
'
'

v
c
=
So,
) cos 1 (
' '
'
u


=
|
.
|

\
|
h
c m
o
) cos 1 ( ' u = A =
c m
h
o
A
u
It neither depends on the incident wavelength nor on the
scattering material. It only on the scattering angle i.e.

is called the Compton wavelength of the electron
and its value is 0.0243 .
c m
h
o
0.0243 (1- cos) = = A ) cos 1 ( u
c m
h
o
= A
max

A
So Compton effect can be observed only for radiation having
wavelength of few .
Compton effect cant observed in Visible Light
is maximum when (1- cos) is maximum i.e. 2. A
0.05
For 1 ~ 1%
A
=
=
For 5000 ~ 0.001% (undetectable)
| u
v v
cos
1
cos
'
2 2
c v
v m
c
h
c
h
o

+ =
In Compton Scattering, from Momentum Conversation
along x-axis
| u
v
sin
1
sin
'
0
2 2
c v
v m
c
h
o

=
along y-axis
and
Angle of recoil electron
Divide the momentum equations, we get-




Replace (/ ) from Compton Shift formula, we
obtain the final result-

2
0
cot
2
tan
2
1
h
m c
u
|
v
=
+
sin sin
tan
'
cos cos
'
u u
|
v
u u
v
= =

KE of recoil electron
Since KE of recoil electron = hv-hv
= hv(1- v/v)










(Again we have used the value of / from Shift formula)
2
2
2
0
2
2
0
2( )
sin
2
2
1 sin
2
h
m c
h
m c
v u
v u
=
+
( )
1
'
h

v

=
Pair Production
When a photon (electromagnetic energy) of sufficient
energy passes near the field of nucleus, it materializes into
an electron and positron. This phenomenon is known as pair
production.
In this process charge, energy and momentum remains
conserved prior and after the production of pair.
Photon
Nucleus (+ve)

e
+
e
The rest mass energy of an electron or positron is 0.51
MeV (according to E = mc
2
).
The minimum energy required for pair production is 1.02
MeV.
Any additional photon energy becomes the kinetic energy
of the electron and positron.
The corresponding maximum photon wavelength is 1.2 pm.
Electromagnetic waves with such wavelengths are called
gamma rays .
) (
Pair Annihilation
When an electron and positron interact with each other due
to their opposite charge, both the particle can annihilate
converting their mass into electromagnetic energy in the
form of two - rays photon.
+ +
+
e e
Charge, energy and momentum are again conversed. Two
- photons are produced (each of energy 0.51 MeV plus half
the K.E. of the particles) to conserve the momentum.

From conservation of energy


v
2
2 c m h
o
=
Pair production cannot occur in empty space
In the direction of motion of the photon, the momentum is
conserved if
u
v
cos 2p
c
h
=
u
u
c hv
u cos p
u cos p
p
p

e
+
e
here m
o
is the rest mass and
2 2
1 1 c v =
v m p
o
=
Momentum of electron and positron is
(i)
1 cos s u
1 <
c
v
But
u v cos 2cp h =
Equation (i) now becomes
u v cos 2 cv m h
o
=
u v cos 2
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
v
c m h
o
and
v
2
2 c m h
o
<
But conservation of energy requires that
v
2
2 c m h
o
=
Hence it is impossible for pair production to conserve both
the energy and momentum unless some other object is
involved in the process to carry away part of the initial
photon momentum. Therefore pair production cannot occur
in empty space.
Wave Particle Duality
Light can exhibit both kind of nature of waves and particles
so the light shows wave-particle dual nature.
In some cases like interference, diffraction and polarization
it behaves as wave while in other cases like photoelectric
and compton effect it behaves as particles (photon).
De Broglie Waves
Not only the light but every material particle such as
electron, proton or even the heavier object exhibits wave-
particle dual nature.
De-Broglie proposed that a moving particle, irrespective of
its nature, has waves associated with it. These waves are
called matter waves or De-Broglie waves.
Waves of Probability ????
Derivation of Formula
Since, Energy of a photon is
v h E =
For a particle, say photon of mass, m
2
mc E =
Suppose a particle of mass, m is moving with velocity, v then
the wavelength associated with it can be given by
hv mc =
2

