Dale F.

Webber The James Moss-Solomon Professor of Environmental Management UWI Mona

Lecture outline
24 Global Environmental Issues Definitions of Biodiversity & Ecosystem Caribbean Biodiversity Jamaica

State of the Environment Report 2011 Biodiversity

Climate change and Jamaicas biodiversity

24 Global Environmental issues

1. Climate change Global warming Global dimming Fossil fuels Sea level rise Greenhouse gas Ocean acidification Shutdown of thermohaline circulation Environmental impact of the coal industry Urban Heat Islands 2. Conservation Species extinction Pollinator decline Coral bleaching Holocene extinction Invasive species Poaching Endangered species 3. Energy Energy conservation Renewable energy Efficient energy use Renewable energy commercialization 4. Environmental degradation Eutrophication Habitat destruction Invasive species

Professor Dale Webber UWI

Global Environmental issues continued

5. Environmental health Air quality Asthma Electromagnetic fields Electromagnetic radiation and health Indoor air quality Lead poisoning Sick Building Syndrome 6. Genetic engineering Genetic pollution Genetically modified food controversies 7. Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture Environmental effects of meat production Slash and burn Pesticide drift Plasticulture 8. Land degradation Land pollution Desertification 9. Soil Soil conservation & erosion Soil contamination Soil salinization
Professor Dale Webber UWI 4

Global Environmental issues continued

10. Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitat destruction 11. Nanotechnology Nanotoxicology Nanopollution 12. Nuclear issues Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown Nuclear power Nuclear weapons Nuclear and radiation accidents Nuclear safety High- level radioactive waste management 13. Overpopulation Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in companion animals Tragedy of the commons Gender Imbalance in Developing Countries Subreplacement fertility levels in developed countries 14. Ozone depletion CFC Biological effects of UV exposure
Professor Dale Webber UWI 5

Global Environmental issues continued

15. Pollution Nonpoint source pollution Point source pollution Light pollution Noise pollution Visual pollution 16. Water pollution Environmental impact of the coal industry Acid rain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean dumping Oil spills Thermal pollution Urban runoff Water crisis Marine debris Microplastics Ocean acidification Ship pollution Wastewater Fish kill Algal bloom Mercury in fish 17. Air pollution Environmental impact of the coal industry Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatile organic compound Atmospheric particulate matter 18. Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources Overdrafting
Professor Dale Webber UWI 6

Global Environmental issues continued

19. Consumerism Consumer capitalism Over-consumption 20. Fishing Blast fishing Bottom trawling Cyanide fishing Ghost nets Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Overfishing Shark finning Whaling 21. Logging Clearcutting Deforestation Illegal logging 22. Mining Acid mine drainage Mountaintop removal mining Slurry impoundments 23. Toxins Chlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Environmental impact of the coal industry Herbicides Pesticides Toxic waste PCB Bioaccumulation Biomagnification 24. Waste Electronic waste Litter Waste disposal incidents Marine debris Medical waste Landfill Leachate Incineration Great Pacific Garbage Patch Exporting of hazardous waste
Professor Dale Webber UWI 7

WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

Coined from the phrase Biological Diversity Defined by UNEP as: the variability among living organisms from all sources including, terrestrial, marine and aquatic systems and the ecological complexities of which they are a part. The variety of life on earth, expressed through ecosystems, goods and services that sustain our lives (CBD). 3 components of Biodiversity Genetic or hereditary diversity Taxonomic or species diversity Ecosystem or habitat diversity

Photo: Ramsar Convention Secretariat

BIODIVERSITY DEFINITION
Biodiversity has a variety of meanings:
1)

The number of different native species and individuals in a habitat or geographical area;
the variety of different habitats within an area; The variety of interactions that occur between different species in a habitat; and The range of genetic variation among individuals within a species.

2) 3)

4)

What is an Ecosystem?

A functional, interacting entity including all the living organisms (a community) and the abiotic environment of a particular area.

Caribbean Biodiversity (UNEP 2002).