hc
mc =
2
mc
h
=
mv
h
=
p
h
= or
(i) If means that waves are associated with
moving material particles only.
= = 0 v
(ii) De-Broglie wave does not depend on whether the moving
particle is charged or uncharged. It means matter waves are
not electromagnetic in nature.
Wave Velocity or Phase Velocity
When a monochromatic wave travels through a medium,
its velocity of advancement in the medium is called the
wave velocity or phase velocity (V
p
).
k
V
p
e
=
where is the angular frequency

and is the wave number.
tv e 2 =

t 2
= k
Group Velocity
So the group velocity is the velocity with which the energy
in the group is transmitted (V
g
).
dk
d
V
g
e
=
The individual waves travel inside the group with their
phase velocities.
Generally, we come across with the pulses rather than
monochromatic waves. A pulse consists of a number of
waves differing slightly from one another in frequency.
Relation between Phase and Group Velocity
dk
d
V
g
e
=
) (
p
kV
dk
d
=
dk
dV
k V V
p
p g
+ =
( ) t
t
2
2
d
dV
V V
p
p g
+ =
( ) 1
1
d
dV
V V
p
p g
+ =

d
dV
V V
p
p g
=
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

d
dV
V V
p
p g
2
1
1
0 =
d
dV
p
p g
V V =
In a non-dispersive medium - such as empty space
( in a non-dispersive medium if you change the wave-
frequency, the wave-length adjusts such that v remains
constant)
=
k
e
constant
p
V =

d
dV
p
Since, is positive
p g
V V <
In a Dispersive medium V
p
depends on frequency
=
k
e
generally
i.e. constant

d
dV
V V
p
p g
=
Phase Velocity of De-Broglies waves
According to De-Broglies hypothesis of matter waves
mv
h
=
wave number
h
mv
k
t

t 2 2
= =
(i)
If a particle has energy E, then corresponding wave will
have frequency
h
E
= v
then angular frequency will be
h
E t
tv e
2
2 = =
Dividing (ii) by (i)
(ii)
h
mc
2
2t
e =
mv
h
h
mc
k t
t e
2
2
2
=
v
c
V
p
2
=
But v is always < c (velocity of light)
(i) Velocity of De-Broglies waves (not acceptable) c V
p
>
(ii) De-Broglies waves will move faster than the
particle velocity (v) and hence the waves would left the
particle behind.
) (
p
V
Group Velocity of De-Broglies waves
The discrepancy is resolved by postulating that a moving
particle is associated with a wave packet or wave
group, rather than a single wave-train.
A wave group having wavelength is composed of a
number of component waves with slightly different
wavelengths in the neighborhood of .
Suppose a particle of rest mass m
o
moving with velocity v
then associated matter wave will have
h
mc
2
2t
e =
and
h
mv
k
t 2
=
where
2 2
1 c v
m
m
o

=
and
On differentiating w.r.t. velocity, v
2 2
2
1
2
c v h
c m
o

=
t
e
2 2
1
2
c v h
v m
k
o

=
t
( )
2
3
2 2
1
2
c v h
v m
dv
d
o

=
t e
(i)
( )
2
3
2 2
1
2
c v h
m
dv
dk
o

=
t
(ii)
Wave group associated with a moving particle also
moves with the velocity of the particle.
o
o
m
v m
dk
dv
dv
d
t
t e
2
2
. =
Dividing (i) by (ii)
g
V v
dk
d
= =
e
Moving particle wave packet or wave group

Davisson & Germer experiment of electron


diffraction
If particles have a wave nature, then under appropriate
conditions, they should exhibit diffraction
Davisson & Germer measured the wavelength of electrons
This provided experimental confirmation of the matter
waves proposed by de Broglie
Davisson and Germer Experiment

0 | =
0
90 | =
Current vs accelerating voltage has a maximum (a bump or
kink noticed in the graph), i.e. the highest number of electrons
is scattered in a specific direction.
The bump becomes most prominent for 54 V at ~ 50
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

B
e
a
m

According to de Broglie, the wavelength associated with an
electron accelerated through V volts is
o
A
V
28 . 12
=
Hence the wavelength for 54 V electron
o
A 67 . 1
54
28 . 12
= =
From X-ray analysis we know that the nickel crystal acts as a
plane diffraction grating with grating space d = 0.91
o
o o
65
2
50 180
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

= u
Here the diffraction angle, ~ 50

The angle of incidence relative to Braggs planes of the crystal
From the Braggs equation
which is equivalent to the calculated by de-Broglies
hypothesis.
u sin 2d =
o
o
o
A A 65 . 1 65 sin ) 91 . 0 ( 2 = =
It confirms the wavelike nature of electrons
Electron Microscope: Instrumental Application
of Matter Waves
Resolving power of any optical instrument is proportional to the
wavelength of whatever (radiation or particle) is used to
illuminate the sample.

An optical microscope uses visible light and gives 500x
magnification and 200 nm resolution.

Fast electron in electron microscope, however, have much
shorter wavelength than those of visible light and hence a
resolution of ~0.1 nm and a magnification of 1,000,000x can be
achieved in an Electron Microscope.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
It states that only one of the position or momentum can be
measured accurately at a single moment within the instrumental
limit.
uncertainty in position
uncertainty in momentum
Ax
A
x
p
then
2

> A A
x
p x
t 2
h
=
The product of & of an object is greater than or equal to
2

x
p A
x A
If is measured accurately i.e. x A 0 Ax A
x
p
Like, energy E and time t.
2

> A A t E
2

> A A u L
The principle applies to all canonically conjugate pairs of quantities
in which measurement of one quantity affects the capacity to
measure the other.
and angular momentum L and angular position
Order of diameter of an atom ~ 5 x10
-15
m
then
If electron exist in the nucleus then
Applications of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
(i) Non-existence of electron in nucleus
m x
15
max
10 5 ) (

= A
2

> A A
x
p x
2
) ( ) (
min max

= A A
x
p x
1 20
min
. . 10 1 . 1
2
) (

=
A
= A s m kg
x
p
x

2
237.5
2
p
E MeV
m
= =
Thus the kinetic energy of an electron must be greater than
237.5 MeV to be a part of nucleus
Thus we can conclude that the electrons cannot be present
within nuclei.
Experiments show that the electrons emitted by certain unstable
nuclei dont have energy greater than 3-4 MeV.
ii. Energy of a particle in a box or infinite potential well
Let us consider a particle of mass m in infinite potential well of width L-
The maximum uncertainty in the position of the particle may be





max
( ) x L A =
2

> A A
x
p x
( )
max
2 2
x
p
x L
A = =
A
From Uncertainty principle

Here, we can write, minimum uncertainty in momentum-

Since, the Kinetic Energy can be written as


2
2
p
KE
m
=
( )
2 min
8
KE
mL
=
So, for present case

This is the minimum kinetic energy of the particle in an
infinite potential well
Interference of light at ultra-low intensities:
Double slit Experiment (at ultra-low intensity)
Youngs double slit experiment is the earliest
demonstration of the wave nature of light.
Light also exhibits a particle like nature.
If we lower the intensity, there will come a stage where
photons will be produced one at a time with a time gap
between their production.
Taylors experiment (1909): Double slit experiment with
light of very low intensity: interference pattern emerged
after waiting for few weeks
Interference could not be due to interaction between
photons, as there was a time lag between two
successive photons



Two-slit Interference Experiment
Laser
Source
Slit
Slit
Detector
Rate of photon arrival = 2 x 10
6
/sec
Rate of photon detection = 10
5
/sec
(Assuming an efficiency of 5 % for
detector)
Time lag (between two
photons) = 0.5 x 10
-6
sec
Spatial separation between photons = 0.5 x 10
-6
c = 150 m
1 meter
interference pattern is due to some inherent property of each
photon - it interferes with itself while passing from source to
screen
photons dont split
light detectors always show signals of same intensity
If slits open alternatingly:- no two-slit interference
If we add detector to determine through which slit photon
goes: no interference