The region contains a wide variety of ecosystem types. Tropical moist and dry broadleaf forests - 43% of the territory; Grasslands and savannas- 40.5%; Deserts and scrub 11%; Temperate forests and tropical and sub-tropical coniferous forests 5%; Mangroves 0.5% The Caribbean contains 7% of the world's coral reefs (about 20 000 km2) which contain a great array of marine biodiversity (UNEP 2002). Seven of the world's 25 biologically richest terrestrial eco-regions are found in the region, containing more than 46 000 vascular plant, 1 597 amphibian, 1 208 reptile, 1 267 bird and Professor Dale Webber UWI 575 mammal species

11

Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund Country/ territory Key Biodiversity Areas

Anguilla (to U.K.) Antigua and Barbuda Aruba (to Netherlands) Bahamas Barbados Cayman Islands (to U.K.) Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Guadeloupe (to France) Haiti Jamaica Martinique (to France) Montserrat (to U.K.) 6 10 1 26 4 8 28 4 35 9 8 17 38 8 3

Netherlands Antilles 7 Puerto Rico (to USA) 28 St. Barthlemy (to France) 4 St. Kitts and Nevis 1 St. Lucia 6 St. Martin (to France) 1 St. Vincent & the Grenadines 7 Turks & Caicos Islands (to U.K.) 11 Virgin Islands (to U.K.) 7 Virgin Islands (to USA) 13 TOTAL Key Biodiversity Areas 290
Professor Dale Webber UWI 12

Map of Key Biodiversity Areas and Corridors

Bird Life International et al.

THREATS : CEPF Average prioritization score (on a scale from 14)

Invasive Species Residential, Commercial Development Severe Weather, Climate Change Human Disturbance Agricultural Expansion, Intensification Over-exploitation Mining, Energy Production Pollution Transportation Geological Events 3.7 3.5 3.3 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 1.2

Professor Dale Webber UWI

14

Drivers affecting Caribbean Sea (Agard et al 2007)

Change in coastal land use Demographic Urbanization

Climate variability and damage Economic trade Technology adaptation Species introductions and pollution Economic/ Trade Pollution (Land based) Sociopolitical (Regional Coordination & governance) Pollution (Marine) Species introduction

Rank =1 (Urban sprawl & habitat loss) Rank = 1 (Coastal development) Rank = 2 (Hurricanes & sea temp) Rank = 2 (Tourism development) Rank = 2 (Fish Harvest) Rank = 3 (River discharge, ballast) Rank = 3 (International shipping) Rank = 3 (Untreated Sewage) Rank = 3 (large # ind. Jurisdictions) Rank 5 (Oil and sewage) Rank = 5 (Aquaculture/Mariculture)
15

Professor Dale Webber UWI

Barbados Aruba Martinique Haiti Grenada Puerto Rico Netherlands St. Lucia St. Vincent & the Guadeloupe Trinidad & Tobago Jamaica Republica Antigua & Barbuda St. Kitts/Nevis British Virgin Is Cayman Is Anguilla Cuba Dominica US Virgin Is. Montserrat Bahamas Turks & Caicos Is.

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Population Density per sq. km

JAMAICAthe Island

JAMAICAan Island?
HANOVER S T . JAMES T R E LAW NY W E S T MOR ELAND S T . ANN

S T . MAR Y

S T .E LIZABE T H

POR T LAND MANCHE S T E R S T . ANDR E W CLAR E NDON S T . CAT HE R INE KINGS T ON S T .T HOMAS

Marine territory is now approximately 161,000 Km2 i.e. 24 times the land area of mainland Jamaica

Small Island(s): Big Issues

Freshwater resources (overexploited/Polluted) Natural disasters (Hurricanes, earthquakes etc) Waste management (solid, sewage & indust.) Overexploitation (forest, fisheries, mines) Global Climate Change & Sea Level Rise Invasive species (goats, mongoose, Cherax, lionfish) Soil Erosion Pollution PADH(Physical alteration and destruction of Habitats)

These are urgent environmental issues in Jamaica currently

NEED FOR MEDICAL WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEM

POOR OR IMPROPER AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

NEED FOR CONSERVATION OF AGRICULTURAL AREAS

INADEQUATE / LACK OF LAND USE PLANNING

GOVERNMENT LAND SETTLEMENTS SPRAWLING INTO SETTLEMENTS INSTEAD OF BEING USED FOR FARMLAND PURPOSES AS HAD BEEN DESIGNATED INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL COMPANIES STACK EMMISSIONS, INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT

NEED FOR PROMOTING/INCREASING AWARENESS OF JAMAICAS FLORA AND FAUNA

DOWNTOWN KINGSTON - NEED FOR REDEVELOPMENT

DEFORESTATION SQUATTING ON HILLSIDES, RIVER BANKS, GULLY BANKS

SAND MINING AND QUARRYING

IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE

FONT HILL AND PARROTTEE CROCODILES, WETLANDS LOSS, POLLUTION, DEVELOPMENT

NEGRIL LOSS OF WETLANDS

DOLPHIN HEAD ENDEMIC PLANTS THREATENED

NEED FOR REGULATION OF THE HARVESTING OF SOME WILD LIFE IN PARTICULAR, MARINE FALMOUTH THREAT TO HISTORICAL VALUE LIFE (GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE) FROM DEVELOPMENT TRENDS IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF WASTE BY LARGE AGRICULTURAL ESTATES
ERADICATION OF SOME INVASIVE SPECIES DEER, MANGOOSE AND RED CLAWED LOBSTERS ETC.

SOE Report 2010 Synopsis Watersheds

Pressures:
- Poor agricultural practices
- Improper Land Use - Illegal logging

- Development activities
- Extreme climatic events

Jamaicas Watersheds
Or ac ab es sa Pa ge
Pen
te Mo n go R

eR i ve r
ca r r iv i ver fteR Riv ay R Sw ff B i sh - Bu Spa n
g Wa wa t er

Lucea River
ar C ab
ey Ri ve r

ea Gr

Rio

iv it a R

er

Martha Brae Rio Bueno - White River

ive r

Nu

iv tR er

ev o

sV a ll

Ri ve

Dri v

er

Gu t

an

De

er s

R io

Rio Minho
a tor

Al l ig

G n ra de

R iv

la Yal

er

Black River

Rio Cobre

Ho

pe

Riv

hs

Milk River

Hole

er

Pla nta

Mo ra
er

in Ga r de n R iv

5 10

20

30

Kilometers 40

Legend
Rivers

Riv

er

nt R iv er

State:

SOE Report 2010 Synopsis Watersheds

SOE Report 2010 Synopsis Coastal resources

Pressures: - Land based sources of pollution

- Development activities
- Over fishing

- Hurricanes/Storms
- Climate Change

Ocean and Coastal Resources

Current levels of coral cover contrast with the situation in the 1970s. In the late 1970s, 9 reefs on the north coast had live coral cover averaging 52% at 10m depth, but this declined to 3% in the 1990s. Percentage of live coral cover in 2008-13.7%. While the situation has improved since the 1990s, the islands reefs still remain under threat. No. of fish kills: Fairly constant with 4 - 5 fish kills reported per year in Kingston Harbour.

SOE Report 2010 Synopsis Water Quality

Pressures:
- Sewage effluent
- Industrial effluent - Urban run-off - Agricultural run-off

Quality of piped water is not always acceptable. In 1996, 24.5% of samples tested by the Ministry of Health for faecal coliform were positive (SOE 1997).
Between 2006-2009 Eighteen rivers monitored with 40% showed signs of faecal coliform and/or nutrient pollution. Pollution of this nature was largely due to improper disposal of organic waste as well as run off from agricultural lands.

SOE Report 2010 Synopsis Water Quality- Riverine

State:

Source: NEPA

Sewage pollution

Coliform levels at many of the operating treatment plants have often exceeded NRCAs (now NEPAs) sewage effluent standards (ECD 1997) Widespread discharge of high volumes of untreated sewage from on-shore, and visiting marine vessels has lead to abnormal growth of algae on coral reefs This has assisted in diminishing their productivity and introduced human health risks

Studies of Kingston Harbour have revealed that the major sources of pollution are sewage and industrial effluent discharged directly into the Harbour, or into the gullies and rivers that enter it.

SOE Report 2010 Synopsis Water Quality- Marine

State:

Marine Water Quality

Source: NEPA

Aerial View of Portmore Sewage Treatment Ponds

Stage-3
H.G.M.

Population served: 768,000 Design flow: 225,000 m3/day

32 KSA - Sewage & Wastewater Treatment

Jamaicas Biodiversity at a glance.