Interference pattern only appears when experiment provides
no means of determining through which slit photon passes
Explanation of the result of double slit experiment
Double slit experiment QM interpretation
Patterns on screen are result of distribution of photons
no way of anticipating where particular photon will strike
impossible to tell which path photon took cannot assign
specific trajectory to photon
cannot suppose that half went through one slit and half through
other
can only predict how photons will be distributed on screen (or
over detector(s))
interference and diffraction are statistical phenomena
associated with probability that, in a given experimental setup, a
photon will strike a certain point
high probability bright fringes
low probability dark fringes
Double slit expt. As seen by wave vs quantum theories
pattern of fringes:
Intensity bands due to
variations in square of
amplitude, A
2
, of resultant
wave on each point on
screen
role of the slits:
to provide two coherent
sources of the secondary
waves that interfere on the
screen
pattern of fringes:
Intensity bands due to
variations in probability, P,
of a photon striking points
on screen

role of the slits:
to present two potential
routes by which photon can
pass from source to screen
wave theory quantum theory
Wave function
* | |
2
=
||
2
is proportional to the probability of finding a particle at a
particular point at a particular time. It is the probability density.
Represented by (psi), wave function is a complex quantity.
Thus if iB A+ = iB A = *
2 2 2 2 2 2
* | | B A B i A + = = =
then
is the probability amplitude.
A mathematical function used in quantum mechanics to
describe the propagation of the wave associated with any
particle or group of particles.
Properties of wave function
1. It must be finite everywhere.
If is infinite for a particular point, it mean an infinite large
probability of finding the particles at that point. Which is not
possible.
2. It must be single valued.
If has more than one value at any point, it mean more than
one value of probability of finding the particle at that point
which is obviously incorrect.
3. It must be continuous and have a continuous first derivative
everywhere.
z y x c
c
c
c
c
c
, , must be continuous
4. It must be normalizable.
Normalization
dV
||
2
is the probability density.
The probability of finding the particle within an element of volume
2
| | dV
Since the particle is definitely be somewhere, so
2
| | 1 dV

=
}
A wave function always follows the normalization equation.
Schrodingers time independent wave equation

x
A
2
sin =
One dimensional wave equation for the waves associated with a
moving particle is
From (i)

t x
A
x
2
sin
4
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
is the wave amplitude for a given x.
where
A is the maximum amplitude.
is the wavelength
(i)

t
2
2
2
2
4
=
c
c
x
(ii)
v m
h
o
=
2
2
2
2
1
h
v m
o
=

2
2
2
1
2
h
v m m
o o
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 2
2 1
h
K m
o
=

where K is the K.E. for the non-relativistic case


(iii)
Suppose E is the total energy of the particle
and V is the potential energy of the particle
) (
2 1
2 2
V E
h
m
o
=

This is the time independent (steady state) Schrodingers wave


equation for a particle of mass m
o
, total energy E, potential
energy V, moving along the x-axis.
If the particle is moving in 3-dimensional space then
Equation (ii) now becomes

t
) ( 2
4
2
2
2
2
V E m
h x
o
=
c
c
0 ) (
2
2 2
2
= +
c
c

V E
m
x
o

0 ) (
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


V E
m
z y x
o

For a free particle V = 0, so the Schrodinger equation for a


free particle
0
2
2
2
= + V E
m
o

0 ) (
2
2
2
= + V V E
m
o

This is the time independent (steady state) Schrodingers wave


equation for a particle in 3-dimensional space.
Schrodingers time dependent wave equation
) ( px Et
i
Ae

Wave equation for a free particle moving in +x direction is


(iii)

2
2
2
2

p
x
=
c
c
where E is the total energy and p is the momentum of the particle
Differentiating (i) twice w.r.t. x
(i)
2
2
2 2
x
p
c
c
=

(ii)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. t

iE
t
=
c
c
t
i E
c
c
=


For non-relativistic case
Using (ii) and (iii) in (iv)
(iv)


V
x m t
i +
c
c
=
c
c
2
2 2
2

E = K.E. + Potential Energy


t x
V
m
p
E
,
2
2
+ =
V
m
p
E + =
2
2
This is the time dependent Schrodingers wave equation for a
particle in one dimension.

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