Over 8,000 species recorded Ranked 5th among worlds islands in endemic species

Group
Plants (Flowering /ferns/lichens)

No. of Species
>6000

Endemics
28%

Butterflies
Frogs Breeding birds Migrant birds Mammals

>120
19 113 100 22 (21 bats)

15?
17 28 4?

Diverse Jamaican community types

Wet Limestone Forest 2. Dry Limestone Forest 3. Thorn Scrub 4. Cactus Thorn Scrub 5. Strand Woodland 6. Lower Montane Rain Forest 7. Montane Mist Forest 8. Elfin Woodland 9. Montane Sclerophyll 10. Herbaceous Swamp 11. Mangrove Woodland 12. Marsh Forest
1.

Port Royal and environs

Port Royal and environs

over 1000 species recorded

Taxon Macroalgae Porifera Cnidaria Ctenophora Platyhelminthes Annelida Crustacea Mollusca Bryozoa Chaetognatha Echinodermata Hemichordata Chordata

Number of Species 98+ 54+ 156+ 4 3+ 26+ 158+ 295 18+ 3 81 2 228-278+

Goodbody, 2004

Value of Mangrove Biodiversity

Ecological value
Sediment trap Purification (sewage,

Exploitable resources
Medicinal Food Timber cutting Tannins

fertilizers) Shoreline and infrastructure protection Nutrient release Nursery ground Habitat for other species Refuge during hurricanes and severe storms

Mangrove Prop roots

Prop roots hang into the water and provide firm substrate for the attachment of sessile organisms

Prop root habitat- Large # of species (high biodiversity)

A mangrove Root with high diversity marine animals.

Water cleaning filter feeders Number of species ~ 50 with a wet biomass of ~2 kg.

Sessile Organisms

Sponges Bivalves Ascidians

Bryozoans

Algae

Echinoderms

OPPORTUNITIES

Ecteinascidia turbinata

NEW SPECIES

Haliclona portroyalensis n.sp

Jackson, C.P.J., De Weerdt, W. and Webber, M.K. 2006.

Threats to Mangrove Biodiversity

Pollution from spills Solid waste disposal Cutting for timber and charcoal Reclamation for development, informal housing Drainage alteration Invasive species Lack of enforcement

What can be done to preserve mangrove biodiversity?

Education and Public Awareness

Outreach- Workshops for users & stakeholders

UWI/EFJ PRML Biodiversity Centre

Biodiversity Centre Launch- Jan. 26, 2010

Coastal forest nursery projectForest Conservation Fund- November 2008.

Enforcement
Existing laws and regulations Strengthen existing regulatory and enforcement agencies Encourage voluntary compliance Environmental assessment Ecosystem restoration and rehabilitation Compensatory restitution

FORESTS AND CLIMATE Vulnerability

30% of Jamaicas land area is forest

Provide a wide variety of goods and services Home of several endemic plants and animals

Small changes in temperature and precipitation have significant effects on forest growth

Photo: Wingsbirds.com

Jamaican Tody (Todus todus)

One of the many endemic birds found in Jamaican forests

Forests
The actual rate of deforestation is 0.1 per cent per annum. The extent and rate to which forest cover and biodiversity is being degraded as a result of disturbance is unknown. Since 2007 the Forestry Department has been producing an average of 250,000 seedlings per year. The Forestry Department planted 102.7 ha and 69.7 ha on public lands during the financial years 2007/2008 and 2008/2009, respectively.

Blue & John Crow Mountains

Blue & John Crow Mountains

over 1000 species recorded

Group
Plants (Flowering /ferns/lichens)

No. of Species Endemics >500 240

Orchids
Snails

>200
100

65
? 22 ?
Blue mountain guide, 1993

Breeding birds 50 Invertebrates >200

Forest conservation
3 D organization important (timber 25% less volume than natural) Conserved forests must be large, undisturbed and numerous for effective conservation.

(low density, low fertilization, high endemism)

Fauna & humidity loss = lower regeneration Research, seed banks, institutional approach needed

Importance

High biodiversity-Over 271 plant species have been reported from the Hellshire Hills, including 53 species endemic to Jamaica (Espeut 1999).

Multiplicity in habitat Rare endemic and endangered species Water and nutrient budget management Inland protection from coastal storms

Threatened species
Portland Ridge Frog Logger head turtle Hawksbill turtle Green turtle Jamaican slider turtle Cricket lizard Jamaican Iguana Blue-tailed Galliwasp Jamaican Boa Jamaican Thunder snake

White Ibis Glossy Ibis WI Whistling Duck Masked Duck Black Rail Clapper Rail Caribbean Coot Bridled Tern Fish-eating Bat Jamaican Hutia (Coney)

Protected Species
Species that are currently protected by law are: Birds - plain (blue) Pigeon, Golden Swallow, West Indian Whistling Duck, Ring-tailed Pigeon, Jamaican Black Bird, Black and Yellow-Bill Parrots, Sooty Tern, Brown Noddy, Masked Duck

Mammals - West Indian Manatee, Jamaican Hutia (coney) Giant Swallowtail Butterfly Amphibians & Reptiles - all sea turtles, Jamaican Boa, Jamaican Iguana, American Crocodile Invertebrates - Giant Swallow Tail Butterfly, Black Coral, White Coral

Important Jamaican biodiversity habitats

Cockpit country Hellshire Hills Blue Mountains Portland Ridge Black River Canoe Valley Port Royal Mangroves Harris Savanna Mason River Portland Bight Pedro Banks

The Pedro Cays and Bank

Major Issues on the Pedro Cays and Bank

1. 2.

Heavy population density and poor living conditions Limited fisheries management & enforcement, heavy fishing pressure & unsustainable practices Fishers not organized and have limited skills (limited education & job opportunities) No formal biodiversity protection & increasing threats (e.g. habitat loss, poaching)

3.

4.

5.

Poorly-defined institutional framework & limited capacity to effectively address issues

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON JAMAICAS BIODIVERSITY

Ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change impacts include coral reefs, highland forests, and coastal wetlands (mangroves). Jamaicas biodiversity already under stress from: human impacts including land use change, pollution, invasive species, and over-harvesting of commercially valuable species. Climate change is an additional stress with expected profound impacts on the islands natural ecosystems and their species.

General projected impacts of climate change on Jamaicas biodiversity

General impacts could be as a result of:

Increases in temperature on land. Altered rainfall and runoff patterns. Sea level rise. Increase in sea surface temperature. Altered intensity of hurricanes.

Climate Change: A Threat to Biodiversity Higher Temperatures

Change in species abundance & distribution Migration to higher altitudes Genetic changes in species to new climatic conditions Change in reproduction timings (life cycle) Increased sand temperatures, can Photo: Catherine Levy lead to changes in sex ratios (reducing male turtle production).Citrus Swallowtail (Papilio andraemon) Island Hop in Wind Currents Change in length of growing seasons for plants Increase in extinction rate

Climate Change: A Threat to Biodiversity Altered rainfall & runoff patterns

Drying of ecosystems leading to loss of species and changes in community composition. Changes in species distribution and ecosystem composition. Changes in the geographical extent of habitats and ecosystems. Flooding of nests of various species and death of young individuals.

Climate Change: A Threat to Biodiversity Higher Sea Surface Temperatures

Mild warming (+2oC), tropical near-shore communities will change from coral-dominance to algal-dominance. Creates conditions that may be suitable for some invasive species to become established in new areas High temperatures lead to coral bleaching and even coral death

Healthy (Left) and Bleached (Right) Coral Jamaicas coral reefs experience massive bleaching due to high sea temperatures in years 1987, 1989, 1990 and 1998.

The elimination of coral reefs would have dire consequences. Coral reefs provide habitats and nursery areas for numerous commercially important species

Climate Change: A Threat to Biodiversity Altered hurricane intensity

Loss of vulnerable island species. Changes in species competitive interactions and species and community composition. Changes in range of invasive species. Increased damage to nests & nesting sites. Increased destruction of sensitive habitats:

Coral reefs, Mangrove ecosystems Terrestrial (esp. forest) ecosystems.

Lecture recap
24 Global Environmental Issues Definitions of Biodiversity & Ecosystem Caribbean Biodiversity Jamaica

State of the Environment Report 2011 Biodiversity

Climate change and Jamaicas biodiversity